Annotations for 2 Kings

1:1 Moab’s rebellion. Ahab’s son, Ahaziah, continued the wickedness of his father and accordingly received divine judgment. Moab had been a vassal state of Israel for two generations before seizing the opportunity to rebel against Jehoram at the time of Ahab’s death (2Ki 3:4–27). An account of this successful rebellion is inscribed on the Moabite Stone (discovered in 1868 near ancient Dibon and known also as the Mesha Inscription).

1:2 Baal-Zebub (Heb., lit. “lord of flies”) was a native Canaanite god (see also Mt 12:24). Ekron was a Philistine city near Israel’s southwestern border with Judah and Philistia and was conquered by Israel during David’s rule. The “upper room” is a reference to the typical Aramean balcony, usually enclosed with fragile lattice work, which gave an appearance of privacy.

1:3 The angel of the Lord sometimes refers to the pre-incarnate Christ. This instance is not clear. The phrase may merely refer to a messenger of Yahweh. God’s messengers operated in contradistinction to the messengers of the ungodly king.

1:8 The reference to a “garment of hair,” points to the similarity between Elijah and John the Baptist (see Mt 3:4). Elijah fulfilled the same task for Yahweh that John did for Jesus—calling the people to repentance (Mt 17:11–13; Lk 1:17).

1:10 The immediate fulfillment of Elijah’s word was another affirmation of his status as a true prophet (Dt 18:21–22; 1Ki 17:1, note).

1:17 The accession of Joram, Ahaziah’s younger brother. Due to the alliance between Israel and Judah (Joram’s sister Athaliah married Jehoram of Judah), the royal families shared several names (see chart, Relationships Between the Royal Families).

2:1 Gilgal was near the Jordan just north of the Israel-Judah border. The men of Israel who came out of the wilderness were circumcised (Jos 5:4–9), and Saul was made king there (1Sa 11:15), suggesting that the worship of Yahweh may have been a strong tradition in the city.

2:3 The company of the prophets is a reference to the prophets loyal to Yahweh. They were located at Jericho and Bethel. Bethel was established by Jeroboam as an alternate place of worship for Israel (1Ki 12:32). The company of the prophets lived in communities, perhaps wandering from city to city, supported by gifts from true worshipers and upholding the worship of Yahweh (2Ki 4:38–44).

2:9 Elijah was mightily endowed with the Holy Spirit. Elisha realized he could never follow in Elijah’s steps in his own strength. The humble Elisha asked for a “double portion” of Elijah’s spirit—for spiritual power beyond his own capabilities. This request could be a reference to the standard inheritance of the firstborn (see Ex 13:2, note; Dt 21:17). In any case, Elisha was seeking spiritual heirship because he realized the enormous task before him.

2:11 Elijah and Enoch never experienced death (see also Ge 5:24). The fiery chariot could have been part of some type of theophany. In any case, Elijah was translated immediately into the Lord’s presence.

2:18 Jericho, just north of the Israel-Judah border, was in the fertile Jordan plain. Joshua had pronounced a curse on the rebuilding of Jericho (Jos 6). Evidently, Elisha’s miracle reversed the judgment and gave new fertility to the region (2Ki 3:20–22). Salt was used in rituals of purification (see Lev 2:13; Nu 18:19).

3:4 The rebellion of Moab against Israel is recorded on the Moabite Stone (see 2Ki 1:1, note). Joram allied himself with Jehoshaphat of Judah and marched south through Judah, around the southern end of the Dead Sea, through Edom. Edom was at this time a province of Judah (1Ki 22:47). Although the war apparently ended in victory for Israel (2Ki 3:24–26), Moab’s loyalty to Joram was short-lived. The Moabite Stone reveals that Mesha later invaded eastern Israel, killing Israelites and settling Moabites.

3:25 Kir Haraseth, in southern Moab near the Dead Sea, was probably the largest city in Moab and may have been the capital.

3:27 Child sacrifice. Israel’s indignation and revulsion over this act may well have hindered them from carrying out God’s command to destroy Moab completely, just as the act may have rallied the troops of Moab. The Israelites lifted the siege and returned to their homes. Moab, though its power was momentarily broken, later invaded Israel as a direct result of Israel’s disobedience.

4:1 Under the dynasty of Omri, many poor Israelites were forced into debt and slavery, increasing among the people the rising resentment against the royal family.

4:8 Shunem, a city in central Israel, was apparently located on a main thoroughfare from north to south. This woman was part of a minority in Israel faithful to God and still observing some of the old festivals (v. 23).

4:34 The resurrection of the Shunammite’s son parallels Elijah’s resurrection of the widow’s son (1Ki 17:17–24). This miracle established Elisha as Elijah’s true successor.

