European merchants sailed around the world in search of pepper, shown here being gathered for export in the Moluccas, or Spice Islands, of the East Indies (now Indonesia). (Mary Evans Picture Library)
A spice that is indigenous to Java but grown in other tropical countries and is used to flavor food.
The black pepper (Piper nigrum) is a perennial climbing shrub that produces pea-sized fruit called peppercorn. Black pepper is the whole dried fruit; while white pepper is the inside of the fruit under the dark outer hull. The ancient Greeks traded with Arab merchants for both pepper and cinnamon. The pungency of pepper helped to make food taste better. By the third century B.C.E., the Arab traders had developed an extensive trade network that carried the luxury item to ports on the Red Sea, along the coast of Africa, and into Europe through the Roman empire. The decline in trade after the fall of the Western Roman empire halted the importation of pepper. But when the crusaders conquered Jerusalem during the First Crusade (1095), they once again came into contact with pepper. Europeans traded with the Arabs for the spice—which was critical in the preservation of food and, conversely, in disguising the taste of food that was not fresh—until the end of the Crusades. By the fourteenth century, the traditional sea trade in pepper had been replaced by the Spice Route under the protection of the Mongols. Pepper continued to reach Eu rope from India, but the cost of the spice, which included profit for the middleman, led to a desire on the part of Europeans to find a way to trade directly with India. Since the Arabs controlled the Middle East and the Red Sea, the only possible route was around the continent of Africa.
European merchants sailed around the world in search of pepper, shown here being gathered for export in the Moluccas, or Spice Islands, of the East Indies (now Indonesia). (Mary Evans Picture Library)
Portugal’s Prince Henry the Navigator established a navigational school for the purpose of sailing along the coast of Africa in search of gold, slaves, and pepper. Although the sea routes were dangerous, the profits exceeded the risks. Ships laden with pepper returned to Portugal, where the king received a portion of the profits. The Portuguese came to dominate the pepper trade for the next several centuries until the British consolidated control over India and the Spice Islands.
After Spain was unified in 1492, Christopher Columbus gained the sponsorship of the king and queen for a journey west across the Atlantic Ocean to China. Realizing the potential profits to be gained if he was successful, Isabel and Ferdinand hoped to increase their royal treasury substantially. Although Columbus did not reach India and return with black pepper, he did return with several varieties of New World peppers. In South America, bushy, woody-stemmed plants produced peppers such as cayenne and the chili pepper, which is sold dried or as a sauce such as Tabasco. Red and green peppers, which are milder in taste, were also discovered in the New World. Paprika, which is produced from peppers grown in central Europe, is also used as a spice. The Spanish pimiento is used for stuffing green olives.
Pepper continues to be used around the world. The three main black pepper–producing countries of India, Indonesia, and Malaysia formed the Pepper Community to coordinate marketing efforts. In 1972, the organization became known as the International Pepper Community when Brazil, Thailand, and Sri Lanka joined. The member states produce between 70 and 80 percent of the world’s pepper. The organization is attempting to persuade Vietnam to join and, if successful, it will control 95 percent of the world’s black pepper production.
Cynthia Clark Northrup
See also: Spice Route.
“International Pepper Community” (www.ipcnet.org, accessed November 2003).
Ravindran, P.N., ed. Black Pepper: Piper nigrum. Australia: Harwood Academic, 2000.