Notes

PROLOGUE

1. Ryan Gabrielson, Ryann Grochowski Jones, and Eric Sagara, “Deadly Force, in Black and White,” ProPublica, October 10, 2014; Rakesh Kochhar and Richard Fry, “Wealth Inequality Has Widened Along Racial, Ethnic Lines Since End of Great Recession,” December 12, 2014, Pew Research Center, www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2014/12/12/racial-wealth-gaps-great-recession; Sabrina Tavernise, “Racial Disparities in Life Spans Narrow, but Persist,” New York Times, July 18, 2013, www.nytimes.com/2013/07/18/health/racial-disparities-in-life-spans-narrow-but-persist.html.

2. Leah Sakala, “Breaking Down Mass Incarceration in the 2010 Census: State-by-State Incarceration Rates by Race/Ethnicity,” Prison Policy Initiative, May 28, 2014, www.prisonpolicy.org/reports/rates.html; Matt Bruenig, “The Racial Wealth Gap,” American Prospect, November 6, 2013, http://prospect.org/article/racial-wealth-gap.

3. Senator Jefferson Davis, April 12, 1860, 37th Cong., 1st sess., Congressional Globe 106, 1682.

4. Gunnar Myrdal, An American Dilemma, vol. 2, The Negro Problem and Modern Democracy (New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Publishers, 1996), 928–929.

5. Audre Lorde, “Age, Race, Class, and Sex: Women Redefining Difference,” in Sister Outsider: Essays & Speeches (New York: Ten Speed, 2007), 115.

6. Columbia anthropologist and assimilationist Ruth Benedict was instrumental in defining racism. See Ruth Benedict, Race: Science and Politics (New York: Modern Age Books, 1940); Ruth Benedict, Race and Racism (London: G. Routledge and Sons, 1942).

7. Kimberlé Crenshaw, “Demarginalizing the Intersection of Race and Sex: A Black Feminist Critique of Antidiscrimination Doctrine, Feminist Theory, and Antiracist Politics,” University of Chicago Legal Forum 140 (1989): 139–167.

CHAPTER 1: HUMAN HIERARCHY

1. Richard Mather, Journal of Richard Mather: 1635, His Life and Death, 1670 (Boston: D. Clapp, 1850), 27–28; “Great New England Hurricane of 1635 Even Worse Than Thought,” Associated Press, November 21, 2006.

2. Kenneth Silverman, The Life and Times of Cotton Mather (New York: Harper and Row, 1984), 3–4.

3. Samuel Eliot Morison, The Founding of Harvard College (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1935), 242–243; Richard Mather et al., The Whole Booke of Psalmes Faithfully Translated into English Metre (Cambridge, MA: S. Daye, 1640); John Cotton, Spiritual Milk for Boston Babes in Either England (Boston: S. G., for Hezekiah Usher, 1656); Christopher J. Lucas, American Higher Education: A History, 2nd ed. (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2006), 109–110; Frederick Rudolph, Curriculum: A History of the American Undergraduate Course of Study Since 1636 (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1977), 29–30.

4. Francisco Bethencourt, Racisms: From the Crusades to the Twentieth Century (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2013), 3, 13–15; David Goldenberg, “Racism, Color Symbolism, and Color Prejudice,” in The Origins of Racism in the West, ed. Miriam Eliav-Feldon, Benjamin Isaac, and Joseph Ziegler (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2009), 88–92; Aristotle, edited and translated by Ernest Barker, The Politics of Aristotle (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1946), 91253b; Peter Garnsey, Ideas of Slavery from Aristotle to Augustine (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1996), 114.

5. Hugh Thomas, The Slave Trade: The Story of the Atlantic Slave Trade, 1440–1870 (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1997), 27, 30; Garnsey, Ideas of Slavery from Aristotle to Augustine, 75, 79.

6. Alden T. Vaughan, Roots of American Racism: Essays on the Colonial Experience (New York: Oxford University Press, 1995), 157. Unless otherwise noted, emphasis is in original.

7. Joseph R. Washington, Anti-Blackness in English Religion, 1500–1800 (New York: E. Mellen Press, 1984), 232–235; Vaughan, Roots of American Racism, 157, 177–179; Lorenzo J. Greene, The Negro in Colonial New England, 1620–1776 (New York: Columbia University Press, 1942), 15–17; Craig Steven Wilder, Ebony & Ivy: Race, Slavery, and the Troubled History of America’s Universities (New York: Bloomsbury Press), 29.

8. John G. Jackson, Introduction to African Civilizations (Secaucus, NJ: Citadel Press, 1970), 196–231; Curtis A. Keim, Mistaking Africa: Curiosities and Inventions of the American Mind, 3rd ed. (Boulder: Westview Press, 2014), 38; Adrian Cole and Stephen Ortega, The Thinking Past: Questions and Problems in World History to 1750, instructor’s ed. (New York: Oxford University Press, 2015), 370–371.

9. Ross E. Dunn, The Adventures of Ibn Battuta, a Muslim Traveler of the Fourteenth Century (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1986), 315–316.

10. Ibn Khaldūn, Franz Rosenthal, and N. J. Dawood, The Muqaddimah: An Introduction to History, Bollingen Series (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1969), 11, 57–61, 117; Gary Taylor, Buying Whiteness: Race, Culture, and Identity from Columbus to Hip Hop, Signs of Race (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2005), 222–223.

11. Thomas, Slave Trade, 38–39.

CHAPTER 2: ORIGINS OF RACIST IDEAS

1. P. E. Russell, Prince Henry “the Navigator”: A Life (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2000), 6.

2. Ibid., 249; Gomes Eanes de Zurara, Charles Raymond Beazley, and Edgar Prestage, Chronicle of the Discovery and Conquest of Guinea, 2 vols. (London: Printed for the Hakluyt Society, 1896), 1, 6, 7, 29.

3. William McKee Evans, Open Wound: The Long View of Race in America (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2009), 17–18.