4:38 The famine in Israel lasted seven years and was a judgment from God (2Ki 8:1). That it lasted more than twice as long as the famine during Elijah’s ministry suggests that Israel’s wickedness had increased (1Ki 18:1).

4:42 Baal Shalisha is located between Ephraim and Benjamin, near the Israel-Judah border (1Sa 9:4). “Baal” suggests that the town was named after the Canaanite deity who served as its protector. However, some Israelites still remembered the firstfruits offering (Lev 23:10–14). These offerings should have been presented to the priests (see Dt 18:1–6). This man brought the offering to the company of the prophets, suggesting that the prophetic community had unofficially assumed some of the duties of the priesthood, which was now totally corrupt (see 1Ki 12:25–31).

5:1 Aram, a large country northeast of Israel, had an unstable relationship with Israel (see chart, The Kings and Their Conflicts). The king during Naaman’s time was Ben-Hadad II (c. 860–841 BC), who had been Ahab’s ally against the Assyrian threat (1Ki 20:31–34). The two countries still fought over the border cities (1Ki 22:1–3) and raided each other’s territory (v. 2). During Jehoram’s weak administration, Aram grew more antagonistic. The battle over Ramoth Gilead, in which Ahab died, was in progress eight years later (2Ki 9:14). Still, the kings of Israel and Aram maintained some diplomatic relationship (2Ki 5:5–6).

5:17 Naaman requested soil from Israel so that he could worship Yahweh on Yahweh’s own ground or perhaps to use to build an altar in Aram. This suggests that although he was convinced that Yahweh was the one true God, he still viewed Yahweh has a limited local deity like his own gods. Naaman wanted land that belonged to the Lord in order to worship him. He showed his lack of understanding of Yahweh, yet a sincere desire to worship Yahweh.

5:18 Rimmon was the Aramean king’s chief god. The name (perhaps meaning “thunder”) suggests that Rimmon was a god of wind, rain and storms (see Zec 12:11).

5:20 Prophets were traditionally paid for their services. Ahab’s court prophets were supported by the crown. Saul expected to pay Samuel for his help (1Sa 9:7–8). True prophets often declined the fee (1Ki 13:7–8).

6:1 Godly prophets. Apparently, the number of those loyal to Yahweh was growing, since the community needed new quarters. Popular dissatisfaction with the idolatrous dynasty of Omri was increasing, as evidenced by the support given to Jehu’s rebellion (2Ki 9–10).

6:8 Aram’s attack. Clearly Israel’s relationship with Aram had deteriorated since the time that Naaman had traveled into Israelite territory. Joram had turned the army against him (2Ki 9:14–26; see chart, The Kings and Their Conflicts).

6:13 Dothan was in the region of central Israel later known as Samaria after its largest city. The city was on a well-traveled, north-south trade route. Israel’s army must have been in a weakened and disorganized state for Aram secretly to penetrate so far into Israelite territory. The temporary peace that resulted from this incident was due entirely to Elisha’s intervention, not Joram’s policies (vv. 21–23).

6:24 Ben-Hadad’s siege. Samaria was a large city near Dothan. At this time, it served as the capital of Israel (1Ki 16:24), and the royal family had a temple to Baal there (1Ki 16:32). The famine, coinciding with the Aramean siege, was a judgment on this idolatry.

6:30 Joram’s repentance. Sackcloth was the traditional sign of grief for sin, but clearly Joram blamed Elisha for the siege, not recognizing the siege as punishment for his own idolatry (v. 31).

6:33 The identity of the speaker is unclear. If the speaker is in fact Joram, whether or not he ever repented is not made clear elsewhere in the story. In addition, although Samaria is delivered, the judgment of famine remains during Joram’s reign (2Ki 8:1), suggesting that he continued unrepentant.

7:2 The officer was probably the commander of the army, if Israel’s military organization was similar to Aram’s. Naaman occupied this position for Ben-Hadad.

7:6 Hittites and Egyptians were rumored to have come to the aid of Israel as mercenaries. Such a threat from former allies must have heightened the fear of the Arameans, who immediately abandoned their camp and possessions.

8:3 The judgment of the famine led some Israelites to abandon their homes. Apparently, the famine was localized; Philistia is just south of Israel, between Judah and the coast. The royal family had claimed all deserted land, adding greatly to the crown’s wealth.

8:7–8 Hazael. God had given Elijah the command to anoint Hazael as king of Aram (1Ki 19:15; see chart, The Kings of Aram). This was to be part of the judgment on the family of Ahab. Hazael, who became king about 841 BC, would attack Israel from the north before he was besieged by the Assyrians (see chart, The Kings and Their Conflicts).

