Annotations for 1 Kings

1:2 Abishag was from Shunem, in the Plain of Esdraelon just south of the Sea of Galilee. She served as a nurse to King David. Although David had no marital relations with her, this young virgin had the status of a concubine for the rest of her life. Josephus described this ancient treatment for hypothermia, in which the body heat of a healthy person warms the body of the one who is afflicted.

1:5–6 Adonijah was Absalom’s younger brother (v. 6). He may have been the oldest of David’s living sons. His bid for the throne was similar to that of Absalom (see 2Sa 15:1–12). Adonijah, though willful and self-centered like his brother Absalom, exhibited leadership skills and charisma. As a parent, David, just as Eli and Samuel before him, had failed miserably by not restraining or disciplining his children (v. 6; 1Sa 3:13; 8:1–3).

1:9 En Rogel was located near Jerusalem where the Kidron and Hinnom valleys met. Its modern name is Bir Ayyub. Since En Rogel lies on the border between the tribal territories of Judah (Jos 15:7) and Benjamin (Jos 18:16), Adonijah’s location would have appealed to both sides. “Zoheleth” (Heb., lit. “crawling thing” or “serpent”) suggests the possibility that this rock had been used for pagan worship in the past. The use of foreign altars and high places was forbidden (Dt 7:5).

1:15 Bathsheba’s son Solomon was far from the oldest of David’s sons, since, when Bathsheba became David’s wife, he already had six children (2Sa 3:2–5). However, Bathsheba seems to have been David’s favorite wife. Her approach to him indicates the dignity and influence of a queen in Israelite society (see chart, The Queens of the Old Testament). Bathsheba had the king’s ear, but no real power. She approached her husband like any suppliant asking for favor.

1:24 The true place of a prophet is demonstrated in Kings. God’s plan for Israel’s government had three offices: A king to govern, a priest to approach God for the people, and a prophet to approach the people from God. Nathan exercised his proper function of reproving and guiding the king (see chart, The Prophets Who Spoke to Kings).

1:33 Gihon spring, the primary source of water for Jerusalem, is located in the Kidron valley. Solomon’s coronation procession would have been invisible but clearly audible to Adonijah’s party.

1:38 Solomon was proclaimed king. There was no accepted method of succession in Israel. David was only the country’s second king, and he had received the crown through prophetic anointing and conquest rather than through blood succession. Israel was accustomed to charismatic leadership, not a dynastic line, making it possible for someone with sufficient force and personality to stage a claim to the throne. Solomon had the royal troops on his side as well as prophetic anointing. The Kerethites and Pelethites were foreign mercenaries, probably of Philistine descent.

1:50 Grasping the horns of the altar was a time-honored means of seeking general asylum. The altar was one of Israel’s holiest objects (Ex 30:10). However, the altar did not provide asylum for every criminal. The purpose of this safety valve was especially for those guilty of an unintentional murder.

2:1 David and Solomon ruled jointly for a short time.

2:3 David articulated the main theme of Kings. Obedience to God’s law results in covenant blessing and God’s divine upholding of the Davidic line. The rest of the book shows how disobedience—specifically of the laws governing intermarriage, alliances with pagan nations, and idol worship—results in covenant curse and eventually in the overthrow of the monarch.

2:5–9 Because David was a man of war, he was forbidden to build the temple. Apparently, he did not wish to end his reign with still more bloodshed. Nevertheless, he did not intend for rebellious officials to trouble Solomon. Joab had been involved in the rebellion of Absalom and had frequently created embarrassing situations for David (v. 5). Shimei, a relative of Saul, had encouraged a return to Saul’s dynasty (v. 8). Barzillai, on the other hand, had supplied David with food after Absalom’s rebellion. David asked Solomon to reward the loyal support of Barzillai who had given him support when he was exiled at the time of Absalom’s revolt (v. 7).

2:10–12 This statement is an example of the formula used in Kings to summarize a king’s reign. The formula begins with the king’s death and burial, continues with the length of his reign and other information, and concludes with the accession of the next king.