4. Thomas, Slave Trade, 22–23.

5. Zurara et al., Chronicle, 81–85; Russell, Prince Henry “the Navigator”, 240–247, 253, 257–259.

6. Thomas, Slave Trade, 74; Zurara et al., Chronicle, xx–xl; Russell, Prince Henry “the Navigator”, 246.

7. Zurara et al., Chronicle, lv–lviii; Bethencourt, Racisms, 187.

8. Thomas, Slave Trade, 71, 87.

9. Lawrence Clayton, “Bartolomé de Las Casas and the African Slave Trade,” History Compass 7, no. 6 (2009): 1527.

10. Thomas, Slave Trade, 50, 104, 123; Bethencourt, Racisms, 177–178; David M. Traboulay, Columbus and Las Casas: The Conquest and Christianization of America, 1492–1566 (Lanham, MD: University Press of America, 1994), 58–59.

11. Lawrence A. Clayton, Bartolomé de Las Casas: A Biography (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2012), 349–353, 420–428; Bethencourt, Racisms, 233; Peter N. Stearns, Sexuality in World History (New York: Routledge, 2009), 108.

12. Leo Africanus, John Pory, and Robert Brown, The History and Description of Africa, 3 vols. (London: Hakluyt Society, 1896), 130, 187–190.

13. Washington, Anti-Blackness, 105–111; Thomas, Slave Trade, 153–159.

CHAPTER 3: COMING TO AMERICA

1. Charles de Miramon, “Noble Dogs, Noble Blood: The Invention of the Concept of Race in the Late Middle Ages,” in The Origins of Racism in the West, ed. Miriam Eliav-Feldon, Benjamin H. Isaac, and Joseph Ziegler (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2009), 200–203; Stearns, Sexuality in World History, 108; Winthrop D. Jordan, White over Black: American Attitudes Toward the Negro, 1550–1812 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1968), 28–32.

2. Taylor, Buying Whiteness, 222–223; Washington, Anti-Blackness, 113–114.

3. Edmund S. Morgan, American Slavery, American Freedom: The Ordeal of Colonial Virginia (New York: W. W. Norton, 1975), 14–17; Washington, Anti-Blackness, 146–154.

4. Everett H. Emerson, John Cotton (New York: Twayne, 1965), 18, 20, 37, 88, 98, 100, 108–109, 111, 131; Washington, Anti-Blackness, 174–182.

5. Washington, Anti-Blackness, 196–200.

6. Taylor, Buying Whiteness, 224.

7. Anthony Gerard Barthelemy, Black Face, Maligned Race: The Representation of Blacks in English Drama from Shakespeare to Southerne (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1987), 72–73, 91–93; Bethencourt, Racisms, 98–99.

8. Jordan, White over Black, 37–40.

9. Tim Hashaw, The Birth of Black America: The First African Americans and the Pursuit of Freedom at Jamestown (New York: Carroll and Graf, 2007), 3–11.

10. Paul Lewis, The Great Rogue: A Biography of Captain John Smith (New York: D. McKay, 1966), 57–150; Wilder, Ebony & Ivy, 33.

11. Ronald T. Takaki, A Different Mirror: A History of Multicultural America (Boston: Little, Brown, 1993), 26–29.

12. Lewis, Great Rogue, 2, 244–257; Vaughan, Roots of American Racism, 304–305.

13. Jordan, White over Black, 33; Tommy Lee Lott, The Invention of Race: Black Culture and the Politics of Representation (Malden, MA: Blackwell, 1999), 9; Takaki, Different Mirror, 51–53; Washington, Anti-Blackness, 15, 154–157; Vaughan, Roots of American Racism, 164; Taylor, Buying Whiteness, 221–229.

14. Jackson, Introduction to African Civilizations, 217–218.

15. Hashaw, Birth of Black America, xv–xvi.

16. Jon Meacham, Thomas Jefferson: The Art of Power (New York: Random House, 2012), 5.

17. Vaughan, Roots of American Racism, 130–134; Paula Giddings, When and Where I Enter: The Impact of Black Women on Race and Sex in America (New York: W. Morrow, 1984), 35.

18. Cedric B. Cowing, The Saving Remnant: Religion and the Settling of New England (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1995), 18–19; Washington, Anti-Blackness, 191–196, 240–241; Francis D. Adams and Barry Sanders, Alienable Rights: The Exclusion of African Americans in a White Man’s Land, 1619–2000 (New York: HarperCollins, 2003), 8–9.

19. Morgan, American Slavery, American Freedom, 225, 319.

20. Taunya Lovell Banks, “Dangerous Woman: Elizabeth Key’s Freedom Suit—Subjecthood and Racialized Identity in Seventeenth Century Colonial Virginia,” Akron Law Review 41, no. 3 (2008): 799–837; Warren M. Billings, “The Cases of Fernando and Elizabeth Key: A Note on the Status of Blacks in Seventeenth Century Virginia,” William and Mary Quarterly 30, no. 3 (1973): 467–474; Anthony S. Parent, Foul Means: The Formation of a Slave Society in Virginia, 1660–1740 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2003), 110–111.

21. Thomas, Slave Trade; Thomas C. Holt, Children of Fire: A History of African Americans (New York: Hill and Wang, 2010), 60–61.

22. Warren M. Billings, ed., The Old Dominion in the Seventeenth Century: A Documentary History of Virginia, 1606–1689 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1975), 172; Morgan, American Slavery, American Freedom, 311; Parent, Foul Means, 123.

23. Morgan, American Slavery, American Freedom, 334–336.

24. Derek Hughes, Versions of Blackness: Key Texts on Slavery from the Seventeenth Century (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2007), vii–xi, 5–17.

25. Sharon Block, “Rape and Race in Colonial Newspapers, 1728–1776,” Journalism History 27, no. 4 (2001–2002): 146, 149–152.