8:16 Joram of Israel, Ahab’s son, is also called Jehoram (2Ki 1:17; see chart, The Kings with Two Names); Jehoram of Judah is also known as Joram (2Ki 8:21). Verses 16–24 refer to the activities of the king of Judah. The two kings were brothers-in-law (see chart, Relationships Between the Royal Families).

8:18 The wife of Jehoram of Judah is Athaliah, who seized the throne after her son’s death (see 2Ki 11, Athaliah).

8:20 Edom, located southeast of Judah, had been conquered by David and had paid tribute to Israel (2Sa 8:14). Jehoram of Judah lost this territory. The loss meant that Ezion-Geber (the fortified seaport at the head of the Red Sea, known later as the Gulf of Aqabah) and the trade routes southward into Arabia were both unavailable to Israel. The lost trade opportunities brought severe economic consequences.

8:23 Jehoram of Judah may have reigned as coregent with his father Jehoshaphat for six years. His personal reign would then have lasted only two unsuccessful years (see chart, Relationship Between the Royal Families).

8:27 Ahaziah of Judah was also married to an Israelite princess. This unidentified woman was probably a daughter of Joram of Israel. Ahaziah also allied himself with the Israelite king against Hazael (see chart, The Kings and Their Conflicts).

8:28 Ramoth Gilead was on the Aram-Israel border. The Israel-Judah alliance against Aram had previously besieged Ramoth Gilead under Jehoshaphat and Ahab. Here the city is in Israelite hands, and the new king of Aram is attempting to recapture it (2Ki 9:14).

9:9 The dynasties of Israel since the schism were those of Jeroboam I, Baasha, and Omri (see chart, The Dynasties of Israel’s Kings—Part 1). Each dynasty proved unfaithful to God. Jehu was anointed not by Elisha, but by a lesser prophet; his role proved to be solely one of vengeance, since his own dynasty was also idolatrous (2Ki 10:29–31).

9:13 Jehu’s recognition. Because there was no stable dynasty in Israel, anyone with charisma, prophetic anointing, or popular support could seize the throne. Jehu apparently possessed all three. The military ineptness of Joram and Ahaziah had produced discontent in the army, and the widening gap between rich and poor in Israel, along with the worsening idolatry of the royal family, fueled popular discontent as well.

9:14 Joram or Jehoram of Israel was the son of Ahab (see chart, The Kings with Two Names). At this time he was at Ahab’s old capital, Jezreel (v. 15).

9:27 Ahaziah fled south but was overtaken by Jehu’s men at Ibleam, seven miles from Jezreel. When wounded, he turned north and finally died in Megiddo, ten miles north of Ibleam and almost 50 miles north of Judah.

9:30 Jezebel’s dress may refer to a style related to idol worship, or it may be a reference to royal adornment fitting a queen (see also Ex 30, Cosmetics in Scripture; Eze 16, Clothing). Jezebel was Tyrian and worshiped Baal Melqart (see 1Ki 18, Jezebel).

9:31 Zimri had commanded part of the army during the reign of Elah of Israel. He had murdered Elah and all his household, which was a fulfillment of prophecy (1Ki 16:8–13). Zimri reigned only seven days before being replaced by Omri, another army commander (see chart, The Dynasties of Israel’s Kings—Part 1).

10:14 Jehu, anointed to carry out God’s judgment on Israel’s royal house, extended the purge to Judah. The Davidic line was in danger of being corrupted and finally wiped out through its intermarriage with Ahab’s family (2Ki 11:1–3). Jehu’s execution of Ahaziah and his brothers prevented David’s family line from ultimate destruction.

10:15 Jehonadab’s father Rekab probably founded the Israelite group known as Rekabites. These men lived in tents and drank no wine. They were loyal to Yahweh. Jehonadab was mentioned as upholding the laws that were rapidly being forgotten in Israel (Jer 35:6–16).

10:25 Jehu was commended for destroying Baal worship. Nevertheless, a later word of the Lord to Hosea made clear that Jehu’s bloodshed was excessive (Hos 1:4).

10:35 Jehu carried out God’s judgment on Ahab and founded a new dynasty in Israel (see chart, The Dynasties of Israel—Part 2). However, Israel continued to shrink in size. The purge had alienated Phoenicia, Jezebel’s home country, and Judah. Without allies, Israel was too weak to fight off an Aramean invasion (see chart, The Kings and Their Conflicts). Jehu lost all the land east of the Jordan down to the border of Moab. Extra-Biblical sources confirm that during Jehu’s reign Shalmaneser III of Assyria made Israel a subject country (see chart, The Kings of Assyria). The Black Obelisk (discovered in 1846) shows that Jehu brought tribute to Shalmaneser.