2:19 Queen mother was a position similar to that of queen: Influence, but no power (see chart, The Queens of the Old Testament).

2:22 Adonijah’s request. In the ancient Near East, a king normally laid claim to the harem of his predecessor (2Sa 16:21–22). Adonijah’s request was treasonous and demonstrates that Abishag was legally David’s concubine.

2:26 Solomon merely exiled Abiathar because of his priestly status and because he had served his father David faithfully (2Sa 15:24,29; 1Ch 15:11–15). Solomon followed David’s instructions concerning Joab and Shimei (1Ki 2:5–6,8–9; see also vv. 31,34,42–46).

3:1 Solomon’s aim as king was to maintain the large kingdom David had conquered. Thus, his foreign policy primarily involved treaty-making rather than war. This marriage with an Egyptian princess shows the level of importance that Israel had reached. In addition, Egypt was weakening. This princess was probably the daughter of Siamun, of the weak 21st dynasty. The marriage was profitable for Solomon, resulting in a treaty and territory gained (1Ki 9:16). It also violated God’s prohibition of marriage with pagans (Dt 7:3; see 1Ki 11, Solomon’s Pagan Wives).

3:3 This was Solomon’s first breach of the law against idolatry (Dt 12:3).

3:4 Gibeon was a Canaanite city slightly northwest of Jerusalem. The tabernacle was there (2Ch 1:3). It was also the location of a great pagan shrine.

3:14 Obedience. Although Solomon was given supernatural wisdom, obedience to the covenant law was still necessary for him to take advantage of that gift.

3:16 Solomon’s wisdom in dealing with the harlots shows the extent of his justice. Women employed as prostitutes were considered the lowest and most powerless members of Israelite society; yet even they received a fair hearing before the king. This was the height of the monarchy. From this point, the administration of justice by the successive kings sinks slowly to the level of King Ahab, who ordered the murder of a poor man for his vineyard (1Ki 21).

4:7 The 12 districts for administration and taxation formed by Solomon did not follow tribal boundaries. Each district probably contained around 100,000 people and was expected to supply Solomon’s immense court with provisions for one month—a severe tax burden. Administrative officers Ben-Abinadab and Ahimaaz were Solomon’s sons-in-law (vv. 11,15).

4:20 Sand by the sea alluded to God’s promise to Abraham. God had fulfilled his side of the covenant. He had multiplied Abraham’s seed, brought them into a land of their own, subdued the nations, and put David’s line on the throne. Whether or not Israel would live up to its part in the covenant was uncertain, but God’s faithfulness to his part of the covenant was absolutely certain.

4:27 While David supported himself through his personal income and taxes on his foreign subjects, Solomon’s more lavish court put an ever-increasing tax burden on native Israelites, creating resentment (1Ki 12:4).

5:1 King Hiram of Tyre aided David’s construction of the royal palace and had a longstanding treaty with Israel (2Sa 5:11).

5:9 The logs probably came ashore on the Mediterranean coast north of Joppa, about 35 miles northwest of Jerusalem; they had to be hauled the remaining distance.

5:13 In order to build the temple, Solomon resorted to forced labor. David had demanded forced labor only from conquered peoples, but Solomon extended this policy to native Israelites. Able-bodied men were required to spend four months of the year working without pay for the king. This requirement was greatly resented by the people.

6:1 The temple was the fulfillment of the prophecy in which God promised to make a place for his name to dwell and the evidence of God’s promise to give Israel her own country (Dt 12:5). The settlement was not complete until Israel had a permanent place to worship God. The temple construction probably began in 966 BC.

6:23 The cherubim were angels whose specific function was to stand in the presence of God and reflect his glory. When Ezekiel saw God departing from the temple, the cherubim left as well (Eze 10). They were located in the inner sanctuary, the Most Holy Place, because God’s presence dwelt there (see chart, The Plan of Solomon’s Temple).

6:38 The temple was probably completed in 959 BC.

7:1 Solomon’s building program was a measure of his secular success and prosperity. Solomon built extensively, especially in Jerusalem, and later found himself in financial difficulty from his massive spending.