26. Greene, The Negro in Colonial New England, 165; Stephan Talty, Mulatto America: At the Crossroads of Black and White Culture: A Social History (New York: HarperCollins, 2003), 52–53.

27. Richard Ligon and Karen Ordahl Kupperman, A True and Exact History of the Island of Barbados (Indianapolis: Hackett, 2011), vi; Cotton Mather, Samuel Mather, and Edmund Calamy, Memoirs of the Life of the Late Reverend Increase Mather (London: J. Clark and R. Hett, 1725), 66; Taylor, Buying Whiteness, 270–273.

28. Taylor, Buying Whiteness, 271–294.

29. Ibid., 296–300.

CHAPTER 4: SAVING SOULS, NOT BODIES

1. Washington, Anti-Blackness, 455–456; Greene, The Negro in Colonial New England, 275; Jeffrey Robert Young, “Introduction,” in Proslavery and Sectional Thought in the Early South, 1740–1829: An Anthology, ed. Jeffrey Robert Young (Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 2006), 19–21; Brycchan Carey, From Peace to Freedom: Quaker Rhetoric and the Birth of American Antislavery, 1657–1761 (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2012), 7–8.

2. Richard Baxter, A Christian Directory (London: Richard Edwards, 1825), 216–220.

3. Morgan, American Slavery, American Freedom, 311–312; Adams and Sanders, Alienable Rights, 10; Billings, Old Dominion in the Seventeenth Century, 172–173.

4. Ann Talbot, “The Great Ocean of Knowledge”: The Influence of Travel Literature on the Work of John Locke (Leiden: Brill, 2010), 3–4; Taylor, Buying Whiteness, 334.

5. R. S. Woolhouse, Locke: A Biography (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2007), 98, 276; Young, “Introduction,” 18.

6. Charles F. Irons, The Origins of Proslavery Christianity: White and Black Evangelicals in Colonial and Antebellum Virginia (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2008), 28–29; David R. Roediger, How Race Survived U.S. History: From Settlement and Slavery to the Obama Phenomenon (London: Verso, 2008), 10; Taylor, Buying Whiteness, 313–323; Hughes, Versions of Blackness, 344–348; Parent, Foul Means, 240–241.

7. Washington, Anti-Blackness, 460–461; Hildegard Binder-Johnson, “The Germantown Protest of 1688 Against Negro Slavery,” Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography 65 (1941): 151; Katharine Gerbner, “‘We Are Against the Traffik of Men-Body’: The Germantown Quaker Protest of 1688 and the Origins of American Abolitionism,” Pennsylvania History: A Journal of Mid-Atlantic Studies 74, no. 2 (2007): 159–166; Thomas, Slave Trade, 458; “William Edmundson,” The Friend: A Religious and Literary Journal 7, no. 1 (1833): 5–6.

8. Wilder, Ebony & Ivy, 40.

9. Takaki, Different Mirror, 63–68; Parent, Foul Means, 126–127, 143–146; Roediger, How Race Survived U.S. History, 19–20; Morgan, American Slavery, American Freedom, 252–270, 328–329.

10. Silverman, Life and Times of Cotton Mather; Tony Williams, The Pox and the Covenant: Mather, Franklin, and the Epidemic That Changed America’s Destiny (Naperville, IL: Sourcebooks, 2010), 34.

11. Robert Middlekauff, The Mathers: Three Generations of Puritan Intellectuals, 1596–1728 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1971), 198–199; Ralph Philip Boas and Louise Schutz Boas, Cotton Mather: Keeper of the Puritan Conscience (Hamden, CT: Archon Books, 1964), 27–31.

12. Greene, The Negro in Colonial New England, 237; Silverman, Life and Times of Cotton Mather, 31, 36–37, 159–160.

13. Silverman, Life and Times of Cotton Mather, 15–17.

14. Morgan, American Slavery, American Freedom, 314; Taylor, Buying Whiteness, 269.

15. Silverman, Life and Times of Cotton Mather, 41.

16. Slep Stuurman, “Francois Bernier and the Invention of Racial Classification,” History Workshop Journal 50 (2000): 1–2; Francois Bernier, “A New Division of the Earth,” History Workshop Journal 51 (2001): 247–250.

CHAPTER 5: BLACK HUNTS

1. Silverman, Life and Times of Cotton Mather, 55–72.

2. Ibid., 53–79.

3. Washington, Anti-Blackness, 273; Silverman, Life and Times of Cotton Mather, 84–85.

4. Taylor, Buying Whiteness, 306–307; Thomas, Slave Trade, 454; Hughes, Versions of Blackness, xi–xii; Jordan, White over Black, 9, 27–28; Washington, Anti-Blackness, 228–229.

5. Philip Jenkins, Intimate Enemies: Moral Panics in Contemporary Great Britain (New York: Aldine de Gruyter, 1992), 3–5; Silverman, Life and Times of Cotton Mather, 84–85.

6. Edward J. Blum and Paul Harvey, The Color of Christ: The Son of God & the Saga of Race in America (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2012), 20–21, 27, 40–41; Silverman, Life and Times of Cotton Mather, 88–89.

7. Charles Wentworth Upham, Salem Witchcraft; with an Account of Salem Village, a History of Opinions on Witchcraft and Kindred Subjects, vol. 1 (Boston: Wiggin and Lunt, 1867), 411–412; Blum and Harvey, The Color of Christ, 27–28; Boas and Boas, Cotton Mather, 109–110.

8. Silverman, Life and Times of Cotton Mather, 94; Williams, The Pox and the Covenant, 38; Boas and Boas, Cotton Mather, 89.

9. Boas and Boas, Cotton Mather, 119.

10. Silverman, Life and Times of Cotton Mather, 83–120; Thomas N. Ingersoll, “‘Riches and Honour Were Rejected by Them as Loathsome Vomit’: The Fear of Leveling in New England,” in Inequality in Early America, ed. Carla Gardina Pestana and Sharon Vineberg Salinger (Hanover, NH: University Press of New England, 1999), 46–54.