11:1 Athaliah, the daughter of Ahab and Jezebel, attempted to wipe out David’s line (see Athaliah). However, as an Israelite she had no popular support in Judah; and as a non-Davidic ruler, who was also half Phoenician, she had no support from the Levitical priesthood.

11:12 The crowning of Joash was a turning point in Judah’s history. This Davidic king had a loyal priesthood and possessed the a copy of the covenant, the written law (see Dt 31:9–26; see chart, The Kings of Israel and Judah).

11:14 The pillar, if in the temple, was a testimony to God’s faithfulness and sovereignty (1Ki 7:15–22).

11:16 Athaliah’s death. Like the rest of Ahab’s family, Athaliah died ignominiously as prophesied (1Ki 21:24).

12:4 The temple, during the influence of Athaliah, had been looted and its treasure offered to Baal (2Ch 24:7). Under Mosaic Law, the priests were supported by food and guilt offerings, but the census and atonement money was to go for upkeep of the tabernacle (Ex 30:11–16). Before Joash, the priests had taken all the offerings. During his reign the proper balance was restored (2Ki 12:16).

12:17–18 Aram and Judah. After taking Israel’s land east of the Jordan, Hazael was strong enough to attack Judah (2Ki 10:32–33; see chart, The Kings and Their Conflicts). His southern border was now just north of Moab, giving him an easy route into Judah. By conquering Gath, a city on the Judah-Philistia border, Hazael was able to open a double-front war against Judah. Rather than fight as Jehu of Israel had, Joash (Jehoash; see chart, The Kings with Two Names) protected Judah by sending Hazael an enormous tribute.

12:20 Joash (Jehoash; see chart, The Kings with Two Names) is given no summary evaluation in Kings. He seemingly followed God only while Jehoiada continued as high priest (2Ki 12:2; 2Ch 24).

13:5 Deliverance from the Arameans. About 805 BC, the Assyrians, under their king Adad-nirari III, attacked Aram again (see chart, The Kings and Their Conflicts). By 802 BC, Hazael was a vassal of Assyria. By the time of Hazael’s son Ben-Hadad III, Aram no longer had the strength to keep Israel in subjection (see chart, The Kings of Aram).

13:6 The Asherah pole. Jehoahaz was a worshiper of Asherah, a Canaanite goddess. God delivered him, not because he was pleased with Jehoahaz, but rather in accordance with his promise to Jehu (2Ki 10:30).

13:7 The reign of Jehoahaz. The small number of men and horses indicates that Jehoahaz was now a vassal of the Aramean king (see chart, The Kings and Their Conflicts).

13:14 Jehoash of Israel. The phrase “the chariots and horsemen of Israel” also occurs at the time of Elijah’s ascension (2Ki 2:12), indicating that the prophet spoke the words of Yahweh.

13:17 Aphek was a city in the Plain of Sharon southwest of the Sea of Galilee (see 1Ki 20:26, note).

13:20 Israel’s preoccupation with the northern Aramean threat left the country vulnerable to raiders from Philistia to the west and Moab to the east.

13:21 Elisha’s bones. The physical bodies of Christ and his three great prophetic predecessors are given special attention in Scripture. Moses’ body was buried by God (Dt 34:5–6). Elijah’s body ascended into heaven (2Ki 2:11). Elisha’s body retained power after death (2Ki 13:21); and Christ’s glorified body was physical, yet heavenly (Lk 24:30–31).

13:25 Jehoash’s victory. Ben-Hadad III, preoccupied by Assyrian pressure, was not able to send his full force against Israel. Jehoash was thus able to regain some of the territory lost to Aram.

14:7 Amaziah reconquered Edom, lost by Jehoram. Sela has been tentatively identified with the famous ancient city of Petra, 50 miles south of the Dead Sea.

14:8 Amaziah fought Israel. The quarrel is explained (2Ch 25:5–24). Amaziah had hired Israelite soldiers to help him against Edom. When a prophet of God warned him not to employ Israelites, Amaziah sent them home. Insulted, they looted Judean towns on their return north.

14:12 Judah’s defeat under the godly Amaziah and the judgment on his righteous son Uzziah are linked with their incomplete purge of idolatry in Judah (2Ch 25:2).

14:22 Elath was located at the tip of the Red Sea (later the Gulf of Aqabah) on Edom’s southern border. Through this port city, Azariah (also known as Uzziah; see chart, The Kings with Two Names) was able to reopen trade routes to the south. Judah retained her hold on Edom during the conflict with Israel.