7:8 Pharaoh’s daughter, as the symbol of Israel’s most important foreign alliance, rated a palace of her own (1Ki 3:1, note; see also 1Ki 11, Solomon’s Pagan Wives).

7:13 Solomon’s trade agreement with Phoenicia allowed him to exploit the greater technical skill of the Phoenicians for his building projects. The phrase “filled with wisdom, with understanding and with knowledge” implies that Huram (also Hiram) of Tyre may have had an empowering from the Spirit of God to do his work.

7:21 The purpose of the pillars of bronze is unclear. However, such monuments were often built as memory aids, reminders of events in Israel’s history. Jacob erected such a pillar in memory of his covenant with God (Ge 28:10–19). The names of the pillars suggest that they were to remind the Israelites of God’s strength and sovereignty in establishing his people.

8:1 The ark carried through the wilderness by the children of Israel following the exodus had been at Gibeon awaiting a permanent residence (1Ki 3:4).

8:2 The Festival of Tabernacles is a time for Israel to remember God’s faithfulness in bringing them out of Egypt (Lev 23:34; see chart, The Festivals of Israel).

8:10 God selected a place for his name and a place where his people could come into his presence (Dt 12:5; see chart, The Plan of the Tabernacle). The cloud, signifying God’s presence, had formerly rested on the tabernacle of meeting, where the ark had been kept during the exodus (Ex 40:34–38).

8:25 In Solomon’s prayer of dedication, he realized the conditions of God’s promise (see chart, Solomon’s Prayer). Obedience brings blessing (Dt 28:1–14) and the perpetuity of David’s line (2Sa 7:12–16); sin brings the covenant curses (Dt 28:15–68). Solomon’s later actions stand condemned by his own words.

8:65 The Festival of Tabernacles was mandatory for all Israelite males (Dt 16:16; see chart, The Festivals of Israel).

9:3 God appeared again to Solomon with instructions (see 1Ki 3:14). The writer of Kings is emphasizing that Solomon knew the conditions and requirements of the law.

9:11 Solomon’s vast expenditure forced him to sell territory to Hiram in order to raise money (v. 14). This action probably occasioned some hostility among Solomon’s northern subjects. The relinquishment of northern territory by the Judean king would have been highly unpopular in Israel.

9:15 Military fortifications were built by Solomon in addition to building the temple and his own palace. Solomon strengthened the walls of Jerusalem and terraces upon which houses were built. He also turned strategically located cities into military bases. Hazor was in Galilee, near the newly conquered Arameans. Megiddo, one of the most strategic cities of Canaan, guarded the main pass through the Carmel mountain range. Gezer, along with Beth Horon (v. 17) and Baalath (v. 18), faced west across the plain on the Mediterranean’s shores. Tadmor’s location, though still disputed, is usually identified as modern Palmyra in the Syrian desert (v. 18). Each of these cities housed a sizable military force, including horses and chariots.

9:22 Solomon’s conscription of the Israelites was for temporary labor, not permanent enslavement (see 1Ki 5:13, note).

9:26–28 The seaport of Ezion Geber lay at the northern end of the Gulf of Aqabah. Archaeological research has revealed both copper and iron refineries at the site, now known as Tell el-Kheleifeh. The tell is two and one-half miles west of ancient Elath, now modern Aqabah. Solomon enlisted Phoenician help to construct a merchant fleet, which carried on an active trade with southern Arabia. Ophir may be the same as modern Somaliland.

10:1 The queen of Sheba was probably Sabean, ruling the area that is now eastern Yemen. This position allowed the Sabeans to control the trade routes stretching from southwestern Arabia northward into Canaan. The queen of Sheba intended to negotiate a trade agreement with Solomon; she was successful, since the listing of Solomon’s wealth includes merchandise “from all the Arabian kings” (v. 15; see also The Queen of Sheba).

10:22 Merchant ships carried goods through the Mediterranean Sea to supplement the goods brought by ships operating on the Red Sea, later the Gulf of Aqabah (1Ki 9:26).