11. Washington, Anti-Blackness, 185–186, 257, 280–281; Daniel K. Richter, “‘It Is God Who Had Caused Them to Be Servants’: Cotton Mather and Afro-American Slavery in New England,” Bulletin of the Congregational Library 30, no. 3 (1979): 10–11; Greene, The Negro in Colonial New England, 265–267.

12. Washington, Anti-Blackness, 184–185, 273–277.

13. Cotton Mather, Diary of Cotton Mather, 1681–1724, 2 vols., vol. 1 (Boston: The Society, 1911), 226–229; Silverman, Life and Times of Cotton Mather, 262–263; Parent, Foul Means, 86–89.

14. Samuel Clyde McCulloch, “Dr. Thomas Bray’s Trip to Maryland: A Study in Militant Anglican Humanitarianism,” William and Mary Quarterly 2, no. 1 (1945): 15; C. E. Pierre, “The Work of the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel in Foreign Parts Among the Negroes in the Colonies,” Journal of Negro History 1, no. 4 (1916): 350–351, 353, 357; Wilder, Ebony & Ivy, 42.

15. Morgan, American Slavery, American Freedom, 348–351; Parke Rouse, James Blair of Virginia (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1971), 16–22, 25–26, 30, 37–38, 40, 43, 71–73, 145, 147–148; Albert J. Raboteau, Slave Religion: The “Invisible Institution” in the Antebellum South (New York: Oxford University Press, 1978), 100.

16. Silverman, Life and Times of Cotton Mather, 241–242.

CHAPTER 6: GREAT AWAKENING

1. Samuel Sewall and Sidney Kaplan, The Selling of Joseph: A Memorial (North-hampton, MA: Gehenna Press, 1968).

2. Greene, The Negro in Colonial New England, 22.

3. Albert J. Von Frank, “John Saffin: Slavery and Racism in Colonial Massachusetts,” Early American Literature 29, no. 3 (1994): 254.

4. Greene, The Negro in Colonial New England, 259–260, 296–297; Lawrence W. Towner, “The Sewall-Saffin Dialogue on Slavery,” William and Mary Quarterly 21, no. 1 (1964): 40–52.

5. Parent, Foul Means, 120–123; Morgan, American Slavery, American Freedom, 330–344; Greene, The Negro in Colonial New England, 171.

6. Adams and Sanders, Alienable Rights, 39–40.

7. Cotton Mather, The Negro Christianized (Boston: Bartholomew Green, 1706), 1–2, 14–16.

8. Silverman, Life and Times of Cotton Mather, 264–265; Wilder, Ebony & Ivy, 85.

9. Towner, “The Sewall-Saffin Dialogue,” 51–52; Juan González and Joseph Torres, News for All the People: The Epic Story of Race and the American Media (London: Verso, 2011), 20, 24; Greene, The Negro in Colonial New England, 33.

10. A. Judd Northrup, Slavery in New York: A Historical Sketch, State Library Bulletin History (Albany: University of the State of New York, 1900), 267–272; Pierre, “Work of the Society,” 356–358; Herbert Aptheker, American Negro Slave Revolts (New York: International Publishers, 1963), 172–173.

11. Greene, The Negro in Colonial New England, 23–30, 73.

12. Williams, The Pox and the Covenant, 2–4, 25, 29, 33–34.

13. Arthur Allen, Vaccine: The Controversial Story of Medicine’s Greatest Lifesaver (New York: W. W. Norton, 2007), 36–37.

14. Silverman, Life and Times of Cotton Mather, 197, 254; Cotton Mather, Diary of Cotton Mather, 1681–1724, 2 vols., vol. 2 (Boston: The Society, 1911), 620–621; Williams, The Pox and the Covenant, 42–43.

15. Williams, The Pox and the Covenant, 73–74, 81–82, 117–118.

16. David Waldstreicher, Runaway America: Benjamin Franklin, Slavery, and the American Revolution (New York: Hill and Wang, 2004), 40–43; John B. Blake, Public Health in the Town of Boston, 1630–1822 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1959), 53–61; Williams, The Pox and the Covenant, 102.

17. Adams and Sanders, Alienable Rights, 25; Williams, The Pox and the Covenant, 190–191.

18. Irons, Origins of Proslavery Christianity, 30; Greene, The Negro in Colonial New England, 260–261; Thomas, Slave Trade, 474.

19. Parent, Foul Means, 159–162, 236–237, 249–250; Wilder, Ebony & Ivy, 43; Irons, Origins of Proslavery Christianity, 31–32; Rouse, James Blair of Virginia, 32–36.

20. Greene, The Negro in Colonial New England, 275–276; Jon Sensbach, “Slaves to Intolerance: African American Christianity and Religious Freedom in Early America,” in The First Prejudice: Religious Tolerance and Intolerance in Early America, ed. Chris Beneke and Christopher S. Grenda (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2011), 208–209; Kenneth P. Minkema, “Jonathan Edwards’s Defense of Slavery,” Massachusetts Historical Review 4 (2002): 23, 24, 40; Adams and Sanders, Alienable Rights, 40–41.

21. Silverman, Life and Times of Cotton Mather, 372–419.

22. Samuel Mather, The Life of the Very Reverend and Learned Cotton Mather (Boston: Applewood Books, 2009), 108.

CHAPTER 7: ENLIGHTENMENT

1. Parent, Foul Means, 169–170.

2. Benjamin Franklin, “A Proposal for Promoting Useful Knowledge Among the British Plantations in America,” Transactions of the Literary and Philosophical Society of New York 1, no. 1 (1815): 89–90.

3. Benjamin Franklin, Observations Concerning the Increase of Mankind, Peopling of Countries (Tarrytown, NY: W. Abbatt, 1918), 10.

