Almost two years after becoming vegan, I am stronger than ever before, and I am improving day by day . . . Go vegan and feel the power!
Vegan athletes are among the most persuasive ambassadors of plant-based diets. Without uttering a single word, they effectively silence naysayers by proving there’s no need to eat chickens, pigs, or cows to be fast, strong, and fit.
Some athletes believe that vegan diets provide a competitive edge, particularly for endurance sports; others argue that vegan diets put athletes at a disadvantage, especially in strength-based sports. Although the evidence is limited, plant-based diets haven’t been shown to be particularly better or worse than any other diet for athletic performance.1–3
As a result, aspiring athletes who want to join the ranks of world-class competitors, as well as recreational athletes aiming to begin entering competitions, can rest assured that a varied and well-planned vegan diet will provide all the nutrients needed to meet performance goals. In fact, a meat-free diet can fuel elite athletes, boost performance, and provide sufficient protein to sustain big gains in muscle mass. Consider just a small sampling of world-class vegan athletes (search the Internet to discover elite vegan athletes in many other sports):
• Cam Awesome. Amateur superheavyweight boxer; captain of the American team; winner US men’s national competition and national Golden Gloves; winner of more medals than any other American amateur boxer in history.
• Patrik Baboumian. Strongman; European champion in powerlifting, having set three world records in the 125 to 140 kg (275 to 310 lb) category; winner of the German loglift championships; record holder for fronthold and keg lift.
• Brendan Brazier. Professional Ironman triathlete and author; two-time winner of the Canadian 50 km ultramarathon.
• Robert Cheeke. Vegan body builder and author; winner of the 2005 International Natural Bodybuilding Association Northwestern USA, Overall Novice Bodybuilding Championship.
• Mac Danzig. American mixed martial artist; national amateur mixed martial arts (MMA) champion, Gladiator Challenge lightweight champion, International Fighter Championship lightweight champion, five-time King of the Cage world lightweight champion, The Ultimate Fighter season-six winner.
• Steph Davis. Rock climber; the only woman to have free-soloed at the 5.11+ grade; featured in an extreme-sport film, climbing the Mineral Canyon in Utah; and appeared on the March 2013 cover of Climbing magazine.
• Ruth Heidrich. Triathlete champion; winner of more than nine hundred gold medals for running, marathons, ultramarathons, and triathlons; holder of three world fitness records in her age group; listed as one of the “Top Ten Fittest Women in North America” in 1999 at the age of 64 (all others named were in their 20s and 30s).
• Scott Jurek. American ultramarathon champion; winner of multiple elite ultrarunning titles, including US all-surface twenty-four-hour run title holder (165.7 miles—6.5 marathons in one day), the 153-mile Spartathlon, the Hardrock 100, the Badwater 135-mile Ultramarathon, the Miwok 100K, and the Western States 100-Mile Endurance Run, which he won seven straight times. The Washington Times named him one of the top runners of the decade, Runner’s World awarded him a Hero of Running, and Ultrarunning Magazine named him Ultrarunner of the Year three times.
• Fiona Oakes. Marathon runner; world record holder for fastest woman to run aggregate marathons on seven continents plus the polar ice cap; winner of the 2013 Antarctic Ice Marathon (broke the course record by six minutes); winner of the North Pole Marathon (broke the course record by forty-four minutes); Guinness world record holder for the fastest woman to run the Seven Continents Marathon (combined times for each continent), breaking the world record by almost two hours and thirty minutes; sanctuary owner; firefighter.
• John Salley. Retired professional basketball player, actor, and talk-show host; first player in NBA history to play on three different championship-winning franchises.
Four main factors drive athletic performance: genetics, training, diet, and drive. While there isn’t much an individual can do about genetics, the other factors are largely a matter of choice. Each variable can be developed to provide a competitive edge.
A vegan diet alone won’t guarantee athletic success, but enriching the fuel mix that sustains physical activity improves efficiency. A key to achieving peak performance is consuming a healthful balance of all the necessary nutrients while meeting energy needs.
Two main sources of energy feed muscles: carbohydrates (glucose and glycogen) and fats (fatty acids). These fuels are readily available in the bloodstream and are provided both by foods consumed and from body stores. Glucose is stored as glycogen in skeletal muscle and in the liver; these stores provide approximately 5 percent of the body’s energy reserves. Protein accounts for only about 2 percent of the fuel burned in activities lasting less than an hour. In exercise lasting three to five hours, the contribution of protein can increase to as much as 5 to 15 percent as stores of glucose and fatty acids become depleted.4–6 The lion’s share of fuel is stored as fat.7 Although fat stores vary dramatically from one individual to the next, they’re generally sufficient to last for many hours or even days of exercise.
During the first few minutes of exercise, the body relies almost exclusively on carbohydrates for energy. As exercise continues, more fats are used. Within twenty to thirty minutes of activity, the fuel supply is about half carbohydrates and half fats. With high-intensity exercise, the balance shifts in favor of carbohydrates, and with low- or moderate-intensity exercise, fatty acids soon become the more dominant fuel sources. A benefit of aerobic training is that it increases the proportion of energy derived from fat, preserving precious glycogen stores.8–11
Carbohydrates continue to provide much of the fuel for higher-intensity activities because people can’t metabolize fat at a high enough rate to provide all the energy needed for more-demanding activities. However, the ability to use fat as a fuel during more-intense activities improves with physical training.11,12 Glycogen stores are typically depleted within two to three hours of continuous moderately intense exercise, and in as little as fifteen to thirty minutes of highly intense exercise.11 When glycogen stores are depleted, consuming carbohydrate-containing foods or beverages promotes rapid repletion of the stores. Athletes who train regularly and eat sufficient carbohydrates generally have higher resting glycogen stores than sedentary individuals.13
The fuel the body uses depends on the type, intensity, and duration of the activity performed, as well as fitness level. The body has two distinct pathways that unlock energy: aerobic and anaerobic.
Aerobic means “with oxygen.” For the body to enter the aerobic pathway to generate energy during exercise, sufficient oxygen must be delivered to the muscles. When exercise lasts for more than two or three minutes, the aerobic mode predominates.12 The primary fuels used during aerobic activities are fatty acids from the blood, muscles, and fat tissue and glycogen from the liver and muscle tissue.
Physical fitness is a function of strength, flexibility, and aerobic capacity. VO2 max is the most widely used test of aerobic capacity. It’s simply a test of the body’s ability to use oxygen; ít measures the maximum volume of oxygen an individual can use per minute of extreme exertion. It’s reported as milliliters of oxygen used in one minute per kilogram of body weight (ml/kg/min). The more oxygen consumed per minute, the fitter the individual. Elite endurance athletes generally have the highest VO2 max, with results averaging about 70 ml/kg/min, compared to inactive individuals, who average about 35 ml/kg/min.
Regular aerobic exercise can boost a person’s VO2 max by increasing the capacity of the heart and lungs to deliver oxygen to the muscles and organs. Other factors, such as genetics, age, gender, and altitude, also influence VO2 max. Although accurate VO2 max measures are done under strict conditions in a sports lab, they can also be estimated using treadmill, timed-run, cycling, or step-fitness tests. VO2 max can help to assess a person’s potential to perform, but it’s only one of several factors that determine success. Exercise intensity is often expressed as a percentage of VO2 max:
Low-intensity exercise: < 30% VO2 max (example: walking)
Moderate-intensity exercise: 31–69% VO2 max (example: jogging)
High-intensity exercise: > 70% VO2 max (example: running)
Any exercise that uses large muscle groups over an extended period of time is an aerobic or cardio activity. Good examples include distance running, swimming, biking, cross-country skiing, rowing, hiking, and canoeing. Aerobic activities train the heart, lungs, and cardiovascular system to process and deliver oxygen more quickly and efficiently to every part of the body. As a result, a fit individual can work longer and more vigorously, and achieve a quicker recovery at the end of the aerobic exercise session.