10:28 Chariots were state-of-the-art weapons of war in the ancient Near East. Since Israel did not manufacture chariots, Solomon imported them from Egypt. He also used his monopoly on trade routes to profit from the chariot trade between Egypt and the Hittites and Arameans to Israel’s north.

11:1 Solomon broke God’s law by mingling with the pagans around him (Dt 7:1–5). Rather than leading the Israelites in maintaining separateness from the other nations, the king married foreign women, worshiped foreign gods (1Ki 11:5), made alliances with pagan kings, and even built pagan places of worship. From this point, Solomon began to experience the covenant curses (Dt 28:15–68). The writer of Kings indicates in the first two chapters that David was also guilty of these infractions on a smaller scale. David married foreign women, resulting in a household in disarray, and he included pagan mercenaries in his troops (1Ki 1:38, note).

11:13 Even in the face of Solomon’s disobedience, God remained loyal to his promise to David (2Sa 7:15–16).

11:14 The southern land of Edom had added to David’s kingdom early in his reign (2Sa 8:14). In God’s act of judgment on Solomon, these conquered people found favor with the pharaoh of Egypt, Sheshonq I. Solomon had previously held this alliance.

11:25 David had conquered Zobah and Damascus, adding Aramean territory to his own kingdom (v. 24; 2Sa 8:3–6). Solomon lost this northern area when Rezon began a new Aramean dynasty (see chart, The Kings of Aram).

11:26 Jeroboam was the head of forced labor for the tribes of Ephraim and Manasseh. These northern tribes became part of Israel when the kingdom divided. The widespread support for Jeroboam’s rebellion showed the level of discontent in Israel over Solomon’s reign. Years of heavy taxation and forced labor, along with preferential treatment of Judah, had completely alienated the northern tribes from the government in Jerusalem. While Solomon himself did not lose the kingdom, he lived to see the beginning of the schism; Jeroboam later became king of Israel (see chart, The Prophets Who Spoke to Kings).

11:40 Again Egypt helped Solomon’s enemies, reversing the country’s earlier treaties with Solomon. Shishak is usually identified as Sheshonq I.

12:18 Adoniram’s unsuccessful mission. Rehoboam, in an act of incredible stupidity, sent his chief of forced labor to Israel. Israel, still seething over Solomon’s imposition of forced labor, murdered Adoniram, and the split in the kingdom was final. Ten tribes rebelled; the tribes of Judah and eventually Benjamin were loyal to Rehoboam.

12:24 The final schism. Rehoboam did not attempt to reconquer Israel (see charts, The Prophets Who Spoke to Kings; The Kings of Israel and Judah). The effort would have been bloody and probably unsuccessful; much of Solomon’s carefully assembled military force was garrisoned in northern cities!

12:25 Jeroboam turned Shechem into his capital city and “fortified” it. Israel had no central government and no administrative structure at the time of the schism. Shechem would have pleased both the ten tribes and non-Israelites, since the city was not strongly associated with any one tribe. Jeroboam shrewdly also associated himself with Peniel, located on the site of Jacob’s struggle with the angel of God (Ge 32:30); the new king thus places himself in the line of great patriarchs.

12:28 Jeroboam moved from improper worship to idolatry. He did not feel that he could maintain his throne and allow the people to worship in Jerusalem. This change was in direct violation of God’s express command. Jeroboam also violated God’s laws by installing non-Levite priests (v. 31) and by changing the dates of Israel’s sacred festivals (v. 33; see chart, The Festivals of Israel).

13:2 The appearance of a prophet. Since no prophet in the north was found to deliver God’s Word, a prophet was sent to Jeroboam from Judah (see chart, The Prophets Who Spoke to Kings). He went right to the pagan altar where Jeroboam led in worship of false gods. There the “man of God” prophesied that a king from the lineage of David would come to cleanse the altar of its pagan sacrifices. This prophecy was fulfilled by King Josiah nearly three centuries later. The splitting of the altar signified that God invalidated the pagan sacrifices (v. 3).