4. Thomas, Slave Trade, 319, 325–327.

5. Malachy Postlethwayt, The African Trade, the Great Pillar (London, 1745), 4.

6. Dorothy E. Roberts, Fatal Invention: How Science, Politics, and Big Business Re-Create Race in the Twenty-First Century (New York: New Press, 2011), 29–30; Bethencourt, Racisms, 252–253.

7. Harriet A. Washington, Medical Apartheid: The Dark History of Medical Experimentation on Black Americans from Colonial Times to the Present (New York: Harlem Moon, 2006), 83; Thomas C. Holt, Children of Fire: A History of African Americans (New York: Hill and Wang, 2010), 21.

8. Holt, Children of Fire, 19–21; Thomas, Slave Trade, 399–402.

9. Voltaire, Additions to the Essay on General History, trans. T. Franklin et al., vol. 22, The Works of M. De Voltaire (London: Crowder et al., 1763), 227–228, 234.

10. Thomas, Slave Trade, 464–465.

11. Bethencourt, Racisms, 165–166, 172–173, 178; Roberts, Fatal Invention, 31–32.

12. Georges Louis Leclerc Buffon, Natural History of Man, new ed., vol. 1 (London: J. Annereau, 1801), 78–79, 83–94; Georges Louis Leclerc Buffon, Natural History, General and Particular, trans. William Smellie, 20 vols., vol. 3 (London: T. Cadell et al., 1812), 440–441; Johann Joachim Winckelmann, History of the Art of Antiquity, trans. Harry Francis Mallgrave (Los Angeles: Getty Research Institute, 2006), 192–195.

13. Thomas Jefferson, “To John Adams,” in The Writings of Thomas Jefferson, ed. H. A. Washington (Washington, DC: Taylor and Maury, 1854), 61.

14. Silvio A. Bedini, Thomas Jefferson: Statesman of Science (New York: Macmillan, 1990), 12–13.

15. Thomas Jefferson, Notes on the State of Virginia (London: J. Stockdale, 1787), 271.

16. Samuel Davies, “The Duty of Christians to Propagate Their Religion Among the Heathens,” in Proslavery and Sectional Thought in the Early South, 1740–1829: An Anthology, ed. Jeffrey Robert Young (Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 2006), 113; Peter Kalm, “Travels into North America,” in A General Collection of the Best and Most Interesting Voyages and Travels in All Parts of the World, ed. John Pinkerton (London: Longman, Hurst, Rees, and Orme, 1812), 503; Landon Carter, The Diary of Colonel Landon Carter of Sabine Hall, 1752–1778, 2 vols., vol. 2 (Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia, 1965), 1149.

17. Thomas P. Slaughter, The Beautiful Soul of John Woolman, Apostle of Abolition (New York: Hill and Wang, 2008), 94–133.

18. John Woolman, Some Considerations on the Keeping of Negroes (Philadelphia: Tract Association of Friends, 1754), 4.

19. Geoffrey Gilbert Plank, John Woolman’s Path to the Peaceable Kingdom: A Quaker in the British Empire (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2012), 105–109.

20. Ibid., 110; Slaughter, Beautiful Soul, 194–196; John Woolman, “The Journal of John Woolman,” in The Journal and Major Essays of John Woolman, ed. Phillips P. Moulton (New York: Oxford University Press, 1971), 63.

21. Slaughter, Beautiful Soul, 231–236; Plank, John Woolman’s Path, 175–177.

22. John Woolman, Considerations on Keeping Negroes: Part Second (Philadelphia: B. Franklin and D. Hall, 1762), 24, 30.

23. Slaughter, Beautiful Soul, 173; Plank, John Woolman’s Path, 133, 149–153; Woolman, Journal and Major Essays, 53–57, 75–78.

24. Jon Meacham, Thomas Jefferson: The Art of Power (New York: Random House, 2012), 11–12.

25. Ibid., 39, 44–45; Bedini, Thomas Jefferson, 34, 39, 49.

26. Henry Wiencek, Master of the Mountain: Thomas Jefferson and His Slaves (New York: Farrar, Straus, and Giroux, 2012), 24–26; Meacham, Thomas Jefferson, 47–49.

CHAPTER 8: BLACK EXHIBITS

1. Henry Louis Gates, The Trials of Phillis Wheatley: America’s First Black Poet and Her Encounters with the Founding Fathers (New York: Basic Civitas, 2010), 14.

2. Vincent Carretta, Phillis Wheatley: Biography of a Genius in Bondage (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 2011), 4–5, 7–8, 12–14; Kathrynn Seidler Engberg, The Right to Write: The Literary Politics of Anne Bradstreet and Phillis Wheatley (Lanham, MD: University Press of America, 2010), 35–36.

3. Carretta, Phillis Wheatley, 1–17, 37–38.

4. Ibid., 46–47, 58–59, 66–67, 82–83.

5. Gates, Trials of Phillis Wheatley, 27–29.

6. Edward Long, The History of Jamaica, 3 vols., vol. 2 (London: T. Lowndes, 1774), 476, 483.

7. David Hume, “Of Natural Characters,” in Essays and Treatises on Several Subjects, ed. David Hume (London: T. Cadell, 1793), 206n512.

8. Silvia Sebastiani, The Scottish Enlightenment: Race, Gender, and the Limits of Progress (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2013), 103–104.

9. Adams and Sanders, Alienable Rights, 26–29.

10. Ignatius Sancho and Joseph Jekyll, Letters of the Late Ignatius Sancho, an African, 2 vols. (London: J. Nichols, 1782).

11. Ukawsaw Gronniosaw, A Narrative of the Most Remarkable Particulars in the Life of James Albert, Ukawsaw Gronniosaw (Newport, RI: S. Southwick, 1774); Olaudah Equiano, The Interesting Narrative of the Life of Olaudah Equiano, or Gustavus Vassa, the African, 2 vols. (New York: W. Durell, 1791).