When the heart and lungs can’t provide muscles with sufficient oxygen for aerobic metabolism, the muscles rely on anaerobic (“without oxygen”) metabolism to generate energy. Anaerobic metabolism uses only muscle glycogen and glucose as fuels. However, this fuel-consumption process doesn’t completely metabolize glucose, and fragments of lactic acid can build up, causing burning pain and muscle fatigue. When sufficient oxygen becomes available, that lactic acid can be completely broken down or converted back to glucose.
During the first two or three minutes of exercise or when the activity is so intense that energy demands outstrip the oxygen supply, the body operates in anaerobic mode. For example, during a 30-second sprint, approximately 25 to 35 percent of muscle glycogen stores are used up.12 The anaerobic pathway predominates in speed sports, such as sprinting and other quick track events, short-distance swim races, basketball, hockey, volleyball, football, baseball, lacrosse, and speed skating, and in power sports involving sudden intense movements, such as weightlifting, powerlifting, bodybuilding, field events, and wrestling.
Energy needs vary with age, gender, and metabolism and body size, weight, and composition, as well as the amount and type of physical activity performed. Most athletes require 2,000 to 6,000 calories per day.3 For elite endurance athletes, such as ultramarathoner Scott Jurek, energy needs may reach 5,000 to 8,000 calories per day.14 High-fiber plant-based diets may reduce energy availability, so additional calories may be needed to compensate for losses,12 especially in athletes with a high metabolism. Although one study reported an 11 percent higher resting metabolic rate (RMR) in young male vegetarians,15 two studies found no difference in RMR when comparing similar vegetarians and nonvegetarians.16,17 A fourth study assessing RMR in vegans and nonvegetarians reported a lower RMR among vegans.74
An athlete’s ability for optimal performance can be compromised if the body’s energy needs aren’t met. When the proper fuel is unavailable, lean tissue can serve as an energy source, reducing muscle mass and endurance.12 Athletes who lack energy or can’t improve their performance despite consistent training efforts may need to increase their caloric intake.
The best indicators of adequate caloric intake are body weight and composition. Unfortunately, some athletes purposely restrict calories in an effort to reduce body fat and improve their body’s aesthetics or to make a specific weight class. This practice can seriously impair performance by lowering metabolic rate; reducing energy available for exercise; and compromising the body’s nutritional, immune, and endocrine status. In young athletes, insufficient energy intake can also hinder growth and development.
A constant state of negative energy balance in female athletes is of particular concern, because it’s a warning sign for a combination of conditions known as the “female athlete triad” (page 421). For example, when a female’s body fat dips below a critical level, menstruation ceases. Generally, the minimal level of body fat compatible with health is 12 percent for female athletes and 5 percent for male athletes.12 An athlete’s optimal percentage of body fat can be determined by the level at which overall health and performance are most effectively supported.
The Institute of Medicine has developed equations that help provide a reasonable estimate of energy requirements. Although the equations are rather cumbersome, several websites provide a handy calculator that does the math to suggest a healthy level of calories (see Resources on page 449 for links.)
Vegan foods can meet the high energy needs of athletes, including those who engage in extreme sports. However, many plant foods are bulky, so it’s important that athletes with high caloric requirement include plenty of energy-dense vegan options. In addition, during heavy training, athletes may need to take advantage of every eating opportunity, including large snacks before bed. Great choices include smoothies, sandwiches (see table 10.5 on page 333), whole-grain cereal, marinated salads, stir-fries, healthy baked goods, bean soups and stews, seasoned tofu, sushi, avocados, trail mix, toast with nut butter, power bars, yogurt with fruit and granola, and pasta dishes. Some athletes may find it easier to meet energy needs by eating more frequent meals and snacks.
For those who have difficulty consuming sufficient calories, incorporating more liquid calories (e.g., smoothies) and some refined low-glycemic foods (such as pasta) may prove helpful. Athletes who have recently shifted to a vegan diet may need to introduce higher-fiber foods (such as legumes) gradually to minimize gastrointestinal discomfort.3,12 (See pages 381 to 390 for ideas on how to increase energy intake and pages 441 to 442 for 2,500- to 2,800- and 4,000-calorie menus.)
On the other hand, athletes who eat more than necessary can increase body fat, potentially compromising performance. Injured athletes or those who reduce the intensity of their training need to reduce their intakes to avoid an undesirable weight gain.
The ideal distribution of carbohydrate, protein, and fat in the diets of athletes isn’t necessarily different from that of the general population. Although aiming for the Dietary Reference Intakes’ Acceptable Macronutrient Distribution Range (45 to 65 percent carbohydrate, 10 to 35 percent protein, and 20 to 35 percent fat) is considered appropriate for most athletes, some experts suggest a lower limit of 50 percent of energy from carbohydrates.12,18,19 Athletes are currently cautioned against using a specific intake target, such as 60:10:30 (carbohydrate: protein: fat), because the most appropriate balance varies with an individual’s energy and training needs.
Carbohydrates provide the primary fuel for athletes because they help to sustain blood glucose levels during exercise, improve exercise capacity, and maintain glycogen stores. Evidence suggests that carbohydrate restriction is detrimental to performance. An athlete should eat sufficient carbohydrates to provide ample energy for training and to replenish glycogen stores after exercise and between competitions.
It’s best for athletes to rely on whole plant foods as their primary source of carbohydrates. Vegans have an advantage where carbohydrate intakes are concerned, because both the quantity and quality of carbohydrates tend to be high in plant-based diets. Whole grains, vegetables, fruits, legumes, nuts, and seeds not only provide carbs but also a healthful complement of protein, fat, vitamins, minerals, and phytochemicals—all of which contribute to peak performance. Although some refined carbohydrates can be useful for training purposes, these foods are best used judiciously, especially by athletes with lower energy requirements. (For more on carbohydrates, see chapter 5; for the proportion of carbohydrates, protein, and fat in foods, see table 3.5 on page 97.)
TABLE 13.1. Vegan foods that provide 50 grams carbohydrate per serving
FOOD |
SERVING SIZE |
Almond yogurt with apples, cinnamon, and granola |
1 c (250 ml) yogurt, 1 apple, ¼ c (60 ml) granola |
Bowl of cereal, blueberries, and soy milk |
1 oz (30 g) cold cereal, ¾ c (185 ml) blueberries, 1 c (250 ml) fortified soy milk |
Brown rice with tofu and vegetables |
¾ c (185 ml) rice with 2 c (500 ml) vegetables and 2 oz (60 g) tofu |
Fruit smoothie |
1 banana, 1 c (250 ml) fortified soy milk, 1 scoop protein powder, 1 c (250 ml) strawberries |
Muffin with almond butter and fresh orange juice |
1 healthy muffin, 1 T (15 ml) almond butter, ½ c (125 ml) fresh orange juice |
Pea, lentil, or bean soup and rye bread |
1¼ c (310 ml) pea, lentil, or bean soup, 1 large slice rye or other bread |
Peanut butter and banana sandwich |
2 slices bread, 2 T (30 ml) peanut butter, 1 small banana (or ½ large) |
Pita bread and hummus |
1 pita bread, ½ c (125 ml) hummus |
Power bar |
1 bar |
Recommended carbohydrate intakes for athletes range from 5 to 12 grams per kilogram of body weight per day, depending on the day’s activity level. On low-intensity workout days (sixty to ninety minutes of moderate exercise), most athletes will need about 5 to 7 g/kg/day. On days of moderate to heavy endurance training (one to three hours per day), needs increase to about 7 to 12 g/kg/day. On days of extreme endurance training (four to six hours per day), requirements can reach 10 to 12 g/kg/day.20 Table 13.1 lists a variety of foods or combinations that provide 50 grams of carbohydrate. The refined options may be more suitable as part of a pre-event meal.
