FIGURE 3.1 We had fun building things!
Jeannette doesn’t mind taking long trips with her children, Bill (age 10) and Mary (age 7) because they rarely complain about the boring nature of the trip. Jeanette remembers the way trips used to be with her parents when they took the children to visit relatives in another state. Although they had coloring books and magnetic board games, they soon tired of those so their parents played games with them like “find all the letters of the alphabet on road signs” or “count how many animals you see” in order to keep the children engaged during the long ride. Her dad sang old time songs and the kids would make up songs. Sometimes her mom would ask easy math problems to see who could get the answer fastest. They also stopped at a few parks along the way so everyone could run around. Now Jeannette can just relax and think her own thoughts during the drive with her children since they have their iPads and iPhone apps to keep them occupied the entire time.
The toy designers, developmental theorists, and researchers who have predicted positive or negative effects of technology-augmented play materials often focus on one or two aspects of the toy or virtual product to make their predictions about the potential effects of play with those products. This may be why they have such varied perceptions of the value of these play materials. Using the criteria based on representation modes, affordances, and contexts may be useful for increasing the readers’ ability to understand the potential effects of various technology-augmented play materials. Although these play materials are continuing to change and expand exponentially, one way to categorize and evaluate them is by focusing on their context and intended age group. The contexts may be physical or virtual, and the virtual context can be further divided into digital games and online play environments. Technology-augmented play materials also can be described for three age levels: infants, toddlers and preschoolers; elementary-age children; and adolescents. There are examples of playthings in both contexts and at all age levels, but some types predominate at certain age levels. For example, robotic human or animal figures that are programmed to “talk” or act in certain ways are very common playthings for toddlers and preschoolers. Video games, however, are most pervasive in the play of elementary-age children and adolescents. Virtual materials such as smart phone apps are available for all age levels and some are even designed for pets (e.g., Friskies Jitterbug)!
Play materials within the physical context are concrete, tangible, and have physical dimensions and properties. Traditional materials for play have usually involved children in much engagement with physical contexts. Some of this play occurred with simply manufactured toys or even homemade toys and even included naturally occurring materials such as sticks or sand. Also, play usually included other children or their pets and the sessions often involved elaborated pretense scripts. For example, children might use stones and wood to build a “house” and then make a “bed” of grass in which they would place their “baby” (their kitten). Sometimes children would invent a game of “stick ball” and use the boundaries of the yard as the playing field. Much play occurred outdoors in natural settings such as parks or streets or in the basements or backyards of homes, and the play often lasted for extended periods. Thus, play within the physical context often involved extensive interaction with the natural world. At the present time, although many children still use play materials such as blocks, balls, dolls, and toy cars, many of these traditional toys now also come in technology-augmented versions. Such technology-augmented toys are particularly popular for infants, toddlers, and preschoolers. Young children today also have the option and ability to engage in play with games, stories, and videos via devices that are primarily for adult use. These play opportunities blur the line between the physical and virtual context because they require a physical means to control virtual actions.
Although some technology-augmented toys for young children have been available since the late 20th century (see Bergen, 2001), such play materials for infants, toddlers, and preschoolers have increased exponentially in the past few years. An example of a very popular toy with a technology-augmented component is Tickle Me Elmo™, which was initially marketed in the mid-1990s. This is a plush toy with a computer chip that causes the toy to giggle, shake, and finally laugh wildly when it is squeezed a number of times. Many other commonly used toys have had technology-augmented components added. For example, the original Fisher-Price Little People™ toys in the 1950s were mechanical in nature and did not have electronic components. The current versions of the toys, however, have integrated technology that play audio and control simple actions. There has also been an increase in the complexity of toy actions for children, and even toys that could “speak” and perform simple actions have been replaced by more complex toys such as the AIBO™ dog, which was introduced in the late 1990s, and the more recent ZOOMER™. In both cases, the toys have sensors and motors that allow them to interact with the environment and provide responses consistent with their real-world counterparts, dogs. Complexity in modern toys is perhaps best exemplified by the new “systems” that are available for children in this age group. Systems or platforms such as Leapfrog’s Leap Reader Books™ and the even more complex LeapFrog LeapPad3 Power Learning Tablet™ could easily pass for adult devices based on the amount of technology they contain and their extensive capabilities. These toys are marketed as all-in-one systems that both entertain and enhance the learning and development of young children.