12. Benjamin Rush, An Address to the Inhabitants of the British Settlements in America, on the Slavery of Negroes in America (Philadelphia: John Dunlap, 1773), 2, 3, 8, 15, 16, 26.

13. Carretta, Phillis Wheatley, 91, 95–98; Gates, Trials of Phillis Wheatley, 33–34; Phillis Wheatley, Poems on Various Subjects, Religious and Moral (London: A. Bell, 1773).

14. Peter N. Stearns, Sexuality in World History (New York: Routledge, 2009), 108; Lester B. Scherer, “A New Look at Personal Slavery Established,” William and Mary Quarterly 30 (1973): 645–646; Richard Nisbet, Slavery Not Forbidden by Scripture, or, a Defence of the West-India Planters (Philadelphia: John Sparhawk, 1773), 23.

15. Wiencek, Master of the Mountain, 26–27, 33–34; Meacham, Thomas Jefferson, 69–70, 90–91.

16. Holt, Children of Fire, 104; Vincent Harding, There Is a River: The Black Struggle for Freedom in America (New York: Harcourt, Brace, Jovanovich, 1981), 43.

17. Long, History of Jamaica, 2:356, 364, 371, 475–478.

18. Henry Home of Kames, Sketches of the History of Man, 4 vols., vol. 1 (Edinburgh: W. Creech, 1807), 15.

19. Johann Friedrich Blumenbach, “On the Natural Variety of Mankind,” in The Anthropological Treatises of Johann Friedrich Blumenbach, ed. Thomas Bendyshe (London: Longman, Green, Longman, Roberts, and Green, 1865), 98–100n4.

20. Emmanuel Chukwudi Eze, ed., Race and the Enlightenment: A Reader (Cambridge, MA: Blackwell, 1997), 38–64.

21. González and Torres, News for All the People, 28–29; Meacham, Thomas Jefferson, 97.

22. Waldstreicher, Runaway America, 211–212; Samuel Johnson, Taxation No Tyranny: An Answer to the Resolutions and Address of the American Congress (London: T. Cadell, 1775), 89.

CHAPTER 9: CREATED EQUAL

1. Meacham, Thomas Jefferson, 103.

2. Wiencek, Master of the Mountain, 27–29 (emphasis added).

3. Jacqueline Jones, A Dreadful Deceit: The Myth of Race from the Colonial Era to Obama’s America (New York: BasicBooks, 2013), 64.

4. Roediger, How Race Survived U.S. History, 31–32, 41–42.

5. Robert L. Hetzel, “The Relevance of Adam Smith,” in Invisible Hand: The Wealth of Adam Smith, ed. Andres Marroquin (Honolulu: University Press of the Pacific, 2002), 25–29; Adam Smith, An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations, 2 vols., vol. 1 (London: W. Strahan and T. Cadell, 1776), 25; Adam Smith, An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations, 9th ed., 3 vols., vol. 2 (London: A. Strahan, T. Cadell, and W. Davies, 1799), 454.

6. Thomas Jefferson, “Jefferson’s ‘Original Rough Draught’ of the Declaration of Independence,” in The Papers of Thomas Jefferson, vol. 1, 1760–1776, ed. Julian P. Boyd (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1950), 243–247.

7. Samuel Hopkins, A Dialogue, Concerning the Slavery of the Africans (Norwich, CT: Judah P. Spooner, 1776).

8. Joseph J. Ellis, American Sphinx: The Character of Thomas Jefferson (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1997), 27–71; Meacham, Thomas Jefferson, 106.

9. Jefferson, Notes on the State of Virginia, 229.

10. Roediger, How Race Survived U.S. History, 46.

11. Jefferson, Notes on the State of Virginia, 229.

12. Ibid., 232–234.

13. Herbert Aptheker, Anti-Racism in U.S. History: The First Two Hundred Years (New York: Greenwood Press, 1992), 47–48.

14. Jefferson, Notes on the State of Virginia, 231–232.

15. Ibid., 100, 239; Thomas Jefferson, “To General Chastellux, June 7, 1785,” in The Papers of Thomas Jefferson, 8:186.

16. Meacham, Thomas Jefferson, xxvi, 144, 146, 175, 180.

17. Adams and Sanders, Alienable Rights, 88–89; Meacham, Thomas Jefferson, 188–189; Thomas Jefferson, “To Brissot de Warville, February 11, 1788,” in The Papers of Thomas Jefferson, 12:577–578.

18. Fawn McKay Brodie, Thomas Jefferson: An Intimate History (New York: W. W. Norton, 2010), 287–288; Constantin-Francois Volney, Travels Through Syria and Egypt: The Years 1783, 1784, and 1785, vol. 1 (London: G. G. J. and J. Robinson, 1788), 80–83.

19. Meacham, Thomas Jefferson, 208.

20. James Bowdoin, “A Philosophical Discourse Publickly Addressed to the American Academy of Arts and Sciences,” Memoirs of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences 1 (1785): 8–9; John Morgan, “Some Account of a Motley Colored, or Pye Negro Girl and Mulatto Boy,” Transactions of the American Philosophical Society 2 (1784): 393.

21. Samuel Stanhope Smith, An Essay on the Causes of the Variety of Complexion and Figure in the Human Species: To Which Are Added Strictures on Lord Kaim’s Discourse, on the Original Diversity of Mankind (Philadelphia: Robert Aitken, 1787), 17, 32, 58, 72, 111.

22. Ayana D. Byrd and Lori L. Tharps, Hair Story: Untangling the Roots of Black Hair in America (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 2001), 19–21.

23. Bruce R. Dain, A Hideous Monster of the Mind: American Race Theory in the Early Republic (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2002), 43; Samuel Stanhope Smith, Strictures on Lord Kaim’s Discourse, on the Original Diversity of Mankind (Philadelphia: Robert Aitken, 1787), 2, 20.

24. David O. Stewart, The Summer of 1787: The Men Who Invented the Constitution (New York: Simon and Schuster, 2007), 68–81.