14:25 Jeroboam II was a highly successful politician and fighter (see chart, The Kings and Their Conflicts). Under him, Israel’s northern border returned to Hamath, where Solomon’s had been (1Ki 8:65). The southern border lay at the Dead Sea, implying conquest of Moab. Jeroboam may also have captured much Aramean territory (1Ki 14:28). Due to peace with Judah, trade to the south resumed. Archaeological evidence has revealed great prosperity and population increase during this time.

14:26 The condition of Israel. Despite its great prosperity, Israel was sick. The book of Amos reveals great oppression of the poor by the rich during Jeroboam II’s reign (Am 8:4–6), and paganism flourished (Am 2:7–8). The prophet Hosea painted a vivid picture of Israel’s unfaithfulness to God’s covenant during this time.

15:1 Azariah, also known as Uzziah, was as successful as his contemporary in Israel (see chart, The Kings with Two Names). He refortified Jerusalem and took territory from the Philistines (2Ch 26:6–10). He inherited control over Edom and built forts far into the southern deserts to protect Judah’s trade routes. Under Azariah and Jeroboam II, Judah and Israel together came close to reestablishing the borders of Solomon’s kingdom.

15:4 Despite Judah’s prosperity and peace, internal corruption reigned here as well as in Israel. The condemnatory oracles of the prophets Amos and Hosea were directed against Judah as well as Israel, and idolatry continued.

15:5 Azariah’s leprosy. Chronicles links Azariah’s leprosy to presumption; the king usurped priestly duties (2Ch 26). The writer of Kings ascribed it to a more general sin, a laxity in observing and enforcing God’s commands.

15:8 Israel after Jeroboam II. After the death of its strong leader, Israel fell apart. The country had already disintegrated socially (Hos 4:1–3; 7:1–7). Now it disintegrated politically as well. Zechariah reigned six months; his usurper lasted only one month (2Ki 15:13; see chart, The Kings of Israel and Judah). In approximately 25 years, Israel would be obliterated.

15:14 Menahem declared Tirzah, an ancient and beautiful Canaanite city strategically located along the trade route (see SS 6:4), to be Israel’s capital, as it had been until the days of Omri (see 1Ki 16:8–9). If Tiphsah, whose location is uncertain, is the same as Thapscus, on the Euphrates far north of Israel, Menahem’s attack was not against the Israelites (2Ki 15:16). Many scholars believe that the city in question is Tappuah, 15 miles north of Bethel in central Israel. In this case, Menahem began a savage civil war.

15:19 Pul, king of Assyria. Although this is the first time a king of Assyria is directly mentioned in the text, Assyrian attacks had already been weathered by Ahab and Jehu. Pul is Tiglath-Pileser III, an ambitious ruler who turned his attention to Assyria’s western frontier (see chart, The Kings of Assyria). Menahem of Israel paid tribute rather than resisting. This campaign probably occurred between 743–740 BC.

15:20 Ransom for Israel. Fifty shekels was the Assyrian price for a slave. Israelites had to pay this price to the Assyrians, or they would have been sold into slavery.

15:25 The presence of men of Gilead in Pekah’s band indicates that Israel once again was on friendly terms with Aram. Gilead lay between Israel and Aram, near Ramoth-Gilead.

15:29 Pekah’s revolt may have been supported by those who resented Menahem’s tribute to Assyria. Pekah adopted an aggressive attitude toward Assyria and was badly beaten. Israel lost all territory west of the Jordan, all Galilee to the far north, and Naphtali between the Sea of Galilee and the coast. The destruction extended to approximately 30 miles north of Samaria.

15:30 Tiglath-Pileser III probably refrained from completely destroying Israel due to the change in Israel’s leadership.

16:3 Ahaz of Judah violated the law (Dt 12:29–32). Child sacrifice to Molek was the most evil pagan practice.

16:5 The attack of Pekah on Judah was brought on by Ahaz’s refusal to join Israel and Aram in alliance against Assyria. The alliance, not wishing to have hostile fronts to both north and south, attempted to conquer Ahaz before attacking Assyria. This event is identified as the Aramean-Israelite crisis (735/734 BC; see Isa 7).

16:6 The loss of Elath as a seaport on the Red Sea (later the Gulf of Aqabah) meant the loss of a southern trade route and subsequent economic distress for Israel.

16:7–8 Ahaz not only allied himself with Assyria against Israel and Aram but also gave the temple treasure as tribute. The alliance made Judah a vassal of Assyria (see Dt 7:1–2).

16:9 Assyria and Damascus. Tiglath-Pileser III destroyed Aram in 732 BC and formed it into four Assyrian provinces.