A commonly held notion among athletes, coaches, and trainers is that protein is the most vital of all nutrients—and the more the better. Some athletes hesitate to make the switch to a vegan diet due to concerns about whether plant protein is adequate for best performance. While athletes often need more protein, these requirements are easily met by a well-designed vegan diet.
Although protein plays a very small role as a fuel source for exercise, adequate protein is critical to maintain lean body tissue and exercise performance. The current recommended dietary allowance (RDA) for protein (0.8 g/kg/day) is thought to be adequate for fit and active individuals. However, in a position statement on nutrition and athletic performance, the American Dietetic Association (ADA), Dietitians of Canada (DC), and the American College of Sports Medicine (ACSM) recommend that protein intakes be increased by 10 percent for vegetarian (including vegan) athletes. Most vegetarian athletes meet or exceed recommendations for total protein intake; this increase is suggested to compensate for the reduced digestibility of protein from plant foods, relative to animal products.12 Thus, for active vegans, protein intakes of at least 0.9 g/kg/day are recommended. Endurance athletes require more—especially during training and recovery—as do strength athletes, particularly during the early stages of training and while building muscle. Vegan endurance athletes are advised to consume 1.3 to 1.5 g/kg/day, and vegan strength athletes are advised to consume 1.3 to 1.9 g/kg/day (these figures have been adjusted by 10 percent above those of nonvegan athletes).
For example, an endurance or strength athlete who weighs 150 pounds (68 kg) would need a minimum of 88.4 grams of protein per day (68 kg × 1.3 g/kg/day). Vegans who consume less than 12 percent of calories from protein could fall short. For example, if that 150-pound athlete ate 3,000 calories per day, with 10 percent of calories from protein, total protein intake would be only 75 grams (3,000 calories × 0.1 = 300 calories; 300 calories ÷ 4 calories/gram = 75 grams). So, while vegan diets can provide plenty of protein for athletes, this nutrient deserves attention. The 2,500-, 2,800-, and 4-000-calorie menus on pages 439 to 442 provide 97 and 128 grams of protein, respectively. Table 13.2 provides a summary of recommended protein intakes for vegans.
Insufficient protein intake can compromise the maintenance, repair, and synthesis of skeletal muscle after training.12 Vegan athletes at greatest risk for low protein intakes are those who restrict calories or who eat few legumes, tofu, tempeh, and other meat alternatives. While it’s not necessary to eat specific combinations of plant proteins at each meal, it’s important that vegan athletes do consume good sources of protein at each meal.5 Vegans who have difficulty eating enough protein may find it helpful to add a vegan protein powder—such as hemp, rice, pea, or soy protein—to a smoothie to boost protein intake. Table 13.3 provides a list of foods that provide approximately 10 grams of protein per serving. Table 13.4 provides some suggestions for improving the protein content of common meals. (Also see table 9.3 on page 289 for foods that provide 15 grams of protein, and table 12.4 on page 386 for further ideas on boosting protein.)
TABLE 13.2. Recommended protein intakes for vegans (whole-foods diet)
ACTIVITY CLASS |
PROTEIN (GRAMS PER KILOGRAM OF BODY WEIGHT PER DAY) |
Active vegan |
0.9 g/kg/day |
Endurance athlete |
1.3–1.5 g/kg/day |
Strength athlete |
1.3–1.9 g/kg/day |
Source:12
TABLE 13.3. Vegan foods that provide 10 grams of protein per serving
FOOD |
SERVING SIZE |
Almonds |
⅓ c (80 ml) |
Black bean soup |
⅔ c (160 ml) |
Deli slices* |
3 slices |
Firm tofu |
4 oz (120 g) |
Hempseeds |
3 T (45 ml) |
Hummus |
½ cup (125 ml) |
Peanuts |
⅓ c (80 ml) |
Peas, raw |
1¼ c (310 ml) |
Power bar |
1 |
Pumpkin seeds |
¼ c (60 ml) |
Veggie patty* |
½–1 |
*Check label.
TABLE 13.4. Increasing protein content of meals
*Check label.
After carbohydrate and protein needs are met, the remainder of energy will come from healthy fat sources. According to the joint position of the ACSM, ADA, and DC, athletes should consume 20 to 35 percent of calories from fat. An important energy source, fat also is the body’s sole source of essential fatty acids and carries protective phytochemicals and the fat-soluble vitamins A, D, E, and K.
Reducing fat intake below 20 percent of calories hasn’t been found to benefit performance and isn’t generally recommended for athletes.12 In fact, there’s some evidence that low-fat diets (less than 15 percent fat) contribute to exercise-induced amenorrhea and reduce the supply of energy from fat stored within muscle cells (necessary for optimal performance in prolonged moderate- to high-intensity training).5 However, athletes are advised not to exceed the upper limit of 35 percent of calories from fat; high fat intakes could compromise carbohydrate and protein intakes, especially in lower-calorie diets.12 Optimal fat intakes vary with energy needs; in general, those with lower energy needs are advised to meet recommended intakes for protein and carbohydrate first.
Vegan athletes should rely primarily on whole plant foods for fat, because these foods also provide protein, carbohydrate, and valuable vitamins, minerals, and phytochemicals. Excellent choices include nuts; seeds; nut and seed butters, milks, and creams; avocados; olives; and soy foods. Judicious use of fats and oils can help athletes to meet their energy needs without adding bulk to the diet. Processed foods that contain trans-fatty acids are best avoided, as are deep-fried foods.
Not surprisingly, an athlete’s need for vitamins and minerals is higher than the amount inactive individuals require. These micronutrients play key roles in the body’s use of macronutrients. Vitamins and minerals are also needed to synthesize, maintain, and repair muscle and bone tissue, as well as for immune function, the production of hemoglobin, and minimizing oxidative damage to cells.12
When energy needs are met, athletes generally meet or exceed requirements for vitamins and minerals without the need for supplements. This is true for all athletes, including vegans, with the possible exception of vitamins B12 and D. Vitamin B12 and vitamin D supplements are recommended for vegan athletes, unless sufficient amounts of these nutrients are provided by fortified foods (or in the case of vitamin D, through sunshine). Although multivitamin-mineral supplements provide some assurance that micronutrient needs will be met, they aren’t essential. Supplements may prove advantageous for vegan athletes who restrict energy intake (or are dieting), have disordered eating, consume poorly planned diets, are pregnant or lactating, or are recovering from injury. In some situations, single-nutrient supplements can address specific medical or nutritional challenges, such as iron deficiency.
Vegan diets are naturally higher in certain vitamins and minerals and lower in others when compared to omnivorous diets. For vegan athletes, some nutrients deserve special attention.
B vitamins serve two primary functions for athletes. First, thiamin, riboflavin, niacin, pyridoxine, pantothenic acid, and biotin are necessary to metabolize energy-giving nutrients. Second, vitamin B12 and folate are needed to synthesize protein, for tissue repair, and to produce red blood cells.12
Of all the B vitamins, insufficient intakes of two in particular are of special interest to vegan athletes: B12 and riboflavin. Because whole plant foods lack vitamin B12, all vegans—including athletes—must rely on fortified foods and/or supplements to ensure an adequate, reliable supply (for more information, see pages 214 to 222). Some athletes take B12 shots to boost oxygen delivery to tissues and enhance performance. However, although B12 shots can be highly effective for vegan athletes who are B12-deficient, no evidence shows that athletes with good B12 status benefit from this practice.5
The need for riboflavin increases with training, due to its role in energy production. While most vegan diets provide ample riboflavin, some studies have reported suboptimal intakes. So, it’s important for vegans, particularly very active individuals, to include reliable sources of this nutrient. Excellent sources of riboflavin are listed on page 242.5,18
In addition to its critical role in calcium absorption and bone health, vitamin D is directly involved in forming and maintaining skeletal muscle and the nervous system. Vegan athletes who consume few fortified foods, who train indoors, or who have limited sun exposure are at increased risk for vitamin D deficiency.12 While the RDA for vitamin D is 600 IU (15 mcg) for adults from 19 to 49, a growing number of experts suggest intakes of at least 25 to 50 mcg (1,000 to 2,000 IU) per day. (For more on vitamin D, see pages 222 to 230.)