Presently a high proportion of toys for young children now have some technology-augmented components. These toys give directions to children and suggest themes for play. Many of them simulate the talk and actions of living creatures or media figures. This play often occurs in solitary environments (bedrooms) or in closely structured environments (after-school classes). Thus, the physical contexts of child play have been changed or augmented by many aspects of technology. Virtual worlds were not a traditional focus of marketing to young children, but because many young children have access to their parents’ technology-augmented devices and apps, the virtual context has become extremely important.
Technology-augmented toy play for elementary-age children is differentiated from play at earlier ages primarily by the complexity of the toys. This is most likely due to the fact that, as compared to younger children, elementary-age children have increased motor skill development, verbal abilities, and a greater understanding of concepts such as cause and effect. With these developmental advances, elementary-age children are able to perform more complex tasks and, more importantly, they have increased abilities to make meaning from their play experiences. Technology-augmented toys at this age range from less complex dolls or figures that play audio or perform simple tasks to more sophisticated robotic playthings that are characterized by humanoid or non-humanoid figures that can perform a wide array of actions. One example of a complex toy at this age is WowWee’s Robosapien X Robot™, which features full arm and gripper movement, realistic walking and running, and sensors that allow it to respond to the environment. Although the Robosapien X has basic user-controlled functions, it is considered advanced because of its ability to be programmed. Radio-controlled toys are another class of modern plaything prevalent at this age and these may be realistic representations of actual vehicles or simply advanced machines with unusual designs. One example of a popular radio-controlled vehicle that requires increased motor function is the Syma S107™ 3-channel radio-controlled helicopter. Although this toy features a gyroscope for stable flight, basic control of the toy requires skills beyond those of younger children.
Adolescents generally have more developed fine motor skills and coordination than elementary-age children. At this stage, they seek to define and differentiate themselves from others. Physical, social, and cognitive developmental changes parallel the shifts in play opportunities that adolescents seek and also how they experience play. Consequently, adolescents’ advanced abilities are often reflected in their choices of toys at this age. The types of playthings used by adolescents typically include some used by younger children, but in general the toys are more complex in nature. Complexity in this case does not only refer to technological complexity, but it also includes complexity in terms of themes and content. Non-technology playthings that offer increased complexity in terms of themes include board games such as chess, and card games such as Magic: the Gathering™ and Cards Against Humanity™. These games require players to formulate strategies, solve problems, and in the case of Cards Against Humanity, the player must navigate complex adult themes within the game and among the other players of the game. Technology-augmented toys at this age are similar to those from earlier ages, with the addition of complex features and capabilities. For example, the Syma S107 3-channel radio-controlled helicopter would give way to the 8-channel DJI Phantom 2 Vision+ Quadcopter™. In both cases, the toys have significant motor skill requirements, but this quadcopter has advanced requirements for control of the both the basic movements of the toy and manipulation of its picture and video capabilities. Features such as the programmable flight path require the user to be familiar with the toy as well as other technologies including common mobile devices. More importantly, however, the capabilities of this quadcopter have features related to image and video capture that may force users to navigate complex issues such as the balance between personal freedom and the privacy and security of others.
Several general themes emerge when examining modern technology-augmented playthings across the different ages: complexity, fidelity, and control. Complexity in toys appears to increase as the target age increases. Generally, toys at earlier ages tend to rely on a limited number of skills and they tend to have fewer requirements for manipulation. This is expected given that most toys target a certain age range and are thus designed to be developmentally appropriate for that age range. One example that illustrates increasing complexity as age increases is Legos. Infants, toddlers, and preschoolers can play with Lego Duplo bricks, which do not generally contain technological enhancements, and are twice the length, width, and height of regular Lego bricks. Elementary-age children can select themed Lego sets including Star Wars, Technics, and Disney Princess. These sets are intricate and they may be technologically augmented with motors and sensors to perform specific tasks. Adolescents have many Lego options including Fusion, which combines the physical block building with virtual games and representations on smartphones or mobile devices, and Mindstorms, where players can create robotic playthings from intricate blocks.