13:18 Any prophet who commands disobedience, no matter how powerful, is a false prophet (Dt 13:1–5).

14:2 Shiloh had a long prophetic tradition. Located in Ephraim, north of Bethel, it was the site of the tabernacle during the time of Samuel.

14:4 The wife of Jeroboam may have been Egyptian, although the author of Kings does not describe her. The Septuagint (LXX), the oldest Greek translation of the OT, identified her as Ano, the daughter of Pharaoh Shishak.

14:9 Since Jeroboam had violated the law, his dynasty would not survive (see chart, The Prophets Who Spoke to Kings). Israel’s monarchy went through nine different dynasties before the country was conquered by Assyria. Jeroboam’s dynasty, the first, lasted only through the brief reign of his son Nadab (see chart, The Kings of Israel and Judah).

14:17 Tirzah, the Canaanite city to which Jeroboam had shifted the capital, like Shechem, was not associated with any one tribe. Modern Tell el-Farah, about seven miles northeast of Shechem, has been tentatively identified with Tirzah.

14:21 David’s descendants ruled Judah until the exile (see chart, The Kings of Israel and Judah). Judah’s royal family, although dynastically stable, alternated between kings who tolerated pagan practices and reforming kings who attempted to wipe out pagan worship.

14:24 Shrine prostitutes included males.

14:25 Divided, the empire rapidly dwindled. Damascus and the Philistine cities were lost; Moab probably declared independence at this time; and the Egyptians invaded Judah. Shishak (probably Sheshonq I), the first ruler of the 22nd dynasty, had earlier weakened Israel’s monarchy by sheltering Jeroboam (see 1Ki 11:40, note). Egyptian inscriptions reveal that Sheshonq leveled cities throughout Canaan. The invasion from the south extended eastward past the Jordan and northward all the way to Megiddo, 50 miles north of Jerusalem. The war so weakened Israel and Judah that neither had the military force to attack the other.

14:31 Abijah (Heb., lit. “my father is Yahweh”; 2Ch 12:16; see chart, The Prophets Who Spoke to Kings).

15:2 Maakah’s name suggests foreign blood (2Sa 14:27; 2Ch 13:2). She worshiped Asherah, a Canaanite fertility goddess (1Ki 15:13); the rites involved sacred prostitution. As the favorite of Rehoboam’s 18 wives, she was the mother of Abijah and the grandmother of Asa (vv. 9–10; see chart, The Queens of the Old Testament). Maakah apparently served as regent during Asa’s younger years, so that Judah suffered pagan rule for a time. She continued to hold a semi-official position at court until removed by Asa (v. 13).

15:13 The Kidron Valley is located between Jerusalem and the Mount of Olives. The Garden of Gethsemane was located near Kidron (Jn 18:1).

15:17 Ramah, now known as el-Ram, was located in Benjamin, about five miles north of Jerusalem. The city was Baasha’s frontier hold against Judah.

15:18 Ben-Hadad’s grandfather Hezion is called Rezon (Asa made an illegitimate alliance with Ben-Hadad of Aram (1Ki 11:23; see Dt 7:2; chart, The Kings of Aram). The Arameans then threatened Israel’s northeast border, distracting Baasha from the Judah-Israel boundary.

15:27 The succession in Israel. Israel’s throne was unstable because it lacked a divinely appointed royal line (see chart, The Kings of Israel and Judah). Anyone of high birth, possessing military power, or receiving prophetic anointing had a chance of claiming the crown (see charts, The Dynasties of Israel—Parts 1 and 2). When Jeroboam’s family dishonored God, Baasha assassinated Nadab during a battle against the Philistines. Baasha, although a commoner, had apparently been recognized by a prophet (see chart, The Prophets Who Spoke to Kings); he is called “king” (Heb. nagid, “ruler”).

15:33 The dynasty of Baasha lasted only one year after his death (1Ki 16:8–10; see chart, The Dynasties of Israel—Part 2).