Athletes consume oxygen in volumes ten to fifteen times greater than nonathletes. This may trigger exercise-induced oxidative stress, which can be controlled, at least to some extent, by antioxidant nutrients. While oxidative stress can be harmful to health over time, some may actually be beneficial. Recent evidence suggests that continuous training (as opposed to sporadic training) stimulates antioxidant defense systems, thereby providing long-term protection against oxidative stress and disease.12,23
Generally, vegans have superior vitamin antioxidant intake and status compared to nonvegetarians.2,24,25 Athletes at greatest risk for poor antioxidant vitamin status are those who consume too few fruits, vegetables, legumes, nuts, seeds, and whole grains. Calorie restriction also may compromise vitamin intake, while low-fat diets can inhibit antioxidant absorption.12 (See page 379 for further information.)
If dietary intakes are adequate, little evidence suggests that antioxidant supplements improve performance, and they’re not generally advised.12 However, insufficient dietary intakes have been shown to compromise athletic performance. Prolonged, strenuous exercise increases the need for vitamin C, so the joint position of the ACSM, ADA, and DC suggests that athletes who participate in habitual prolonged, strenuous exercise consume 100 to 1,000 mg of vitamin C per day.12 The menus on pages 439 to 442 provide between 283 and 425 mg of vitamin C; see the nutritional analysis below the menus for this and other nutrients. Excellent sources of vitamin C are listed on page 236 and in table 7.3 (page 252).
Limited evidence suggests that vitamin E may help to reduce exercise-induced DNA damage and improve recovery. Vitamin E is present in avocados, nuts, seeds, and fresh pressed oils (page 237). Currently, athletes are advised not to exceed the upper intake levels (UL) for antioxidants, due to the potential for adverse effects from higher doses.13
An athlete’s mineral status can have profound effects on overall performance. Although a vegan diet can adequately meet mineral needs, some minerals warrant special attention from vegan athletes.
Iron deficiency is the most common mineral deficiency among athletes, especially female endurance athletes. The body requires iron to handle and transport oxygen and for the enzymes involved in energy production. Poor iron status reduces the oxygen-carrying capacity of blood, in turn increasing muscle fatigue; decreasing work capacity, endurance, and overall performance; and adversely affecting nervous, behavioral, and immune system function.
When athletes embark on an aerobic training program, serum ferritin and hemoglobin levels often drop. This condition, commonly referred to as “sports anemia,” is caused by an increase in blood volume and the resulting dilution of red blood cells. Sports anemia is a beneficial adaptation to aerobic training and shouldn’t be confused with true iron deficiency, because it’s usually transient and doesn’t negatively affect performance.12 In athletes who have iron-deficiency anemia, iron supplementation is advised because it not only improves lab measures but also increases oxygen uptake, reduces heart rate, and boosts performance. There’s some evidence that iron-deficient athletes who don’t have anemia also may benefit from iron supplementation.12,26
At similar levels of iron intakes, vegetarian athletes have reduced iron stores compared to nonvegetarian athletes, because iron is less well absorbed from plant foods.27,28 However, although there are currently no reports on the iron status of vegan athletes, iron intakes are higher in vegans than in lacto-ovo vegetarians or omnivores, though vegan iron stores are commonly lower than those of omnivores.5,18
Iron requirements in endurance athletes, particularly distance runners, are increased by an estimated 70 percent.12 High-impact exercise, particularly the footstrike in distance running, can induce iron losses through hemolysis (the rupturing of red blood cells in the bloodstream).29 Iron also is lost during intense endurance activity through perspiration or gastrointestinal bleeding (often associated with analgesics).30,31
The joint position of the ACSM, ADA, and DC suggests that “athletes who are vegetarian or regular blood donors should aim for an iron intake greater than their respective RDA (i.e., > 18 mg and > 8 mg, for men and women respectively).”12 It’s unclear whether the authors considered the increased recommendations for vegetarians; however, distance runners might be prudent to aim for these higher levels (i.e., 32 mg for women and 14 for men). In addition, all female endurance athletes are well-advised to monitor their iron status. The menus on pages 439 to 442 provide from 22 to 37 mg of iron.
Vegan athletes (especially menstruating females and endurance athletes) can ensure sufficient iron intake and absorption by eating plenty of iron-rich plant foods and iron-fortified foods, and consuming these with a rich source of vitamin C. Iron-deficient athletes can take supplements to restore iron status and significantly enhance performance.12 However, some individuals absorb iron very efficiently, resulting in high iron levels. Excess iron can act as a prooxidant, negatively impacting health, so iron status should be checked before beginning iron supplementation. (For more on iron, see pages 186 to 189.)
Zinc is involved in energy production, immune function, and the healing of injuries through muscle repair. Intense exercise induces zinc losses in urine and sweat, increasing zinc requirements.3 Suboptimal zinc status can reduce muscle strength, cardiorespiratory function, endurance, metabolic rate, and protein use, adversely affecting athletic performance.12 Zinc deficiency in athletes can also lead to loss of appetite, weight loss, decreased endurance, and increased risk of osteoporosis.32
Female athletes and endurance athletes who adopt high-carbohydrate, low-protein, low-fat diets are considered at risk for zinc deficiency.12,32 Vegetarian and vegan diets are associated with lower zinc intakes and reduced zinc absorption, so the risk may be even greater among vegetarian and vegan athletes.3,18
To maintain adequate zinc status, vegan athletes may need to exceed recommended intakes. The best plant sources of zinc include legumes, tofu, nuts, seeds, whole grains, and wheat germ. The menus on pages 439 to 442 provide from 12 to 24 mg of zinc. (For more on zinc, see pages 189 to 191.) Single-nutrient zinc supplements aren’t generally advisable because they often exceed the UL of 40 mg. Excess zinc may result in nutritional imbalances and a drop in HDL cholesterol.12 If supplemental zinc is needed to meet the RDA, the best choice is a multivitamin-mineral supplement with zinc.
Calcium is critical to bone health, muscle contractions, nerve conduction, and numerous other body reactions, so athletes should strive to meet the current RDA for calcium (1,000 to 1,300 mg per day, depending on age). For many vegans, this means incorporating some fortified foods, such as nondairy beverages and fruit juice, into the diet, in addition to eating plenty of calcium-rich plant foods.
Poor calcium status is linked to stress fractures and reduced bone density.12 At increased risk of calcium deficiency are female athletes who limit calories, have eating disorders, or are postmenopausal or amenorrheic. The joint position of the ACSM, ADA, and DC suggests increasing calcium intakes to 1,500 mg per day for female athletes at high risk for early osteoporosis.12 A calcium supplement is suggested for those who can’t meet recommended intakes through diet alone. (For more on calcium, see pages 182 to 186.)
Magnesium has a profound effect on muscle function. Evidence suggests that even marginal magnesium deficiency diminishes performance and exacerbates the adverse effects of strenuous exercise. For example, magnesium depletion may result in muscle cramps.31 Athletes who restrict energy intake, including those in weight-class and body-conscious sports, are at increased risk for deficiency.12,34
Intense endurance activities can increase magnesium requirements by 10 to 20 percent, due to losses in urine and sweat.34 Although vegans generally consume adequate magnesium, it’s important that sufficient magnesium-rich plant foods, such as nuts, legumes, greens, and whole grains, are included in the diet. Supplements are an option (either alone or in combination with other nutrients) for those who don’t meet recommended intakes. (For more on magnesium, see pages 196 to 197.)