Fidelity or realism also increases in parallel with age. Although some dolls or figures at early ages have realistic appearances, the realistic capabilities of toys generally increase with the age of the player. For example, the AIBO or the DJI quadcopter both have increased fidelity in terms of functions and capabilities as compared to the stuffed dog or the play helicopter used by the toddler. This phenomenon is expected as it is also an indication of increasing complexity as age increases. Control also changes with age. Toys designed for manual manipulation are replaced by toys that are controlled remotely via specific controls or via smart devices. Interestingly, as young children increasingly use smart devices, the complexity, fidelity, and control become blurred as young children are exposed to play scenarios with extremely realistic representations. As this change occurs, it is reasonable to question the long-term effects in an effort to determine consequences of changes in play, especially given the increasing complexity of toys for young children.
The representation modes and affordances of technology-augmented play materials within the physical context differ in a number of respects from those typically present in such play in previous generations. Although there is great variation depending on the design of the toy, in general many of these toys often make the child the “reactor” rather than the “actor” (Bergen, 2001). That is, the toy directs the play rather than the child. This also appears to be the case when considering changing play patterns from infants to adolescents. Modern play with technology-augmented materials becomes more centered on the toy and its capabilities, and less on what the individual brings to the experience. This pattern appears to be accelerating as complexity increases via advances in technology and as toys become more specialized.
One change that is clear in modern toys is that the enactive mode of cognitive understanding, which involves motor responses, is not as evident in play with many technology-augmented toys. For example, young children primarily use their fingers to connect virtual blocks instead of using their whole body in actions that are common activities in play with wooden blocks such as holding, carrying, picking up, balancing, and knocking down. Both preschool and elementary-age children spend more time operating the various toy features and observing the toy’s actions, and many times the action is a replay of media plots rather than engagement in spontaneously designed unique plots created by the children. Although the enactive mode is not as common, the iconic and symbolic levels are pervasive in technology-augmented play materials, and usually present the toy designer’s view of what the “real” world is like.
The design of the toys often exaggerates features or behaviors so that the picture of the world that is presented (iconic) and the meaning of the actions and language (symbolic) may not accurately represent the “real”-world experiences. The changes are evident at all age levels and they are particularly visible when children use complex and feature-rich toys. Even with its stimulating array of software options, for example, LeapFrog’s LeapPad3 Power Learning Tablet requires only that the child hold the device in the prescribed manner and press the buttons with predefined functions. The same is true for the Robosapien at the elementary-age level, and the DJI quadcopter at the adolescent level. In all cases, there is an overemphasis on the iconic and symbolic, and an underutilization and appreciation of the importance of the enactive mode.
While different toys may have differing levels of representation, the general trend is that modern toys, to a large degree, incorporate technologies that perform the actions that the player traditionally performed. This transfer of both action and causes of action from the child to the toy results in less opportunity for the child to be the one creating or enacting. Designers of some toys attempt, purposefully or not, to balance this shift of responsibility by introducing iconic and symbolic elements that are in many instances very exaggerated. For example, the soldier’s battle cry is always loud even when in “stealth-mode.” Thus, the child’s ability to affect the quality of the interactions becomes more limited.
The transparency, challenge, and accessibility of technology-augmented play materials may vary greatly, depending on the toy design and usage characteristics. The toy may be high in transparency if the toy “tells” the child exactly what to do but low in challenge if there are only a few actions that can be taken. The toy may be high in challenge initially but be less challenging later if only repetitive actions are permitted. The toy may promote accessibility for play with other children or require an individual child’s focus such that playmates are not required.
The affordances of many toys for infants, toddlers, and preschoolers have changed over time, but the magnitude of the changes depends on what toys are considered. For example, the current toy product Lego Duplo has high transparency because the blocks signal where and how they might be connected, they have high challenge because they can be combined to create unlimited new playthings to suit various scenarios, and they have high accessibility because they easily allow cooperative play with other children. The simplicity of this non-technology-augmented toy mirrors toys from previous generations; thus, there are few changes in terms of the richness of affordances in that example. Many current technology-augmented toys, however, are very different from toys of previous generations in terms of affordances. They may share similar themes, but the technology component introduces new variables that must be considered. For example, the Tickle Me Elmo doll is thematically similar to dolls from previous generations, but there are small differences in affordances due to the technological capabilities of the new toy. The transparency remains similar because the doll itself signals many of the ways that it can be used, and most children discover the audio capabilities of the doll very quickly. Thus, the transparency is minimally affected by the doll’s technology-augmented component. Accessibility is also similar because Tickle Me Elmo can be easily shared, although turn-taking will be an issue at early ages. However, this was also the case with toys from previous generations.