16:9 Zimri had neither prophetic support nor charismatic appeal. His dynasty lasted seven days (see chart, The Dynasties of Israel—Part 1). Zimri’s sole function as king was to bring upon Baasha’s family the same fate that Baasha had inflicted upon Jeroboam’s family. The massacre also fulfilled the prophecy of Jehu, establishing him as a true prophet (see chart, The Prophets Who Spoke to Kings).

16:23 The family of Omri held the throne for four generations (see chart, The Dynasties of Israel—Part 1). Omri was an able politician who brought stability to an Israel suffering from internal conflict. Israel had lost territory to Aram, and Assyria was a growing threat. Omri married his son Ahab to Jezebel of Tyre (v. 31) and also matched his daughter Athaliah to Jehoram of Judah, creating two important alliances for Israel (see chart, The Queens of the Old Testament). He also conquered Moab. Despite these achievements, Omri is dismissed in six verses as an evil king; the historian is giving God’s point of view on Omri’s success.

16:24 Omri bought Samaria, a high hill, ideal for defense, proving that Israel’s prosperity had improved under his reign.

16:31 Violations of God’s law under Ahab reached new heights. Ahab’s pagan wife, Jezebel of Tyre, attempted to make the worship of Baal and Asherah official at court (see 1Ki 18, Jezebel). Ahab built a temple for Baal and worshiped him, and prophets of Baal were given official status (1Ki 18:19).

16:34 Jericho is in southern Israel between Jerusalem and Amman. Child sacrifice is specifically listed as an abomination to God (Dt 12:31). Joshua had earlier prophesied that Jericho would not be rebuilt without child sacrifice (Jos 6:26). As long as Israel obeyed God, Jericho would never be rebuilt; the rebuilt city stood as proof of Israel’s immense distance from God, and Hiel lost his eldest and youngest sons whether as a deliberate sacrifice or through an accident during the rebuilding process.

17:1 Elijah the Tishbite. Gilead was Israelite territory just east of the Jordan; the exact location of Tishbe is unknown. Elijah (Heb., lit. “Yahweh is my God”) upheld the claims of Yahweh against pagan gods. His first appearance established him as a true prophet; his first prophecy was immediately fulfilled (see Dt 18:22; chart, The Prophets Who Spoke to Kings).

17:9 Elijah’s flight. Sidon was in Phoenician territory on the coast north of Tyre. Zarephath was near this large city. Because Elijah’s identification with Yahweh put him out of favor with the Baal-dominated court, God showed Elijah that his divine providence would care for his prophet outside of the structure of Israelite society. When the drought became so severe that even the tributaries of the Jordan dried up, God provided for Elijah in a foreign country. He used the widow of Zarephath, a humble, poor woman without a husband and a native of Jezebel’s home country (see The Widow of Zarephath). God demonstrated to Elijah that the prophet’s well-being depended not on human society but on God alone.

18:3 Obadiah, from the northern kingdom, is probably not the same as the author of the Biblical book Obadiah. The book is generally thought to have been authored by a native of Judah.

18:4 Massacre of the prophets. Jezebel apparently possessed more power than most Israelite queens (see Jezebel). She exercised it by promoting the cause of Baal with missionary zeal. The writer of Kings contrasted the evil that this foreign woman did to the godly people of Israel by recording the righteous acts of the foreign widow of Zarephath (see 1Ki 17, The Widow of Zarephath).

18:17 Troubler of Israel. Ahab suggested that Elijah was seeking to do Israel harm. Elijah immediately reversed the charge: It was Ahab who had harmed Israel by his worship of evil spirits, Baal and Asherah.

18:20 Mount Carmel is near the coast, close to Phoenician territory. The confrontation reveals the true conflict within Israel. It was not between Elijah and Ahab but between Elijah and the prophets of Baal, between the true God and false gods. The prophets of Baal failed the test of true prophecy when their pleas were not answered; Elijah’s prayers were heard.