16:10 The Assyrian religion in Judah. As a vassal of Assyria, Ahaz wanted to demonstrate his loyalty. He chose to worship Ashur, Assyria’s national god, in disobedience to God (Dt 4:15–40). He also used the altar of the Lord for divination (2Ki 16:15).

16:18 The king’s outer entrance. Tiglath-Pileser III forced Ahaz to close his private entrance into the temple, demonstrating that Ahaz was no longer Judah’s official spiritual leader.

17:3 Shalmaneser V. Tiglath-Pileser III, who had spared Hoshea, died in 727 BC (2Ki 15:29–30; see chart, The Kings of Assyria). Shalmaneser, his son and successor, continued to collect tribute from Israel.

17:4 Hoshea attempted to break away from Assyria with the help of Egypt. Egypt, however, was weak and in no condition to fight against Assyria.

17:6 Deportation. Sargon II, Shalmaneser V’s successor, took credit for Samaria’s ultimate downfall (see chart, The Kings of Assyria). He records in his annals that he carried away 27,290 inhabitants. He then rebuilt and resettled the territory (v. 24). Israelites were deported to Assyrian cities.

17:7–23 Israel’s sin. The writer of Kings reviewed Israel’s violation of the law: intermarriage and alliances with pagan peoples (Dt 7:1–11), improper worship of God (Dt 12:1–11) and the worship of idols (Dt 18:9–14).

17:24 Sargon II’s policy was to destroy national ties by moving conquered peoples into different lands. The foreigners resettled in Israelite territory became the ancestors of the people called Samaritans.

17:28 Religion in Israel. In a short time, Israel became populated with people of different religions (v. 41). Along with Babylonian and Mesopotamian gods, Yahweh was probably still worshiped by a few Israelites left in the land (v. 32). However, more Israelites followed the pagan practices of the new inhabitants (vv. 34–40).

18:3 Hezekiah was the most godly king of Judah since David. His purge of paganism was complete (v. 4).

18:7 The blessings of obedience were praised in the covenant law. Victory was promised to the nation that obeyed (Dt 7:16–24).

18:13 Assyria attacked Judah. Assyria had been involved elsewhere for some years; Sargon II, Sennacherib’s father, had led campaigns against Babylon, Carchemish and Egypt. Sennacherib himself faced a rebellious alliance that included Babylon, Egypt and parts of Phoenicia and Philistia. Hezekiah joined the revolt against the advice of Isaiah, who pointed out that an alliance with Egypt was against God’s command to avoid foreign alliances (Isa 30:1–5). In 701 BC, Sennacherib conquered Tyre and the Philistine cities in the alliance. According to Assyrian records, he then destroyed 46 of Judah’s own cities and captured 200,150 people. Archaeological excavations at Lachish, one of the cities conquered, have confirmed a conflict with many casualties.

18:15 Hezekiah’s tribute. Sennacherib divided Judah’s territory among his loyal vassals. He also demanded a huge tribute and took several of Hezekiah’s daughters as concubines. These punishments had been predicted (Dt 28:32–36).

18:17 The siege of Jerusalem. These verses may describe a second attack on Judah after a lapse of time. In this case, Hezekiah would have again attempted to rebel, taking advantage of unrest in Babylon and a new ally in Egypt (vv. 20–21).

18:18 Siege negotiations are described in more detail by Isaiah (Isa 36–37). Earlier in Isaiah, Shebna is condemned as unfaithful and Eliakim commended as worthy to supervise the house of David (Isa 22:15–25).

18:21 A splintered reed. The image of Egypt as a splintered reed is repeated (Eze 29:6–7). Judah could not resist turning to Egypt, God’s enemy, for help, but Egypt never gave true aid to Judah. Part of the covenant curse for disobedience is a return to Egypt in slavery (Dt 28:68). In Scripture, Egypt often occurs as a figure for various enemy nations. In this case, considering the domination of Egypt by the Babylonian Empire, the curse comes true literally (see 2Ki 24:7; 25:11).

18:25–35 A common tactic of warfare in the ancient Near East was to claim the favor of an opponent’s god.

19:8 Libnah and Lachish were Judah’s fortified frontier cities. The fact that Sennacherib was reconquering them has led some scholars to believe that the siege of Jerusalem took place in a second campaign against Judah (see 2Ki 18:17, note).

19:9 Tirhakah, king of Cush, took the Egyptian throne in 690/689 BC (the Egyptian throne was occupied by Ethiopian kings at that time) and immediately set out to fight the Assyrian threat. Sennacherib then marched south against Egypt, giving Jerusalem a temporary reprieve.