Arguably, challenge is most affected in this case for a number of reasons. Tickle Me Elmo has added features that previous dolls did not possess and this means that it provides one more dimension through which interaction can occur. In this scenario, challenge is increased because the technology embedded in the doll adds one more potential for interaction. On the other hand, the presence of the technology can reduce challenge because it signals one predominant way that interaction should occur. For example, Tickle Me Elmo signals that it should be tickled. While it is possible to interact with the doll in unlimited ways, the presence of the technology provides implicit boundaries that “guide” how the child should play with the toy. Because the same sound is repeated, the toy decreases in challenge after continuing play. There is nothing stopping the child from pretending that Elmo is a superhero, but that would require the child to act in a way contrary to the toy’s signals.
Complex toy systems such as Fisher-Price Laugh and Learn™ and LeapFrog’s LeapPad3 Power Learning Tablet have comparability to some toys from previous generations, but their technology-augmented affordances have become a prevalent part of the play experiences of younger children. In only a few years, these systems have evolved from simple systems with a few capabilities and features, to the current highly complex and feature-rich systems. Examining the affordances of these systems illustrates how they are changing the nature of play for children. Looking at transparency, these systems are relatively transparent because they are designed such that the children can immediately begin interacting. Advanced features may require adult explanation or help from a knowledgeable peer, but basic operation is, for the most part, intuitive. These systems signal how they are to be used and factors such as the placement of controls and buttons are the result of years of research in human and machine interaction. Challenge is an interesting affordance in that at first glance it might seem that the toy has high challenge because there are unlimited actions that can be taken when interacting with the toy’s software. However, it can also be argued that challenge is low despite the numerous software-driven interactions because the hardware only allows the user to interact via a limited collection of buttons with defined functions. Within this perspective, it is questionable that these systems build traits such as imagination and creativity. Even when the software presents a free space to design or create, the child is constrained by the specifications of the device. In regard to creativity, the child might be better served with a box of crayons and a sheet of paper! Examining accessibility is also very difficult because at first glance, these systems provide a network that allows children to play together if others have similar devices. The issue is summarized by the question “What does group play look like?” A typical scenario would have a group of children, each of whom possesses a device, playing together via the system, but not necessarily speaking to or directly interacting with each other. Are the children playing together? These complex networked systems increase the likelihood that group play changes to individual play, albeit within a shared space.
Modern technology-augmented toys for elementary age children have features never seen in previous generations, and these may have differential effects on the toys’ affordances. For example the Robosapien robots have moderate to high transparency for today’s children because the basic functions of the toy are easily grasped during initial interaction. More advanced features, however, may require assistance. Challenge is low for this type of toy because although the toy has many capabilities, its design for the most part determines how it should be used. Similar to toys for younger children, toys like the Robosapien robots do not necessarily prevent a child from scripting play differently from what the designers intended, but in all probability, children will most often use the toy similarly to its designed purpose. Accessibility is interesting for the Robosapien robots because while two children can watch and interact with the toy simultaneously, only one child can control the toy at any time. In many ways, the affordances of technology-augmented toys for elementary-age children are similar to those for infants, toddlers, and preschoolers. Differences that exist in accessibility may be the result of the assumption that play is more individualized at the elementary age.
The affordances of technology-augmented toys for adolescents are similar to those for elementary-aged children, with small exceptions for transparency and accessibility. In terms of transparency, most toys are intuitive, but the more advanced toys like the DJI Phantom 2 Vision+ quadcopter may require planning or assistance for even the most basic functions. The challenge affordance is similar to the other ages, where in some cases, the toys dictate the play and the child is explicitly or implicitly limited in making changes to the play script. Accessibility, similar to that at elementary age, remains moderate because these toys do not foster group play outside the scenario where either each child takes a turn, or each child must have the toy, and in the latter case, play is potentially individual although in a group setting.
Within the theoretical framework of this book, play material in the virtual context are all mediated by technology-augmentation, meaning that interaction occurs via a technology-augmented medium. The virtual context can be divided into two areas: Digital Games and Online Play Environments. These two areas are not exhaustive, but they are useful starting points through which technology-augmented play materials can be examined.
When considering the technology-augmented world of children, perhaps the most dominant and notable influence can be seen in areas of digital gaming, while the type of technology through which children play in digital games shapes the nature of the play. As such, it is important to consider digital gaming for children by examining the affordances, representations, and constraints of the technology through with children play digital games as well as the nature of the games themselves. These three factors exert influence on the rapidly evolving landscape of the technology-augmented world for children and have implications on the brain development processes in a variety of ways.