18:46 Jezreel was the second residence of Omri’s dynasty and is the modern Arab village of Zerin at the foot of Mount Gilboa and southeast of Nazareth midway between Megiddo and Beth Shan (or Beth Shean). This strategic valley divides Galilee from Samaria. It has been an important battle site throughout the centuries (see Jdg 4–7; 2Sa 4; 2Ki 9; 10; 22).

19:3 Elijah’s second flight. Beersheba is far into Judah, about 40 miles south of Jerusalem and nearly 100 miles from northern Jezreel. Again God provided supernaturally for Elijah’s needs (v. 5).

19:8 Horeb, another name for Mount Sinai, is located in the south central part of a peninsula in northwestern Arabia. The modern name for the traditional site is Jebel Musa.

19:9–13 Elijah’s experience with God on Mount Horeb is similar to Moses’ experience with God (see Ex 33). Elijah spent 40 days and nights traveling, apparently without food. Moses fasted during the 40 days and nights he spent on the same mountain. Elijah hid in a cave as Moses hid in the rocky cleft. In both situations, Israel had deserted God for pagan idols. Both men finally experienced God’s presence and were given a message from God.

19:15 Ben-Hadad, the king of Aram at this time, had already allied himself with Asa of Judah against Israel during the reign of Baasha. Aram had taken land in the north away from Israel and apparently continued to raid Israel during Ahab’s reign. God used Elijah to predict not only the end of Omri’s dynasty but the supplanting of Ben-Hadad by his general Hazael. Neither coup would occur for some years.

19:19 Elisha was the son of a well-to-do farmer; Abel Meholah has not been positively identified but probably lay in the fertile land around the Jordan in eastern Israel (v. 16). The passing of the mantle suggested anointing, just as anointing with oil indicated the appointment of a king. Although anointed, Elisha still had to undergo a discipleship. Jesus echoed the words of Elijah when he explained the cost of discipleship (Lk 9:61–62).

20:1 Because Ben-Hadad’s alliance with Asa against Israel took place some 30 years earlier, most scholars assume that this is his son, Ben-Hadad II (see chart, The Kings of Aram). Aram continued its raids into Israelite territory, and Ben-Hadad’s strength was so great that he could already address Ahab as a servant.

20:23 The Arameans recognized that divine intervention was responsible for their defeat; Ben-Hadad had gathered his numerous allies against Israel’s tiny army! They attributed Ahab’s success to the strength of Israel’s regional gods. Whether Aram thought God or Baal was responsible is not clear; God had triumphed on Mount Carmel, but Baal and Asherah were also worshiped on high places.

20:26 Aphek was probably just east of the Sea of Galilee, at the head of the Jordan. The city lay on a plain on the Aram-Israel border.

20:31 The use of sackcloth and ropes indicated more than simple surrender. Ben-Hadad’s men were acknowledging Ahab as master, a reversal of their earlier threats (vv. 1–6).

20:34 The treaty with Ben-Hadad was a move of desperation. Ahab did not think he could afford to lose Ben-Hadad’s help. Assyria was growing in strength. Under David and Solomon, Assyria had been confined to its own land. At the time of Ahab, the Assyrian king was Shalmaneser III. His father Ashur-nasir-pal had conquered westward into Philistine territory as well as northward into Babylonia. Shalmaneser III continued the expansion, fighting southward to the Persian Gulf and attempting to conquer all of western Asia. All western kingdoms were threatened, and none was strong enough to stand alone against Assyria. Ahab, by pardoning Ben-Hadad, supplied himself with an extra defense against Shalmaneser’s invasion. Ben-Hadad relinquished the territory lost to Aram by Baasha and opened trade routes for Israel.

20:35 The prophet and the lion. The “company of the prophets” were a community of prophets living together. In this brief incident, disobedience brought death; Ahab’s death was only delayed (see vv. 35–43; chart, The Prophets Who Spoke to Kings).

20:42 Alliances. Part of God’s condition in the conquering of the promised land was that pagan nations were to be destroyed (Dt 7:2). Foreign alliances, like foreign marriages, drew Israel away from reliance on Yahweh.