Requirements for electrolyte minerals, including potassium, sodium, and chloride, are highly variable among athletes, depending on fluid losses. Although potassium is plentiful in vegan diets—as long as ample amounts of fruit, legumes, and vegetables are included—sodium and chloride quickly become depleted during intense endurance sports, and insufficient repletion of these nutrients can seriously impair performance. Endurance athletes commonly require significantly more sodium and chloride than the UL (more than 2,300 mg of sodium and more than 3,600 mg of chloride). For endurance events that last more than two hours, sports drinks containing sodium and potassium are recommended.12
The foods and fluids athletes consume before, during, and after events or training sessions can make or break their performance. Compared to the general population, athletes require more energy to fuel physical activity and more fluids to compensate for perspiration losses.
Depending on an athlete’s individual needs, meals, snacks, and beverages are best selected and times based on the intensity and duration of the workout or event. Hydration is extremely important; a loss of more than 2 percent of body mass through perspiration and dehydration can adversely affect performance, especially in warm climates and high altitudes. Dehydration is also associated with heat exhaustion and heat stroke.12
Ideally, a pre-event meal will provide sufficient fuel to sustain an athlete throughout the event. Timing is everything: the trick is to eat just enough to maximize performance but avoid having undigested food in the stomach. To help hasten digestion, the chosen meal or snack should be relatively low in fat and fiber; to boost fuel availability, it should be high in carbohydrate.35 The closer the meal is to an event, the smaller the meal ought to be. Liquid meals may be more convenient and digestible within an hour of an event.
Consuming 200 to 300 grams of carbohydrate three to four hours before an event has been shown to enhance performance (see table 13.1 on page 409 for examples of foods and food combinations that provide 50 grams of carbohydrate).12 In general, four hours before an event, the rate of carbohydrate consumption should be about 4.5 grams per kilogram of body weight; one hour before an event, it should be about 1 g/kg of body weight.
Pre-exercise or pre-event foods are best chosen based on individual tolerance. Athletes who experience nausea, cramps, or vomiting may need to avoid solid foods within three to four hours of an event. Those prone to reflux are advised to steer clear of foods that exacerbate their symptoms prior to competition (e.g., caffeine, chocolate, fatty or fried foods, or carbonated beverages). Individuals who frequently experience diarrhea may wish to reduce fiber intake twenty-four to thirty-six hours before an event.36
Generally, an athlete’s muscle glycogen stores are sufficient for events that last sixty to ninety minutes. During events longer than ninety minutes (marathons, triathlons, long-distance swims, and similar demanding activities), athletes can experience extreme fatigue (often referred to as “hitting the wall”) when glycogen stores become completely depleted. Not surprisingly, athletes often attempt to boost glycogen stores before longer competitions.
For many years, athletes used a strategy known as carbohydrate (or carb-) loading, which involved a period of relatively low carbohydrate intakes and intense exercise to deplete muscle glycogen. This was followed by a period of tapered exercise and high carbohydrate intakes to supercompensate for the reduced stores. More-recent studies suggest that athletes don’t need the depletion phase to boost glycogen stores. Simply tapering exercise and eating a high-carbohydrate diet (about 10 g/kg/day) for thirty-six to forty-eight hours before a competition is sufficient. Of course, carbohydrates consumed just before and during the event provide additional fuel.36
Although the value of sports drinks is hotly debated within scientific and athletic communities, most experts agree that for the average active consumer, hydrating with water is preferable. For inactive consumers, sports drinks can serve as one more source of empty calories.38 However, such drinks can play a useful role in refueling and rehydrating endurance athletes or people who participate in intense activities that last for more than an hour.
Sports drinks contain water, sugar and other sweeteners, electrolytes (e.g., sodium, chloride, and potassium), colors, flavors, preservatives, and sometimes vitamins and minerals. They’re often categorized as isotonic, hypotonic, or hypertonic, based on the amount of carbohydrate they contain. Isotonic drinks are 6 to 8 percent carbohydrate; they can help athletes quickly replace fluids lost by sweating and provide a boost of energy. They’re the beverage of choice for endurance athletes (e.g., distance runners, triathletes, soccer players) who engage in activities that last an hour or more. Hypotonic beverages contain only 3 to 4 percent carbohydrate, and are useful for athletes who need fluid and electrolytes, but not extra calories (e.g., gymnasts and wrestlers). Hypertonic beverages contain the greatest amount of carbohydrate (often 10 percent or more). They’re generally reserved to boost glycogen stores after exercise, although some ultra-endurance athletes use isotonic beverages to replace fluids and hypertonic beverages to meet high needs for energy.
For athletes who prefer to avoid sports beverages, coconut water, vegetable juices, homemade sports drinks, or a combination of solid foods and water provide reasonable options. Coconut water’s sodium and carbohydrate content is lower than that generally recommended for endurance events, but athletes can combine coconut water with vegetable juices for an excellent balance. Coconut water and fruit juice combinations are also available and are significantly higher in carbohydrates than plain coconut water. Homemade sports drink recipes (generally containing fruit juice, water, sugar, and salt) are also accessible online.
Recent research suggests that due to its nitrate content, beet juice may enhance performance by reducing the amount of oxygen needed during exercise.39–41 Beets aren’t the only nitrate-rich vegetable—arugula, spinach, Swiss chard, collard greens, bok choy, radishes, carrots, rhubarb, and celery also provide hefty doses. Table 13.5 provides a nutritional comparison of various beverages.
TABLE 13.5. Nutritional comparison of selected sports drinks
*Nutritional analysis is based on a green vegetable juice containing kale, romaine lettuce, apples, carrots, beets, celery, cucumber, and lemon.
**Coconut waters analyzed: O.N.E. Plain, vita coco 100% pure coconut water, ZICO Natural Coconut Water
Athletes need to drink water or a sports beverage in the amount of 5 to 7 milliliters per kilogram of body weight at least four hours before competition or training (although excess fluid intake is discouraged before an event, because this increases the need to void during competition).12 For example, a 160-pound (73 kg) athlete should drink 1½ to 2 cups (375 to 500 ml) of liquid. Athletes who compete in intense, long-duration events (more than an hour) with minimal opportunity to hydrate may require fluids fifteen minutes before the start of the event.36
Although sports drinks and other sources of calories are generally unnecessary for activities lasting less than an hour, they may provide benefits during intense endurance events. The additional carbohydrates can help to maintain blood glucose levels and can be particularly useful if the event or activity takes place in the early morning on an empty stomach. Beverages that supply no more than 6 to 8 percent of carbohydrate are recommended; fluids that provide more than 8 percent of carbohydrate content (such as soda) can reduce gastric emptying.12
To extend endurance during events or activities that last more than an hour, carbohydrates in the approximate amount of 0.7 grams per kilogram of body weight per hour are advised. For most people, this means consuming 30 to 60 grams of carbohydrate per hour during the event.12 Some experts recommend intakes as high as 90 grams per hour for events or activities that last three hours or longer.37 In that case, it’s more effective to consume the carbohydrates every fifteen to twenty minutes, rather than having larger amounts at one time.
Including carbohydrates during exercise is especially important for athletes who haven’t carb-loaded before the event, who haven’t eaten three to four hours before the event, or who have limited caloric intake for weight loss. The carbohydrates consumed should yield primarily glucose (as opposed to primarily fructose, because fructose is a less-effective fuel and may cause diarrhea in some athletes). Whole foods and products made from whole foods, including fruits, are acceptable; beverages sweetened with fructose aren’t recommended. Because the body can use only about 60 grams of any single carbohydrate source per hour (e.g., glucose), foods and beverages that provide a mixture of different types of carbohydrates may be preferable. The carbohydrate can be consumed as a beverage, snack, or gel. However, if a snack or gel is selected, adequate water must also be provided.
Athletes also need to maintain adequate hydration, which means getting sufficient fluids and electrolytes (especially sodium). Perspiration rates can vary from 0.3 to 2.3 liters per hour, depending on climate, body weight, genetics, and metabolic efficiency, making it impossible to formulate one fluid- and electrolyte-replacement schedule for all athletes. However, serious athletes can establish sweat rates for specific activities and conditions.