There are multiple ways to classify digital games and these classifications may focus on characteristics such as the nature of the game play (e.g., action, adventure, role-playing, puzzle, strategy), the perspective of the play (e.g., first-person, third-person), the visual representation of game worlds (e.g., 2D, 3D), and the purpose of the game (e.g., educational, training, exercise, casual, serious). While each of these classification taxonomies may be useful in categorizing games, in order to better understand the ways in which digital gaming influences the brain development of children, these various characteristics of games function as attributes that may have different influences on brain development processes. Much like the way that children alternate through different styles of real-world play, they are also likely to alternate through various games in which the nature of game play differs. A child may develop an affinity for a particular genre of games and explore various games with similar game play. This same child may then progress through multiple genres of games depending on factors such as availability of technology, requisite motor skills, and presence or absence of other children. Given that there are many types of digital games and that they can be classified in numerous ways, this section first discusses digital games via the lens of common devices, then selects types of popular games at the various age levels, before examining the representation modes and affordances of digital games. Most games can be played on multiple systems and devices and many games cross various boundaries used for categorization.
The world of digital gaming is rapidly changing and is influenced largely by advances in technology hardware. Advances that lead to lower production costs, improved power efficiency, and additional functionality in consumer devices are quickly integrated into new game development an increasingly rapid pace. For example, advances that enabled touch-sensitive interfaces to become commonplace on mobile devices have made a touch-based interface a commonplace control interface for mobile games, whereas previous game development would rely on an dedicated control interface such as a button controller or joystick. In this case, the technological advances were rapidly integrated into game play for existing game genres while also sparking the development of entirely new genres of games for which the touch-based interface was essential. With significant changes in the physical interaction, as well as new forms of games that were not previously possible, it is reasonable to expect that these changes would lead to differences in motor skill development, hand-eye coordination, and other developmental processes that are influenced by games and that are ongoing throughout childhood and adolescence.
Although these technological advances are rapidly evolving, digital games typically are played through specific devices, and these devices are unique in their affordances and constraints for game play. When considered broadly, digital games are most commonly played in one of three types of devices: gaming consoles, personal computers, or mobile devices. Gaming consoles, such as Xbox™, are usually home-based devices that are attached to a television or other video display. Historically, gaming consoles were designed for the primary purpose of playing digital games; however, more recent gaming consoles are multifunction devices that enable game play, video entertainment, and internet-based communication functionality. The specific gaming functionality provided by a gaming console differs by manufacturer. A notable difference in gaming consoles is in the ways in which a user can interact with the gaming console and thus interact within the game as well. For example, early gaming consoles relied on joystick or button controllers for interaction while current gaming consoles use more advanced interaction controls that may be joystick or button controls as well as interaction through motion-sensing controllers and sensors as well as voice control. Elmo’s Musical Monsterpiece™ is an example of a console game for infants, toddlers, and preschoolers. This adventure game for the Nintendo DS™, 3Ds™, and Wii™, introduces children to music and the basics of making music.
Although the functionality of a personal computer (PC) with respect to digital gaming is very similar to that of a gaming console in that PCs are multipurpose devices, PC-based games were early to take advantage of connectivity and mobility. The physical interaction with a personal computer is more commonly facilitated through the use of a keyboard, mouse controls, or connected gaming controller. As such, the interaction within PC-based games has led to a rise in hardware developed specifically to facilitate game play. Gaming keyboards or mouse controls offer specific advantages for genres of games such as first-person games that require players to navigate a virtual world. Also, the mobility afforded by laptop computers and the continual expansion of wireless networking has made a laptop computer a portable gaming console that can be distinctly different than either the gaming consoles described previously or the mobile devices that are described later. Although the degree to which children have access to a personal computer is unclear, the availability of personal computers in homes and schools suggests that many children have access to these devices; thus, it is likely that they are also part of the digital gaming landscape for many children as well. One example is the Halo™ series published by Microsoft and available on consoles and PCs. The violent first-person shooter, appropriate for adolescents, casts the player in the role of Master Chief John-117 who must save humanity from the alien enemies.