21:10 Jezebel had learned enough Jewish law to abide by the stipulation that no man could be put to death without two or three witnesses to his crime (Dt 17:6). She used this knowledge to break covenant law, not to abide by it. In Ahab’s reign, the oppression of the poor by the rich began, although it was later condemned by Amos. Jezebel’s marriage to Ahab is a worst-case example of violating the prohibition warning that foreign wives would turn Israel to other gods (Dt 7:4; see 1Ki 18, Jezebel).

21:19–26 Omri’s dynasty would meet the same fate as the dynasties of Jeroboam and Baasha (see charts, The Dynasties of Israel—Parts 1 and 2). Jezebel is specifically included in the curse due to her unusually prominent evil activity during Ahab’s reign (see 1Ki 18, Jezebel). The comparison to the Amorites puts Ahab in the same class with the Canaanites who inhabited the promised land before the exodus. Ahab, like those pagans, will be destroyed by God.

21:29 Ahab’s repentance. The end of the dynasty and Jezebel’s death were postponed until the reign of Joram, Ahab’s second son (2Ki 9).

22:1 War with Assyria. The Biblical account does not record the results of the Aramean-Israelite alliance. In 853 BC, the year of Ahab’s death, Shalmaneser III of Assyria invaded. The western armies, led by Ahab, Ben-Hadad and the king of Hamath, and including some Egyptian forces, faced the Assyrians at Qarqar on the Orontes River. In official Assyrian inscriptions, Shalmaneser claimed a decisive victory, but the Assyrians apparently were checked; Shalmaneser stayed out of Aram for several years.

22:3 Ramoth Gilead, east of the Jordan River, had belonged to Israel under Solomon (1Ki 4:13). Ahab apparently felt that the Aramean alliance had served its purpose.

22:5 The Davidic king of Judah upheld the true faith, removing idols and teaching the law to his people (2Ch 17:3–9). However, Jehoshaphat allied himself to the wicked house of Ahab by arranging for the marriage of his son Jehoram to Ahab and Jezebel’s daughter Athaliah (see 2Ki 11, Athaliah; chart, Relationships Between the Royal Families).

22:6 Ahab had no more prophets of the Lord in his court; the prophets in his court simply told him what he wanted to hear (see chart, The Prophets Who Spoke to Kings). Micaiah was one of the few prophets who still fulfilled the task of a true prophet in Israel, reminding Israel’s kings of covenant law and Yahweh’s true sovereignty.

22:11 Iron horns. Moses promised the tribes of Ephraim and Manasseh dominion over the earth in terms of a bull’s horns pushing back the pagan nations (Dt 33:17). The incongruity of Zedekiah claiming this blessing for a king who had shattered the law is unmistakable.

22:26 This Joash is not the boy king of Judah, who would not be born for another ten years, but probably a younger son of Ahab. The two families, related by marriage, shared several names (see chart, Relationships Between the Royal Families).

22:34 Ahab’s death. In light of the theme of Kings, God’s unfailing sovereignty in his dealings with his people, the phrase “at random” is a shining example of irony.

22:39 Ahab’s achievements included one of the most extensive building programs of any king in Israel. The “ivory palace” was probably at the capital, Samaria, where ivory has been found in excavations. Ahab’s foreign policy was highly successful as well. He recaptured Aramean territory, held off Assyria, and allied himself with Judah. The account of his reign in Kings focuses little attention on these secular accomplishments. In God’s eyes, Ahab was the worst of the kings of Israel because of his complete rejection of covenant law and his embracement of idolatry (1Ki 16:30).

22:47 The territory of Edom, southeast of Judah, had been a province of Judah since the time of David. The deputy in charge answered to Jehoshaphat.

22:48 Merchant ships. This effort to duplicate Solomon’s fleet by opening a trade route to Ophir was doomed; Judah could not recapture the golden days of the empire. Incidentally, Jehoshaphat refused Israel’s help in the venture, apparently having learned his lesson in the war against Aram. The prophets of the Lord in Judah advised Jehoshaphat against the alliance (2Ch 20:37).