Sometimes athletes become dehydrated because their sweat rate exceeds their ability to absorb fluids from the stomach. Many experts suggest drinking sufficient fluids during an event to limit dehydration to less than 2 percent of body weight,12 although some athletes can withstand greater losses.38 It may be helpful to replenish sodium during endurance events that last more than an hour, because an average of 1 gram of sodium is lost per liter of perspiration. Athletes also lose modest amounts of potassium, magnesium, chloride, and other minerals in sweat.
Common signs of dehydration include muscle cramps, muscle fatigue, low blood pressure, dizziness, and headaches. While most cases of dehydration result when fluid loss exceeds fluid intake, some athletes may begin a competition in a dehydrated state, because they have too little time between events to rehydrate or they’re limiting foods and fluids to make a weight class for the competition.12,36
Athletes must maintain hydration without drinking to excess. Overhydration can lead to hyponatremia (low sodium levels), a serious and sometimes fatal condition. Although it can occur in any athlete who consumes too much fluid, hyponatremia is more common in slow, less well-trained athletes who sweat less and drink excess fluids before, during, and after an event.12,36
Competitors can replenish carbohydrates, fuel, and electrolytes during endurance events by consuming water and solid foods (such as energy bars), although this approach isn’t always convenient. A more practical option for many athletes is to consume beverages that provide fluid, fuel, and electrolytes. The joint position of the ACSM, ADA, and DC suggests beverages that provide 6 to 8 percent of carbohydrates or 14 to 18 grams of carbohydrate per cup (250 ml), and 125 to 175 mg of sodium per cup (250 ml), although more sodium may be required by someone who sweats heavily. Potassium status is less affected by sweating, so a potassium-rich diet may be sufficient to maintain body levels during events. However, some authorities suggest using sports beverages enhanced with potassium, particularly during endurance events.12
The female athlete triad is a syndrome characterized by the presence of three interrelated conditions: disordered eating, amenorrhea (cessation of menstruation), and osteoporosis. A woman’s desire to maintain a very lean appearance can provoke a dangerous cascade of effects, beginning with energy restriction and disordered eating. In response, the body expends its fat stores, triggering hormonal imbalances, amenorrhea, and bone loss.
The syndrome is more common in athletes involved in endurance sports, such as distance running, and aesthetic sports, such as dancing, gymnastics, swimming, and figure skating. While its prevalence is unknown, estimates of eating disorders range from 25 to 62 percent among elite female athletes. Reports of amenorrhea are as high as 69 percent in dancers and 65 percent in long-distance runners. Finally, a literature review on the bone health of female athletes found a prevalence of osteopenia (low bone density), ranging from 22 to 50 percent, and osteoporosis, ranging from 0 to 13 percent.43
According to the ACSM, athletes at greatest risk are those who consume energy-restricted diets, who limit the types of foods they eat, who exercise for prolonged periods, or who are vegetarian.43 Menstrual irregularities have been disproportionately associated with vegetarian athletes,44,45 and very high-fiber, low-fat diets have been shown to increase fecal excretion of estrogens and reduce estrogen levels.46 However, risk doesn’t appear to be elevated in weight-stable vegetarians with normal BMIs.47 Vegetarian diets per se may not be to blame, but rather the restrictive eating behaviors that make vegetarian diets attractive to such athletes (for more information, see pages 390 to 400).
Female vegan athletes need to ensure sufficient intakes of calories, protein, and fat. Energy intakes that fall below 30 calories per kilogram of fat-free body mass per day are associated with the most pronounced adverse effects.43 For example, a 120-pound (55 kg) athlete with a body fat of 12 percent would have a fat-free body mass of 105.6 pounds (48.4 kg). An energy intake of less than 1,452 calories (30 calories × 48.4 kg) would significantly increase health risk. Athletes with high caloric requirements may find it helpful to incorporate lower-fiber foods, such as tofu, refined grains, and juices, into their diets.35
After an event or training session, the body must rehydrate, reestablish muscle and liver glycogen stores, and ensure maintenance of lean muscle tissue. Food and fluid needs depend on the intensity and duration of the completed event or training session and the timing of the next event. For athletes participating in more than one event in a day, the interval between events is critical; for a single event, the post-event protocol is less significant.
Ideally, athletes should begin to replenish glycogen stores within thirty minutes of an event. Eating carbohydrates at a rate of 1 to 1.5 grams per kilogram of body weight at two-hour intervals for up to six hours is generally recommended, especially if glycogen stores need to be replenished for another event. For example, a 160-pound (73 kg) athlete would eat 70 to 110 grams of carbohydrate immediately after an event, and again at 2.5 hours and 4.5 hours; for a 120-pound (55 kg) athlete, carbohydrate intake would be 55 to 80 grams each time.
Although refueling isn’t as important if there are rest days between events or training days, including a post-event meal helps athletes meet energy intake goals. Eating food with a high glycemic index (GI) results in higher glycogen stores following glycogen depletion than consuming food with a low GI. Some authorities suggest a carbohydrate to protein ratio of 3:1 to ensure sufficient protein for muscle-tissue synthesis and repair. Table 3.5 (page 97) shows the relative amounts of calories from carbohydrate and protein in various foods (these reflect relative weights of carbohydrate and protein; grams of protein also are given). Other experts suggest consuming 15 to 25 grams of protein after workouts or events.12,35,37
After an event or training session, athletes need to replace the fluids and sodium lost in perspiration. Generally 6 cups (1.5 L) of fluid are recommended for every kilogram lost (2.2 lb). This is especially important when athletes participate in multiple events with limited time between events.
The market for ergogenic aids has been gaining momentum for decades. It’s estimated that 76 to 100 percent of athletes in certain sports use these types of supplements.48 Although the claims associated with nutritional ergogenic aids are substantial, the evidence for associated benefits is disappointing.12 Regardless, in the United States, the dietary supplement industry is poorly regulated, and claims about effects on body structure or performance are permitted on labels, even if the claims have no validity. Producers aren’t responsible for demonstrating safety or effectiveness, although the Food and Drug Administration polices safety. The rules are simple—ingredients (including active ingredients) must be listed, and therapeutic claims about disease prevention or treatment are not permitted. In Canada, supplements are regulated as medicine or natural health products. Producers are free to make performance and disease claims if the scientific evidence to support those claims is deemed sufficient.12,49
National and international sports authorities have rules concerning the permissible use of ergogenic aids and require random testing of athletes to prevent the use and abuse of banned substances. Athletes cannot assume that a product is safe or effective simply because it is marketed over the counter. All products must be scrutinized for safety, purity, and effectiveness. Generally, sports authorities advocate whole foods over dietary supplements.49
Among the hundreds of ergogenic aids, just a handful hold special interest for vegan athletes. For example, nutrients that may be suboptimal in vegan diets are viewed as possible performance enhancers. (See pages 423 to 425 for information on vitamins and minerals that may be helpful for vegan athletes.) Compounds with ergogenic potential found exclusively or predominantly in meat or dairy products are thought to provide greater benefits for vegans than meat-eating athletes. Athletes are advised to consult with a health care provider before taking any ergogenic aid. These ergogenic aids top the vegan short list.