Mobile devices for digital gaming have been available for nearly as long as gaming consoles have been marketed. Beginning with handheld electronic games that were single-purpose devices that played only one game and featured controls unique to that game, later devices such as the Nintendo DS featured changeable game cartridges and functioned as handheld gaming consoles similar to their home-based counterparts. More recent innovations that have led to the near ubiquity of smartphones and mobile tablets have arguably had the most notable influence on digital gaming especially for elementary-age children.
Although smartphones and tablets are distinct in many ways, with respect to digital gaming, their functionality is largely similar; thus, it is reasonable to consider mobile phones and tablets more generally as a category of technology-augmented devices. Within this category, multiple factors account for a rise in digital gaming on mobile devices by elementary-age and even younger children, beginning with cost, size, and functionality. Also, the cost of mobile devices has dramatically decreased, thus making the devices themselves more widely adopted. The small size of mobile devices have made them easily portable and also usable by children and their multipurpose nature also make them essential for adults to use for a wide variety of purposes, including communication, entertainment, real-world navigation, and information-seeking. The sheer ubiquity of these devices has also yielded a new market of software for these devices that features games and “apps,” for example Angry Birds™ and Candy Crush Saga™, that are free, low-cost, or supported by advertisement revenue. All of these factors function together to create an environment in which children have access to mobile devices at a rate that is much higher than any other category of device, at a lower cost, and in nearly any type of location.
In addition to the environmental changes that have led to greater access to mobile devices, the nature of interaction that is unique to mobile devices also enhances their appeal to children. A touch-based interface and motion-sensing interaction enabled by miniaturized accelerometers and gyroscopes within the devices have made these devices more intuitive for children to use than they often are for adults who have more experience with earlier interface designs that use controls separate from the visual display. Although the limited buying power of children suggests that they may have not been the primary market when these devices were first developed, the frequent use of these devices by children continues to influence the market of both the mobile hardware and software, including digital gaming for mobile devices.
Within the various categories of digital games, it is reasonable to assume that there are children who play games in most, if not all, categories of digital games. However, there are specific games and game genres that offer unique perspectives on how various digital games have become part of a child’s developmental experience.
The category of simulation games is wide-ranging and includes games that simulate a real-world place or activity. In a typical role-playing simulation for children, players are controlling various aspects of a virtual space that may simulate a real-world business, such as virtual pet shop, hair salon, or restaurant. Among the games that are in this category are those that simulate living organisms such as Pets for the Playstation Vita, and also games that simulate a common activity, such as Toca Hair Salon 2™; both games are for toddlers. The complexity of these games ranges from simple tactile interaction such as using virtual scissors to cut hair to action as complex as controlling multiple aspects of a virtual business in order to reach a higher level of achievement. Many of these games are developed specifically as apps for mobile devices or handheld consoles, although some games are available for gaming consoles and personal computers. One of the most popular and complex simulation games is The Sims™ series. This game, suitable for adolescents, allows players to simulate human life within a virtual world that is complete with other virtual people. Players must manage everything from the health of their Sim to the daily interactions and emotions associated with the Sim’s virtual life.
Platform action games are those in which a virtual player is controlled by the user through a series of obstacles, obstructions, or other types of actions that require a combination of basic actions such as jumping and running. Some games in this category have a history as long as gaming consoles themselves have existed and they have evolved into a series of games featuring the same characters or narrative storyline. One notable aspect of these games is that the virtual player often has a set number of “lives” and the user controls the player until the virtual player “dies.” Older examples of these types of games are Super Mario Brothers™, which is a side-scrolling interface controlled by a player via a dedicated button-based controller, while newer examples in this category are “endless running” games such as the Subway Surfers™ series or new releases in the Tomb Raider™ series in which a character is continually running and the user controls the avatar to navigate obstacles and collect virtual coins.
As a general category, sandbox games are those that provide a virtual space for creation, experimentation, building, and similar activities. However, there are many sandbox games that may offer game-play modes that fall into other categories as well. Perhaps one of the most popular games within this category is Minecraft™, which is suitable for the elementary-age child and the adolescent. In this game, the user has a first-person view of a virtual world in which they can play in multiple game modes including creative, survival, or adventure modes. Within the virtual world, a user controls various tools and objects to interact with the world to construct or demolish virtual objects. Minecraft is considered an “open-world” game in which there is no predefined objective for the user to achieve and the user may choose to play in any one of the modes available. In creative mode, a player may choose to build objects or structures in the virtual world, whereas survival mode introduces additional requirements that require the player to gather resources needed for survival and other constraint or threats to the players “health” such as monsters that emerge at night. Adventure mode is similar to survival mode, but with the ability for users to follow predetermined maps and adventures developed by other players. Minecraft can be played by a single user, or in a multiuser environment in which players are interacting in a common virtual world from separate devices connected via a network connection.