19:15 The mercy seat (covering) of the ark, God’s dwelling place on earth, was made with a cherub on either side.

19:28 Assyrian conquerors often led captives by means of hooks in their noses.

19:29 Isaiah’s prophecy appears to be that, although Assyria would occupy the land and reap its crops, Judah would not be entirely destroyed (see Dt 28:51). Like a plant that lies dormant, Judah would appear conquered but would again bear fruit (see Isa 11:1–11).

19:35 Assyria’s defeat. Sennacherib’s records make no mention of this event, but the Assyrians typically recorded only their victories. The ancient historian Herodotus recorded that the Assyrian camp was overrun by mice, driving the army away from Jerusalem and suggesting that the Assyrians attributed the deaths to a plague associated with rats. Sennacherib fought another five campaigns but never returned to Judah.

19:36 Nineveh, on the Tigris River far to Israel’s northeast, had been a Babylonian city until incorporated into the Assyrian Empire. Sargon II, Sennacherib’s father, made Nineveh his capital. Excavations at Nineveh have uncovered bas reliefs portraying Sennacherib’s siege of Judah.

19:37 Sennacherib’s death is a fulfillment of prophecy (v. 7).

20:11 The miracle of the shadow on the steps. Isaiah proved his trustworthiness as a prophet of God when the sign for which he asked came to pass (see Dt 18:22). No explanation has satisfactorily explained this phenomenon. Seemingly, its effect was confined to Judah. The incident was clearly an answer from God to confirm his mercy toward Hezekiah.

20:12 Babylon had also rebelled against the Assyrian overlords. Sennacherib had put down their rebellion in 689 BC, but Babylon and Elam again revolted against Esarhaddon. Hezekiah would have been sorely tempted to ally himself once more with a rebellion against Assyria.

20:17 Judgment on Hezekiah. Although a righteous man, Hezekiah persisted in making forbidden foreign alliances.

20:20 Hezekiah’s building program. The pool, connected to the spring of Gihon by the Siloam tunnel, was built by Hezekiah in preparation for Sennacherib’s siege of Jerusalem. Two teams worked with hand tools from opposite ends, directed by someone from above, until they met in the center. This tunnel runs through solid rock almost 600 yards. It was uncovered in 1880, and people continue to wade through its narrow and circuitous route.

21:3 Manasseh broke every law against idol worship. He built high places and Baal altars, dealt with spiritualists, and sacrificed his son to Molek. Further, he played the part of a loyal vassal by worshiping Assyrian gods and defiling the temple (vv. 3,5).

21:5 Worship in Judah. At this time, Judah was in danger of polytheism, worshiping a whole array of gods, with Yahweh at their head. God’s heavenly host could easily be confused with the Assyrian pantheon. Manasseh’s evil brought negative consequences (see 2Ki 24:3).

21:18 Manasseh’s death. Assyria spared Judah during Manasseh’s life because he willingly subjected Judah to Esarhaddon. Assyrian records reveal that Manasseh contributed to Esarhaddon’s building campaigns. He also allied himself with Esarhaddon’s successor, Ashurbanipal, to fight against Egypt.

22:1 Josiah’s accession. During the days of Josiah, Judah was a free country. The Assyrian ruler was Ashurbanipal. Babylon, always restless under Assyrian rule, had once again revolted. While Assyria managed temporarily to subdue Babylon in 648 BC, the war, plus the pressures of invading Scythians and the growing power of the Medes in the east, left Assyria no resources to deal with Judah.

22:3–7 Josiah took advantage of Assyrian absence to cleanse the country of Manasseh’s foreign idols. The official Assyrian cult was rejected, and Manasseh’s damage to the temple was repaired (2Ki 21:5,7).

22:8 The Book of the Law is probably the entire Pentateuch. This would have been the official copy, deposited in the temple and somehow covered over or hidden during changes made there by idolatrous kings. The time of the law’s disappearance is unknown. Presumably one of Judah’s wicked kings destroyed all the copies that were not hidden.

22:14–20 Huldah was probably an official member of the royal court. Her faithful prophecy confirms God’s Word: Idolatry brings judgment (v. 17; see also Dt 28:15). Huldah’s husband Shallum (son of Tokhath, 2Ch 34:22) has the same name as Jeremiah’s uncle (Jer 32:7); the two men may be the same.

23:7 Male prostitutes were attached to various Canaanite cults (see 1Ki 14:24, note).

23:10 Topheth. Solomon had built an altar to Molek in Topheth (Heb., lit. “the burning place”), which is in the valley of Hinnom below the hill of Zion. There human sacrifices were offered to Molek (1Ki 11:7). Presumably, Ahaz and Manasseh made use of the place when they sacrificed their sons to that god (2Ki 16:3; 21:6).