25. Roediger, How Race Survived U.S. History, 47; Adams and Sanders, Alienable Rights, 50–66, 78, 80–81.

26. Meacham, Thomas Jefferson, xxvi, 144, 146, 175, 180, 209–210.

27. Ibid., 216–217.

28. Adams and Sanders, Alienable Rights, 90–93.

29. Meacham, Thomas Jefferson, 216–223.

30. Ibid., 231–235, 239, 241, 249, 254.

CHAPTER 10: UPLIFT SUASION

1. Aptheker, Anti-Racism in U.S. History, 15–16; Henry E. Baker, “Benjamin Banneker, the Negro Mathematician and Astronomer,” Journal of Negro History 3 (1918): 104.

2. Joanne Pope Melish, “The ‘Condition’ Debate and Racial Discourse in the Antebellum North,” Journal of the Early Republic 19 (1999): 654–655, 661; Stewart, Summer of 1787, 25–27.

3. Roediger, How Race Survived U.S. History, 56–57, 142–143; Adams and Sanders, Alienable Rights, 28–29.

4. Jordan, White over Black, 447–449, 531.

5. Benjamin Banneker, “To Thomas Jefferson, August 19, 1791,” in The Papers of Thomas Jefferson, 22:49–54.

6. Thomas Jefferson, “To Benjamin Banneker, August 30, 1791,” in ibid., 97–98; Thomas Jefferson, “To Condorcet,” August 30, 1791,” in ibid., 98–99.

7. C. L. R. James, The Black Jacobins: Toussaint L’ouverture and the San Domingo Revolution, 2nd ed. (New York: Vintage Books, 1963), 88.

8. Thomas Jefferson, “St. Domingue (Haiti),” Thomas Jefferson Encyclopedia, Monticello, www.monticello.org/site/research-and-collections/st-domingue-haiti.

9. Leon F. Litwack, North of Slavery: The Negro in the Free States, 1790–1860 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1961), 18–19; Melish, “‘Condition’ Debate,” 651–657, 661–665.

10. Melish, “‘Condition’ Debate,” 660–661; Jones, Dreadful Deceit, 131.

11. Gary B. Nash, Forging Freedom: The Formation of Philadelphia’s Black Community, 1720–1840 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1988), 127–132.

12. Bedini, Thomas Jefferson, 247–248; Meacham, Thomas Jefferson, 262–263, 275.

13. Peter Kolchin, American Slavery, 1619–1877, rev. ed. (New York: Hill and Wang, 2003), 94–96; Holt, Children of Fire, 125.

14. Charles D. Martin, The White African American Body: A Cultural and Literary Exploration (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 2002), 37; Jordan, White over Black, 533–534; Joanne Pope Melish, Disowning Slavery: Gradual Emancipation and “Race” in New England, 1780–1860 (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1998), 145.

15. Bethencourt, Racisms, 167; Benjamin Rush, The Autobiography of Benjamin Rush (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1948), 307; Martin, The White African American Body, 19–24; Jefferson, Notes on the State of Virginia, 118–119.

16. Benjamin Rush, “To Thomas Jefferson, February 4, 1797,” in The Papers of Thomas Jefferson, 29:284.

17. Benjamin Rush, “Observations Intended to Favour a Supposition That the Black Color (as It Is Called) of the Negroes Is Derived from the Leprosy,” Transactions of the American Philosophical Society 4 (1799): 289–297.

18. Jordan, White over Black, 502–503; Meacham, Thomas Jefferson, 299.

19. Richmond Recorder, September 1, 1802.

20. Meacham, Thomas Jefferson, 378–380, 418–419, 454.

21. Kimberly Wallace-Sanders, Skin Deep, Spirit Strong: The Black Female Body in American Culture (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 2002), 15–16.

22. Larry E. Tise, Proslavery: A History of the Defense of Slavery in America, 1701–1840 (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1987), 36–37; Meacham, Thomas Jefferson, 348–350.

23. Jordan, White over Black, 349, 368, 375, 379, 385, 401, 403, 410, 425.

24. Meacham, Thomas Jefferson, 386–387, 392.

25. Jordan, White over Black, 531; Dain, Hideous Monster, 58–60.

26. Wilder, Ebony & Ivy, 209; Charles White, An Account of the Regular Gradation in Man, and in Different Animals and Vegetables; and from the Former to the Latter (London, 1799), iii, 11–40, 61.

27. Jordan, White over Black, 505–506, 531.

28. Samuel Stanhope Smith, An Essay on the Causes of the Variety of Complexion and Figure in the Human Species, 2nd ed. (New Brunswick, NJ: J. Simpson, 1810), 33, 48, 93–95, 252–255, 265–269, 287–296, 302–305.

CHAPTER 11: BIG BOTTOMS

1. Thomas Jefferson, “To Pierre Samuel Du Pont de Nemours, March 2, 1809,” Founders Online, National Archives, http://founders.archives.gov/documents/Jefferson/99-01-02-9936; Meacham, Thomas Jefferson, 428–432, 468; Bedini, Thomas Jefferson, 396–397.

2. Jordan, White over Black, 442; Clement Clarke Moore, Observations upon Certain Passages in Mr. Jefferson’s Notes on Virginia (New York: 1804), 19–32; Bedini, Thomas Jefferson, 379–380, 416, 429–430.

3. Henri Grégoire, An Enquiry Concerning the Intellectual and Moral Faculties and Literature of Negroes. Followed with an Account of the Life and Works of Fifteen Negroes and Mulattoes Distinguished in Science, Literature, and the Arts (College Park, MD: McGrath, 1967), 128, 131, 134, 155–157.

4. Angela Y. Davis, Women, Race & Class (New York: Vintage Books, 1983), 7; Thomas, Slave Trade, 551–552, 568–572; Kolchin, American Slavery, 93–95; Thomas Jefferson, “To John W. Eppes, June 30, 1820,” in Thomas Jefferson’s Farm Book: With Commentary and Relevant Extracts from Other Writings, ed. Edwin Morris Betts (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1953), 46.