Massively Multiplayer Online (MMO) games support many simultaneous users playing within a virtual world. The virtual worlds are usually thematic, for example fantasy worlds or space-based worlds, and players compete and/or cooperate to achieve certain goals, which may or may not be defined by the game. In many cases, these games can be played on multiple platforms. Most of these games target elementary-age children and adolescents. For example, Marvel Super Hero Squad Online™, is appropriate for elementary age children, while the extremely popular World of Warcraft™ and Guild Wars 2™ are more appropriate for adolescents and beyond. Although many MMOs are console or PC-based, there are increasing numbers of games that are playable on mobile devices and smartphones, one example being the very popular Clash and Clans™.
Digital games are a relatively recent innovation, and as such, comparisons can only be made to early forms of these games from a few decades ago. Digital games have very quickly evolved in terms of realism and complexity, and these rapid changes have made it difficult to assess the impact that these games will have, especially on brain development.
There is wide variation in the representation modes of digital games, especially in regard to the enactive mode. Also the affordances vary widely depending on the type of game and intentions of the game developer.
The representation modes of digital games are very dependent on the game. Generally, nearly all digital games have significant emphasis on the iconic and symbolic modes. This is understandable given that these games must convey their message in an entertaining manner. In essence, digital games rely on the iconic and the symbolic to tell their stories. The enactive mode is the most controversial, because these games clearly require and thus promote a more sedentary type of play. One counterexample is the Wii system. Some Wii games, such as Wii Sports, require active participation by the player in terms of physical movements. Although the Wii system is high in terms of the enactive mode, in general digital games are extremely low on this dimension and this is becoming a major concern for those interested in the physical and natural-world development of children.
The transparency, challenge, and accessibility of digital games also may vary greatly depending on the game and on the perspective taken by the designers. For example, interaction with a digital game is via a device and/or a controller, and that controlling method can have high transparency if it is designed to convey its use. On the other hand, if the perspective is less about the control and more about the game itself, then there is great variability in transparency because the game developer would determine the method of control. In many cases, both the controlling medium and the game mechanics are intuitive and signal their use to the player. In general, transparency could be classified as high because these games depend heavily on players being able to grasp the interaction quickly, thus increasing the entertainment value of the games. Challenge, similar to transparency, is dependent on perspective. For the most part, the player only has a set amount of buttons with which to interact in the game. Thus, the player is simply pressing the same buttons or controller repeatedly, although the effects may result in contextual changes. Challenge is therefore minimal from the perspective of game control. From the perspective of the games themselves, challenge can be extremely varied. Challenge ranges from low for games where the player performs the same tasks repeatedly to high for games that are more open-ended and encourage exploration. Accessibility is also a major issue in digital games because of the current emphasis on “social” and “connected.” However, similar to technology-augmented toys, group play with digital games can easily resemble individual play, but within a shared space. In many instances, children simply bring their own devices and literally sit beside their peers in silence, although they may be playing the same multiplayer game competitively or cooperatively. In this case, although players are connected via the electronic network, accessibility is low due to minimum personal interaction. They are playing the game and their peers happen to be playing as well. By the same token, some games are designed to have high transparency and accessibility. For example, the Nintendo Wii system was designed to accommodate group play in a literal and physical sense. For most of the Wii games, players must communicate, negotiate, share, and interact in a very literal manner, and this type of group play has both high transparency and accessibility.
The online play environment is a unique and very recent aspect of the virtual context. Unlike digital games, there is no winning, no points to obtain, and no proverbial “gold” to acquire. The online play environment simply describes the social communities that exist in the virtual online world. These communities for the most part mirror conventional communities, and online communities are based on themes that mostly concern adults. There are some differences that may have implications especially for the development of children because there are increasing numbers of communities designed for younger members of society. For example, some communities created by the Public Broadcasting Service (PBS) and National Geographic target infants, toddler, and preschoolers. PBS Kids features games and other activities based on PBS characters such as Clifford and Curious George. Similarly, National Geographic Little Kids offers a variety of activities in an effort to both entertain and teach. Elementary-age children have many choices in terms of online play environments. Communities such as Barbie’s My World and the Lego community are based on specific toys, but others such as Miss O & Friends, an online community specifically for young girls, are more general in nature. For adolescents, online play environments are currently a large portion of their activities and identities, and a significant portion of time is spent using social networking services (SNS). Popular options such as Reddit, an SNS where users vote on content; Twitter, an SNS that lets users send short (140 characters or less) messages or “tweets”; and Facebook, an SNS that connects individuals and facilitates relationships, are environments where adolescents can “hang out.”
