Entertainment

Any form of performance designed to amuse.

Since ancient times people have enjoyed entertainment as a means of escape from the daily cares of their lives. Ancient Egyptians held large dinner parties during which musicians, singers, dancers, and acrobats amused the guests. Although the Egyptians engaged in a variety of leisure activities such as hunting, they did not construct large entertainment facilities. The major civilizations before the Greeks relied on the same forms of entertainment as the Egyptians.

Ancient and Medieval Eras

The ancient Greeks were the first civilization to promote entertainment on a large scale. Ancient Greeks enjoyed sports competitions, including the Olympic games. In Athens, actors performed the Greek tragedies of Euripides, Sophocles, and Aeschylus, as well as the comedies of Aristophanes. The ruins of Greek amphitheaters, where plays and other forms of entertainment were performed, can be located in most cities throughout Greece and parts of Asia Minor. People would travel from far away to enjoy these different forms of entertainment and in the process would purchase local goods, often by simply exchanging some of the products of their own region through a system of barter. This exchange of goods often developed into a long-term trading relationship between the two regions.

Mass entertainment—including gladiator combat at the Coliseum—was an important aspect of life in ancient Rome. Supplying the slaves and wild animals for the contests represented a minor, but lucrative, part of Rome’s vast trading system. (Library of Congress)

The ancient Romans, following the example of the Greeks, also constructed large amphitheaters for entertainment. During the first part of the Roman empire, up to the reign of Constantine, when the empire became Christian, another form of entertainment that was popular was the gladiatorial games. The Coliseum in Rome, with its subterranean tunnels where slaves, Jews, Christians, and gladiators awaited their deaths, was an expensive building project as most entertainment facilities today are. The grand scale, with 45,000 seats, indicates the widespread desire for blood sport. The Romans also enjoyed chariot races, another form of entertainment that could become deadly and was often bloody. The Circus Maximus, the largest of several circuses in Rome, could accommodate 250,000 spectators. Ordinary Roman citizens also played simple games with stones.

From ancient times through the medieval ages, all societies enjoyed annual festivals—usually connected with the worship of a deity. A statue that represented the god, goddess, or saint would be carried through the streets of the town, and a parade of people would follow. The procession usually ended with a feast where wine, beer, or delicacies could be enjoyed along with music and dancing.

During the Middle Ages, minstrels would travel from one court to another to entertain the royalty and nobility. Often, merchants would accompany these entertainers. At the larger fairs, such as the one at Champagne, entertainers would amuse the crowds while the merchants hawked their wares. Entertainment and trade had merged.

Nineteenth Century

During the nineteenth century, entertainment expanded to include actors and actresses who performed on stage. Some of these performers were musicians, some were dancers, and some were actors. Saloon owners provided entertainment as a way to entice customers to spend more time, and subsequently spend more money, in their establishments. The entertainment usually included a piano player and possibly women who sang or danced.

With the formation of professional sports teams in the late nineteenth century, sports and trade developed a symbiotic relationship. Baseball teams relied initially on the gross ticket and concession receipts to fund their organization. As sponsors began supporting the teams in exchange for advertising at the ballpark, customers began purchasing more of the listed products. Tobacco companies realized the potential of targeting the sports fans and decided in the 1870s to begin enclosing baseball cards with their cigarettes in an effort to develop brand loyalty. Later on, bubble-gum companies used the concept of combining their product with baseball cards. Eventually, baseball cards were sold separately and a whole new industry developed.

Spectator Sports

By the 1960 and 1970s, advertisers were signing endorsement contracts with sports figures, especially after the widespread exposure of television expanded the potential target market. The first example of a sports personality endorsing a product occurred when Muhammad Ali boxed wearing Adidas shoes during the 1960s. In the 1970s, Joe Namath became the spokesman for a panty hose company, playing on his image as a sex symbol. Since then, sports personalities such as Michael Jordan, Magic Johnson, and Larry Bird have all endorsed products. By the 1990s, many sports personalities earned more through their endorsements than from their sports salaries. Sports shoe manufacturers such as Nike, Puma, and Adidas increased their market share as sports fans sought to emulate their favorite sports heroes.

Food and beverage companies also used sports figures to promote their products. The first instance of this was the endorsement of Coca-Cola by “Mean” Joe Green. Coke’s competitor, Pepsi, turned to well-known entertainers such as Michael Jackson and Britney Spears to promote their product. Corporate endorsements have moved beyond the use of individual spokespeople to team sponsorship. Many sports facilities are now named after companies. The Staples Center in California and the American Airlines Center in Dallas, Texas, are two such examples. Advertisers realize that the wider the exposure of the company or product name, the greater the value of the investment. With television audiences from around the world watching sporting events, the investment helps to increase name recognition and therefore sales.

When advertisers like the tobacco industry were prohibited from purchasing ad time on national television, company executives circumvented that restriction by sponsoring big sporting events. The Winston Cup NASCAR race and the Virginia Slims Tennis Circuit are two examples of this type of sponsorship. The company name is mentioned repeatedly during the broadcast without the direct marketing of the cigarettes. It is a subtle way of advertising the product.

Besides the use of sports and entertainment personalities in advertising, both sectors have developed markets of their own. Sports teams have established clothing lines and promotional items from pennants to signed balls. Anything with a team name or logo is sold. At first, these items were sold at the stadium during games, but during the 1990s several teams began establishing retail shops in shopping centers to reach shoppers who might not attend games. Entertainers have followed the same path. Actresses such as Jaclyn Smith and models like Rachel Hunter have clothing lines named after them. Posters, dolls, and an assortment of collectibles are all marketed under their label. In most cases, none of these items has anything to do with the entertainer, but a whole market has developed from the sheer name exposure the individual receives on television and on the Internet.