23:11 Worship of the sun god Chemosh may have been related to worship of the “host of heaven.” It was conducted on rooftops (v. 12; Jer 19:13).

23:13 The Hill of Corruption or Mount of Olives is here used as a high place. It is on the east side of Jerusalem, separated from the city by the Kidron Valley. The gods being worshiped there were Canaanite; Chemosh is the sun god, and Molek is the “detestable god of the people of Ammon.”

23:19 Reform in Samaria. While Assyria was occupied with Babylon, Josiah reconquered much of Israel’s territory and added it to Judah. He also retook some Philistine land. He was killed at Megiddo in northern Israel, indicating that he was moving into Galilee as well.

23:29 Josiah ruled until about 609 BC. Assyria had been driven out of Babylon in 612 BC. The Assyrian capital then moved to Haran, which was likewise attacked by the Babylonians in 610 BC. Egypt, seeing Babylon about to take possession of Israel and Judah, marched north to fight on Assyria’s side. Josiah hoped to keep Judah’s independence from all three kingdoms. He intercepted Pharaoh Necho on his way to Haran but was killed. However, the delay of Egyptian reinforcements allowed the Babylonian king Nabopolassar finally to destroy the remains of the Assyrian Empire. Judah now lay between a hostile Babylon to the north and a strong Egypt to the south.

23:33 During the reign of Jehoahaz, Egypt claimed ownership of Judah. The country was never free again.

23:34 The renaming of Eliakim (Jehoiakim) indicates mastery. Jehoiakim paid a vassal’s tribute to Egypt.

24:1 The rise of Babylon. In 605 BC, the Egyptians and the Babylonians fought at the Euphrates River. The Babylonian army, under Nabopolassar’s son and coregent Nebuchadnezzar II, crushed the Egyptians at Carchemish, far to Judah’s north, and drove south. By 604, Babylon was in Philistia. By 603 BC, Jehoiakim paid tribute to Babylon.

24:1–2 Jehoiakim rebelled against Nebuchadnezzar around 598 BC. The Babylonians, Arameans, Moabites, and Ammonites were mercenaries of Nebuchadnezzar (see also 2Ki 25:4–5). In the meantime, Nebuchadnezzar began to march south toward Jerusalem.

24:10 The siege of Jerusalem. During the rebellion, Jehoiakim died and was succeeded by Jehoiachin (v. 6). No Egyptian help came, and Jerusalem was captured in 597 BC (v. 7).

24:12 The first deportation. Nebuchadnezzar took the cream of Judah’s society captive, while raiding Jerusalem for treasure. Daniel was taken into captivity around this time.

25:6 Riblah, located on the Orontes River, was along a major trade route. Nebuchadnezzar used the site for his military operations.

25:9 The destruction of the temple. Since God’s people did not honor the place where he had set his name, God allowed it to be destroyed (Dt 12:5). He also allowed the bronze pillars that commemorated his establishment of Israel to be taken away (2Ki 25:13,17; see also 1Ki 7:21).

25:22 Judah became part of Babylon’s provincial system. An inscription found at Lachish identified Gedaliah as the former prime minister under Zedekiah; he was made governor under Nebuchadnezzar.

25:23 Mizpah. Because Jerusalem was uninhabitable, the government was moved to Mizpah, where Saul had been proclaimed king (1Sa 10:17–19).

25:24 The Babylonians were the dominant ethnic group within the Babylonian Empire.

25:25–26 Gedaliah’s appointment had probably been Nebuchadnezzar’s gesture of goodwill toward those still living in Judah. However, Gedaliah was hated by the people as a traitor because of his official status. He was assassinated, along with a Babylonian garrison, in Mizpah. Many of Judah’s inhabitants, afraid of reprisal, then fled to Egypt (Jer 42–43). After the exile, which began in 586 BC, Judah was probably incorporated into the province of Samaria. All fortified cities had been completely destroyed. The population of Judah, which had reached a high of about 250,000 in the eighth century, fell below 20,000. Meanwhile, Israelite-Canaanite descendants in the north practiced a mixture of paganism and Yahwehism.

25:27 Jehoiachin’s release. Although God’s people disobeyed him and brought exile upon themselves, a descendant of David remained alive. Awel-Marduk, the son of Nebuchadnezzar, gave Jehoiachin a semi-official position at court. The book ends with hope even in the midst of despair. God’s judgment had to come, but even in judgment, God’s mercy was abundant as a foretaste of the nation’s future deliverance according to God’s promise (Jer 31:18; La 5:21).