The majority of online play environments do not have enactive mode components, but they use iconic and symbolic modes extensively. They vary on these two dimensions, depending on the purposes or environments.
Generally, online play environments are rich in iconic and symbolic representations, but very low in terms of the enactive mode. Although there are overall differences in iconic and symbolic representations, the extreme outlier is the enactive mode because most interaction in online play environments require little more than clicking a mouse or tapping a touchscreen. It is true that there may be cognitive benefits from the prevalence of iconic and symbolic representations, but the absence of enactive representations may be detrimental especially to younger children. The three representation modes are not balanced in the online play environment, and this may have implications for cognitive development. Interestingly, recent advances in virtual reality technology may be able to address the issue of lack of enactive representation in online play environments. Systems like the Oculus Rift, PrioVR, STEM, and Control VR will allow users to be fully immersed in the digital environment. These systems may eventually change how interaction occurs in online play environments, and allow for significant enactive representation. Consequently, virtual reality systems may restore some balance in terms of representation modes.
Similar to digital games, the transparency, challenge, and accessibility of online play environments may vary greatly depending on the environment. In most cases, however, these environments are asynchronous—as opposed to the online digital games, which are mostly, but not exclusively, synchronous. Transparency is mostly high in online play environments, as users are able to quickly master the mechanisms required for interaction. This is evident in the rise of social network services, where users are able to quickly master the processes required for communication and interaction. Challenges range from low to high depending on the environment. In some sense, individuals are performing the same tasks repetitively, for example, updating one’s Facebook status. From a different perspective, however, it can be argued that the act of updating is not limited to simply inputting text or images, but there is significant cognitive processing involved in constructing the post. In this perspective, challenge is high, because the situations and circumstances are dynamic within the online play environment. Another perspective on challenge centers on what individuals actually do in online play environments. Although participating in the environment may involve significant cognitive processing, participation is not a requirement. In most cases, individuals spent more time observing or “lurking” than they do contributing (Pempek et al. 2009). Challenge would thus be low because in reality, the tasks are mainly repetitive. While transparency and challenge may be low, accessibility is very high in online play environments. By design, these environments are social and they connect individuals in a variety of ways. Connections in this environment are virtual, and there is a real limitation in terms of individuals not being able to share the same physical space. In a sense, online play environments allow humans to socialize with many friends, while sitting alone in their rooms. Similar to digital games, the question of being social and connected “all by yourself” remains valid; thus, viewed from this perspective, accessibility appears to be low. Increasingly, however, online play environments are being viewed as legitimate communities with real effects (Hampton et al. 2011). The socializing and connections are real, even if the physical space is not shared. Within this perspective, accessibility is very high.
Certainly there are questions as to whether social and emotional development may be affected by the change from face-to-face embodied human play interactions to ones represented by virtual iconic and symbolic interactions. For example, the ability to interpret facial expressions and meanings from language tones, which is enhanced during pretend play and social game play may not be promoted during virtual play interactions. Similarly, moral reasoning and cognitive capabilities such as attention, perspective-taking, and executive functioning may not be drawn upon or may be accessed differently during virtual play interactions. Research is needed in order to understand potential problems or perhaps advantages of such play in regard to the development of these valuable human characteristics.
FIGURE 3.1 We had fun building things!
FIGURE 3.2 See the tower grow tall!
FIGURE 3.3 The airplane is almost finished.
FIGURE 3.4 Can I match the shapes?
Bergen, D. (2001). Technology in the classroom: Learning in the robotic world: Active or reactive? Childhood Education, 78(1), 249–250.
Hampton, K., Goulet, L. S., Rainie, L., & Purcell, K. (2011). Social networking sites and our lives. Available at: http://www.academia.edu/download/30472786/Social_networking_sites_and_our_lives_2011.pdf
Pempek, T. A., Yermolayeva, Y. A., & Calvert, S. L. (2009). College students’ social networking experiences on Facebook. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 30(3), 227–238.