Carnosine is a dipeptide containing beta-alanine (a nonprotein amino acid) and histidine. Naturally produced by the body, it’s most concentrated in muscle and brain tissue. Internal carnosine production depends on the supply of beta-alanine, which is less abundant in muscle tissue than histidine. Carnosine is touted for its ability to boost performance in high-intensity exercise by increasing the buffering capacity of muscles during lactic acid buildup, improving muscle contractile performance and defending against reactive oxygen species (unstable oxygen atoms that can quickly oxidize and harm the body on a cellular level).50,51 Carnosine is also promoted as an antiaging aid due to its impressive antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties.52
Because carnosine is present only in animal products, carnosine levels tend to be reduced in vegetarians compared to meat eaters. One study found levels in vegetarians to be about half that of omnivores,53 while a second study reported a 17 to 26 percent reduction in carnosine levels in the leg muscle tissue of vegetarians compared with omnivores.54
Although no studies exist that assess the effects of beta-alanine or carnosine supplements in vegan athletes whose muscle levels of carnosine are low, it’s reasonable to expect that vegans would enjoy greater benefits of supplementation than meat-eating athletes. Beta-alanine supplements effectively boost muscle carnosine concentrations. However, in doses exceeding 10 mg/kg/day, beta-alanine may cause temporary paraesthesia (a prickling or burning sensation like pins and needles, usually occurring in the feet, legs, arms, and/or hands).55
Although most carnosine supplements are less well absorbed than beta-alanine, some newer forms are proving effective. In certain individuals, carnosine supplements disrupt sleep, although well-absorbed forms act more rapidly than beta-alanine and don’t cause paraesthesia. It’s too soon to make a general recommendation for beta-alanine or carnosine supplementation for vegan athletes; however, evidence suggests benefit for some athletes.
The branched-chain amino acids (BCAA)—leucine, isoleucine, and valine—have sparked considerable interest among sports-nutrition scientists due to their effects on muscle recovery and immune function. Although most studies have failed to show enhanced performance with BCAA supplementation, there’s reasonable evidence to suggest it can reduce muscle damage, promote muscle-protein synthesis (which decreases muscle soreness and fatigue), and regulate immune function.53,54
Well-designed vegan and nonvegan diets provide sufficient BCAA; however, for elite athletes, BCAA supplementation may be of value. There’s no evidence that vegans would benefit more than nonvegans by BCAA supplementation.3,12,56–72
The amino acid carnitine (also called L-carnitine) is important for fatty-acid and protein metabolism. It is commonly touted for weight loss and athletic performance, is sometimes promoted as a fat burner, and is thought to spare glycogen and reduce lactic acid production.
Carnitine is present in many foods but is much more concentrated in animal products than plant foods. One exception is tempeh, which contains almost 20 mg per 3.5-ounce (100 g) serving. This compares to 95 mg in beef steak, 28 mg in pork, 6 mg in cod, and 4 mg for chicken per 3.5-ounce (100 g) serving. A medium avocado contains about 2 mg, while most other plant foods contain less than 0.5 mg per serving.58
Humans produce carnitine in the liver, kidneys, and brain. There’s some evidence that adults who habitually consume little carnitine compensate by increasing reabsorption from the kidneys and reducing urinary carnitine excretion. Blood levels of carnitine are still lower among vegans and vegetarians than meat eaters, although overt carnitine deficiency is uncommon.59,60 Two decades of research have demonstrated ergogenic benefits from carnitine supplementation only when a carnitine deficiency is present.61,62
Creatine is among the most popular ergogenic aids for athletes, especially body builders and other strength athletes. It’s also one of the few nutritional supplements that clinical trials have clearly demonstrated to be effective. Creatine supplementation reduces fatigue during short bursts of high-intensity activities, such as sprinting, soccer, and weight lifting, and maximizes lean body gains and muscle strength.3,12 However, it’s not generally advised for endurance activities.
Creatine is found only in meat, so vegans don’t naturally ingest it. The rate-limiting enzymes for creatine synthesis are fully activated by creatine-free vegetarian diets and suppressed by meat consumption.3 The body manufactures about 1 gram of creatine per day from precursor amino acids; dietary intake in meat eaters is also about 1 gram per day. While internal production helps to compensate for differences in dietary intakes, blood and tissue creatine concentrations have been shown to be lower among vegetarians and vegans than omnivores.63,64 Research suggests that vegetarians may enjoy greater benefits from taking creatine than nonvegetarians.65
Generally, creatine supplements are synthetically produced and are vegan. Muscle creatine content can be increased by 30 percent or more with the use of supplements, particularly when levels are low. Popular supplementation regimens suggest a three- to seven-day loading phase of 20 to 25 grams of creatine per day, followed by a maintenance dose of about 3 grams per day for four weeks.3 The effects of long-term creatine supplementation aren’t known, although supplementation is generally considered safe for healthy adults. The most common adverse effects of creatine supplements are weight gain (usually fluid), cramps, nausea, and diarrhea.12
Taurine is a nonessential amino sulfonic acid (different than an amino acid). It’s present in animal products, especially meat, fish, and shell fish, and is found only in trace amounts in land plants; however, some sea plants (macro- and microalgae) contain higher amounts.66,67 Although the body produces taurine, two studies reported reduced plasma levels in vegans compared to nonvegans (although in one study, there were only slight differences) and decreased urinary taurine excretion.68,69 There’s some evidence that taurine boosts athletic performance, so it’s commonly added to energy drinks and other ergogenic aids. Currently, no studies have assessed the ergogenic effects of taurine supplementation for vegans, but one report suggests that 500 mg of taurine twice daily would be appropriate for vegan athletes who want to try it.70
Current evidence suggests that protein and amino-acid supplements provide no advantage over food for increasing muscle mass when dietary protein intakes are adequate.12 However, for vegan athletes who have difficulty consuming sufficient protein from food, supplements are a practical and effective way of meeting needs. Vegan supplements based on hemp, pea, pumpkin seed, rice, and/or soy protein are widely available. For athletes who already consume soy foods in generous quantities (soy milk, tofu, soy-based vegan meat substitutes, for example), selecting protein powders based on other plant proteins may be preferable. Some supplements supply a mix of plant proteins, which can increase the overall quality of the protein.
Other effective nutritional ergogenic aids are caffeine and sodium bicarbonate (baking soda). Caffeine, a known stimulant, should only be used in moderation. Its use is restricted by some sports authorities, and excess intakes can cause anxiety, jitteriness, rapid heartbeat, gastrointestinal distress, and insomnia. Sodium bicarbonate acts as a blood buffer, helping to prevent fatigue; however, excessive intakes can cause diarrhea.12
Several additional ergogenic aids appear promising, although evidence for their benefits is inconclusive. These include glutamine, hydroxymethylbutyrate, and ribose. There is no evidence that any of these ergogenic aids would provide greater benefit to vegans than nonvegans.
Other supplements currently marketed as ergogenic aids lack scientific evidence to support their use. Some ergogenic aids are dangerous, banned, or illegal. Examples include anabolic steroids, Tribulus terrestris, ephedra, strychnine, and human growth hormone.12
In summary, although ergogenic aids are rarely necessary for athletes, they may enhance physical performance in certain circumstances. If used, they should be taken in conjunction with a nutritionally adequate diet.
The keys to optimizing performance, regardless of dietary pattern, are to eat sufficient quantities of a wide variety of nutrient-dense whole foods and stay well hydrated. The Vegan Plate and menus in chapter 14 provide healthful food choices at various levels of caloric intake. The menus are appropriate for active vegans, including competitive athletes. For most athletes, the 2,500- to 2,800- or 4,000-calorie menus will be most appropriate, although for athletes who require fewer calories or who are trying to lose weight, the lower-calorie menus provide sufficient protein and are nutritionally adequate.
Table 13.6 lists suggested numbers of servings from each food group at various levels of caloric intake. The numbers of servings can be varied to suit different eating styles; a minimum number of servings from each group is recommended in The Vegan Plate (see pages 434 and 435). Calcium-rich foods should be selected in every category, meeting the recommended 6 to 8 servings a day at all calorie levels (see pages 439 to 432). “Other choices” refers to added fats, added sugars, or items that don’t fit into any of the other food groups. Vegans who prefer not to use these “other choices” can select a greater number of servings from the other food groups to roughly equal the number of calories allotted.