Hollywood

The entertainment industry itself accounts for a substantial amount of trade. Hollywood was founded on the movie industry. Although these films are viewed across the United States, many are exported around the world as well. Filmmaking is a billion-dollar industry. According to the Motion Picture Association, domestic receipts in 2002 amounted to $9.5 billion. More than 1.6 billion people attended the movies during the year. International net revenue from the movies amounted to $9.64 billion. Half of the sales were generated in Europe, the Middle East, and Africa, while another 40 percent was generated in the Asia-Pacific region and the remaining 10 percent in Latin America. Over 7.3 million people watched the movies overseas in 2002. The profitability of the industry has attracted other countries to the industry, and they are trying to establish a position in the market. Canada, Australia, Europe, and even China are now exporting their films to other countries, but the United States still continues to dominate. The diverse music forms in the United States are also exported around the world. Everything from hip-hop to rap to country music can be found in foreign lands. The Recording Industry Association of America reported that net recording sales in 1993 was $10 billion. By 2000, that number had risen to $14 billion. The next two years showed a slight decline, but much of this was attributed to the post–September 11, 2001, slump in the economy, both domestically and internationally.

The large volume of profit generated by both the movie and music industry has attracted the greedy. The major problem that has developed in both sectors is the pirating of videos, DVDs, cassettes, and CDs. Most of these bootlegged products are produced in China and the Far East. The industry associations have worked hard to lobby Congress for assistance. Although the government is aware of the problem and has at tempted to address it through a variety of means, the ease with which these items can be illegally reproduced means that it will continue to be a problem in the future until technology can be developed to prevent it.

Gaming

While sports and music concerts are examples of entertainment on a large scale, entertainment in the age of technology does not require large crowds assembled in one place. One of the largest entertainment industries today is the gaming industry. Through the use of the Internet, individuals can play other people anywhere in the world. Games such as Warcraft and Starcraft provide Web sites where a player can compete against a single opponent or join a team that plays against another team. Corporations such as AT&T sponsor most of these gaming sites. Besides Internet games, players can play on gaming hardware consoles such as PlayStation or XBox. Sales of these units exceeded $7.4 billion in 2001.

Gambling

Another form of entertainment that generates billions of dollars in revenue is the gambling industry. Cities such as Las Vegas, Nevada, would not exist without this industry. The Las Vegas Convention and Visitors Authority claims that 35.3 million people visited the city in 2003 and 87 percent of them gambled. With more than forty casinos on the strip that generated more than $1 million net gaming revenues that year, the average gambler spent $580 over a four-day period at the tables or slot machines. Most gamblers only spent four hours a day gambling and the rest of the time shopping, sightseeing, or watching one of the famous shows such as Wayne Newton or Siegfried and Roy. The 24,463 conventions held in 2003 account for many of the visitors, with most of the others being senior citizens. Each year visitors lose $6 billion in Las Vegas while gambling. The profitability of gambling has resulted in forty-eight states authorizing some form of gambling, either lottery or casino, but the real increase has come since the introduction of Indian gaming. The 150 Indian casinos in the United States in 1997 netted $27 billion in revenues. These meccas of gambling attract tourists and stimulate the local economy by providing employment for residents.

Gamblers try their luck at a craps table at the Turning Stone Casino, an enterprise of the Oneida Indian Nation in Vernon, New York. Supporters of the gambling industry say it brings in revenue and jobs to impoverished rural areas; detractors argue it spreads gambling addiction and crime. (© Bob Mahoney/The Image Works)

Theater

Just as in ancient times, people still enjoy attending the theater, but instead of outdoor amphitheaters, large indoor facilities attract the crowds. Perhaps the largest theater district in the world is Broadway in New York City. In 2002–2003, more than 11.4 million people attended performances. The shows generated $721 million in gross sales. People traveled from across the United States and even the world to attend these shows and in the process generated sales for the transportation, hotel, restaurant, and other industries. In London’s West End theater district, visitors attended performances in the 108 live theater and music halls. Both New York and London experienced a decline in theater receipts after the September 11, 2001, terrorist attacks, but attendance rebounded in 2003.

Since ancient times, people have sought to escape the routine of their daily lives. Entertainment has provided this outlet, especially as people enjoy more leisure time. These events and industries have generated sales on a local, regional, and international basis and will continue to do so in the future.

Cynthia Clark Northrup

See also: Greek City-States; Hollywood; Roman Empire; Tourism; United States.

Bibliography

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Gorman, Jerry, and Kirk Calhoun. The Name of the Game: The Business of Sports. New York: Wiley, 1994.

Grant, Michael. History of Rome. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1978.

Motion Picture Association of America, Industry Worldwide Market Research. “MPA Snap Shot Report” (www.mpaa.org/useconomicreview/content.htm, accessed May 2004).

NYC and Company. “Broadway Statistics” (www.nycvisit.com/_uploads/docs/Broadway_Season_stats.pdf, accessed February 2005).

Schaaf, Paul. Sports Marketing: It’s Not Just a Game Anymore. Amherst, NY: Prometheus, 1995.

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Weikel, Colby. “Sports Marketing: A Take on the History and the Future” (www.unc.edu/~andrews/ints092/weikel.html, accessed October 2003).

WGBH/Frontline. “Gambling Facts and Stats” (www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/gamble/etc/facts.html, accessed October 2003).