TABLE 13.6. Suggested number of servings from food groups at various caloric intakes
*Calorie estimates are based on an average of several choices, and individual items can vary considerably from these estimates.
Note:
• Starchy vegetables provide at least double the calories of other vegetables.
• Energy content of legume choices varies widely. See table 3.5 (page 97) for more precise calorie counts. Peanuts and peanut butter contain about 200 calories per serving (similar to nuts and seeds).
• Whole grains are heavier and slightly higher in calories than bread.
To avoid difficulty achieving the recommended number of servings from this group, include vegetables at lunch as well as dinner and use a mixture of raw and cooked vegetables. (Cooking condenses vegetables so larger amounts can be eaten.) Keep cut-up, ready-to-eat vegetables handy to enjoy as snacks. Juicing vegetables greatly reduces their bulkiness, making it easier to consume generous portions. Avocado can be added to smoothies. Look for dehydrated vegetable chip recipes online (kale, zucchini, and sweet potatoes work especially well).
To increase fruit consumption, add fruit to breakfast cereal, bring a few pieces to enjoy as snacks at work or school, add several pieces to a smoothie, and make fruit-based desserts. Fresh fruit juices and dried fruits can also be used, if desired, and are easier to transport.
As the protein powerhouses of the plant kingdom, beans and products made from beans are important for athletes. To consume the suggested number of servings, use white beans in dips and pâtés, add cooked red lentils to spaghetti sauce, and add puréed black beans to brownies and sprouted peas to salads. Snack on peas in the pod. Experiment with ethnic cuisines and use a wide variety of products made from beans, such as tofu, tempeh, and vegan meat substitutes.
As caloric needs increase, the suggested quantity of grain servings may look daunting. However, one serving is only ½ cup (125 ml) of grains or one slice of bread. It’s relatively easy to consume six servings of grains in one meal. For example, 2 cups (500 ml) of rice plus a whole-grain roll, or 2 cups (500 ml) of pasta plus two slices of garlic bread, each provide six servings. At breakfast, 2 cups (500 ml) of oatmeal with two slices of toast provides six servings. For those who prefer to limit grain intake, substitute larger servings of starchy vegetables, such as yams, potatoes, and corn, as well as additional servings from other food groups.
This optional category includes fats and oils, concentrated sweeteners (such as maple syrup and organic blackstrap molasses, which is a great source of iron and calcium), dark chocolate, and other sweet treats. Although it isn’t necessary to eat these foods, most people use some, so it’s important to include them in the overall calorie count. They can add flavor and variety to meals and snacks and boost calorie intakes for athletes with high energy needs.
Being a vegan athlete can present unique challenges. The following information can allay some common concerns.
As a competitive triathlete, I dread trying to get a decent meal when I’m on the road. What can I do to ensure that I get enough good food when travelling?
Always bring a handy selection of favorites when travelling: individual aseptic containers of nondairy milk, fresh fruit, dried fruit, nuts, seeds, nut butter, oatmeal or other cereal, crackers, bread, energy bars, dehydrated soups (in individual serving containers), and canned single-serving beans with easy-open lids. When staying in a hotel room equipped with a refrigerator, add nondairy yogurt, fresh vegetables, hummus, bean salad, vegetarian sushi rolls, juice, and flavored tofu. Bring a plate, a bowl, and some utensils. Buy nonspill containers of various sizes to transport foods, for leftovers, and for takeout foods from restaurants along the road.
Check for vegan or vegan-friendly restaurants (see Resources on page 450). If there are no vegetarian restaurants, go ethnic. Most ethnic restaurants offer legume or tofu dishes. In an American-style restaurant, ask for a vegan meal. The more requests restaurants receive, the more likely it is that vegan options will appear on their menus later on. If the chef needs ideas, ask for a pasta dish with loads of vegetables and possibly beans as well. Request rice and a vegetable stir-fry (with nuts, if available) or a vegetable plate with baked potatoes. Another option is a large salad with a baked potato. Ask for hummus, nuts, seeds, or beans to complete the meal (or bring a small package of cashews or almonds to add to salads or a stir-fry).
Bring plenty of food when flying. In a pinch, many flights offer nuts, hummus and pita bread, or vegan sandwiches for purchase. Mexican, Chinese, and Japanese restaurants and kiosks at airports offer an assortment of vegan travel meals (see Resources on page 450).
I play college football. I became vegan about six months ago and I’ve lost about 10 pounds. My coach is not impressed. How can I regain this weight or at least stop any further weight loss?
Vegan foods are less energy dense and more bulky; just eat more. Increase portion sizes and eat more often. Don’t skip meals; allow for a few snacks throughout the day. Consider having a nutrition-packed smoothie as an evening snack (see page 387 for the Protein Power Smoothie recipe). Choose plenty of higher-calorie vegan options, such as nut and seed butters, tofu, and avocados. Bring convenient snacks to eat throughout the day, especially pre- and post-workout. Trail mix, power bars, sandwiches, and tofu jerky are good options. Bring caloric beverages, such as vegetable and fruit juices or soy milk, as well. (See pages 381 to 390 for more tips on weight gain).
Human bodies are meant to move—even those whose owners have no intention of ever being a competitive athlete. Regular exercise is not a luxury—it’s a basic necessity, like eating and sleeping. Besides controlling weight and body shape, exercise reduces the risk of death and disease, boosts immune function, suppresses inflammation, sharpens the mind, yields better sleep, provides more energy and endurance, elevates mood—and even improves one’s sex life.
To enjoy these benefits, set aside thirty to sixty minutes a day for physical activity and do whatever type of exercise that provides movement and motivation. Three main types of exercise are essential for a fit body: aerobic activity, strength training, and flexibility exercises—incorporate all three into a weekly routine.
The following exercise guidelines are adapted from the Physical Activity Guidelines for Americans:68
• Children and adolescents. One hour or more per day of moderate or vigorous aerobic activity. Include vigorous activity at least three days per week; include strength training at least three days per week.
• Adults (ages 18 to 64). A minimum of two and a half hours per week of moderate-intensity activity—with five hours or more per week preferred—or a minimum of one and a quarter hours a week of vigorous-intensity exercise, with two and a half hours or more per week preferred. Include strength training for all large muscle groups at least two days per week.
• Older adults (age 65+). Follow the adult guidelines above. If that’s not possible, be as active as abilities allow; avoid inactivity. Do exercises that maintain or improve balance if at risk of falling. Do resistance training with light weights.
• Disabled. Follow the guidelines for the appropriate age group as much as the disability permits.
• Pregnant and postpartum. Healthy women who are not already doing vigorous exercise are advised to get at least two and a half hours of moderate aerobic exercise per week. Women who regularly engage in vigorous aerobic activity can continue if approved by their health care provider.
To maintain a high level of fitness, it’s best to exercise daily or almost daily. For people who haven’t exercised regularly, start with ten minutes of activity and build slowly from there. Gradually increase the duration, frequency, and intensity of workouts to make fitness goals more achievable, reduce risk of injury, and add an immensely enjoyable dimension to life.71–73
I’m a body builder who recently switched to a vegan diet. My trainer is freaking out. My fellow body builders are all trying to entice me to eat meat. They all think it’s impossible to achieve the kind of muscle gains body builders are after on a vegan diet. Is it possible to be a vegan body builder? What can I do to convince them?
The best way to convince skeptics is to prove them wrong. Educate yourself, train hard, and eat well. Check out websites dedicated to vegan bodybuilding (see Resources on page 450), which include extraordinary examples of buff vegans. Share these sites with the trainer. To learn the actual protein content of your diet, consider hiring a dietitian to do a nutritional analysis; this can give you and your trainer confidence. Talk to your health care provider about ergogenic aids, such as protein powder and creatine, especially if protein intake falls below about 1.5 grams per kilogram of body weight per day. Eat more to compensate for the lower energy density of plant foods. Keeping energy intakes up is necessary to allow for muscle gains.