5. Holt, Children of Fire, 105; Jedidiah Morse, A Discourse, Delivered at the African Meeting-House (Boston: Lincoln and Edmands, 1808), 18.

6. Thomas Jefferson “To Henri Grégoire, February 25, 1809,” Founders Online, National Archives, http://founders.archives.gov/documents/Jefferson/99-01-02-9893.

7. Beverly Guy-Sheftall, “The Body Politic: Black Female Sexuality and the Nineteenth-Century Euro-American Imagination,” in Skin Deep, Spirit Strong: The Black Female Body in American Culture, ed. Kimerbly Wallace-Sanders (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 2002), 18.

8. Clifton C. Crais and Pamela Scully, Sara Baartman and the Hottentot Venus: A Ghost Story and a Biography (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2009), 8–10, 24, 25, 37, 40, 50–57, 64, 66, 70, 71, 74, 78–81, 100, 101, 105, 107, 111–113, 124, 126–141.

9. Barbara Krauthamer, Black Slaves, Indian Masters: Slavery, Emancipation, and Citizenship in the Native American South (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2013), 17–23, 26, 32, 34–35.

10. Herbert Aptheker, American Negro Slave Revolts (New York: International Publishers, 1963), 249–251; Daniel Rasmussen, American Uprising: The Untold Story of America’s Largest Slave Revolt (New York: Harper, 2011), 1–3.

11. James Kirke Paulding, Letters from the South by a Northern Man, new ed., 2 vols., vol. 1 (New York: Harper and Brothers, 1835), 96–98; Kolchin, American Slavery, 93–95.

12. Tise, Proslavery, 42–52, 142–143, 384; Robert Walsh, Appeal from the Judgements of Great Britain Respecting the United States of America, 2nd ed. (Philadelphia, 1819), 397, 409–411.

13. Meacham, Thomas Jefferson, xix.

14. Randall, Thomas Jefferson, 585; Bedini, Thomas Jefferson, 396; Meacham, Thomas Jefferson, 446–448.

15. Bedini, Thomas Jefferson, 379–380, 402, 403, 416, 429–432, 437.

16. Adams and Sanders, Alienable Rights, 107–108.

CHAPTER 12: COLONIZATION

1. Aptheker, American Negro Slave Revolts, 222–223.

2. Tise, Proslavery, 58.

3. Philip Slaughter, The Virginian History of African Colonization (Richmond: Macfarlane and Fergusson, 1855), 1–8; Eric Burin, Slavery and the Peculiar Solution: A History of the American Colonization Society (Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 2005), 10–11.

4. Charles Fenton Mercer, An Exposition of the Weakness and Inefficiency of the Government of the United States of North America (n.p., 1845), 173, 284.

5. Douglas R. Egerton, “‘Its Origin Is Not a Little Curious: A New Look at the American Colonization Society,” Journal of the Early Republic 4 (1985): 468–472.

6. Robert Finley, “Thoughts on the Colonization of Free Blacks,” African Repository and Colonial Journal 9 (1834): 332–334.

7. Scott L. Malcomson, One Drop of Blood: The American Misadventure of Race (New York: Farrar, Straus, and Giroux, 2000), 191; Finley, “Thoughts on the Colonization of Free Blacks,” 332–334.

8. Tibebu Teshale, Hegel and the Third World: The Making of Eurocentrism in World History (Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, 2011), 74–76, 79, 80, 83, 87, 89, 171, 174, 178–179.

9. Egerton, “‘Its Origin Is Not a Little Curious,’” 476, 480.

10. Burin, Slavery and the Peculiar Solution, 15–16; Douglas R. Egerton, “Averting a Crisis: The Proslavery Critique of the American Colonization Society,” Civil War History 42 (1997): 143–144.

11. Litwack, North of Slavery, 34–39.

12. Myron O. Stachiw, “‘For the Sake of Commerce’: Slavery, Antislavery, and Northern Industry,” in The Meaning of Slavery in the North, ed. David Roediger and Martin H. Blatt (New York: Garland, 1998), 35.

13. David Robertson, Denmark Vesey (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1999), 4–5, 41–42, 47–48, 98, 123; Aptheker, American Negro Slave Revolts, 81, 115, 268–275; Adams and Sanders, Alienable Rights, 142–143; Tise, Proslavery, 58–61.

14. Burin, Slavery and the Peculiar Solution, 15–16.

15. Ellis, American Sphinx, 314–326; Meacham, Thomas Jefferson, 475, 77.

16. Thomas Jefferson, Autobiography of Thomas Jefferson, 1743–1790 (New York: G. P. Putnam’s Sons, 1914), 77.

17. Edward J. Blum and Paul Harvey, The Color of Christ: The Son of God & the Saga of Race in America (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2012), 78–83, 93–100; Meacham, Thomas Jefferson, 473.

18. Tise, Proslavery, 52–54, 302–303; James Brewer Stewart, “The Emergence of Racial Modernity and the Rise of the White North, 1790–1840,” Journal of the Early Republic 18, no. 2 (1998): 193–195; Adams and Sanders, Alienable Rights, 112–113.

19. Melish, “‘Condition’ Debate,” 667–668.

20. Hosea Easton, “An Address,” in To Heal the Scourge of Prejudice: The Life and Writings of Hosea Easton, ed. George R. Price and James Brewer Stewart (Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 1999), 62.

21. Freedom’s Journal, March 16, 1827.

22. Frederick Cooper, “Elevating the Race: The Social Thought of Black Leaders, 1827–50,” American Quarterly 24, no. 5 (1972): 606–608.

23. González and Torres, News for All the People, 109–113; Stewart, “The Emergence of Racial Modernity,” 193–195.

24. Albert Ebenezer Gurley, Charles Rogers, and Henry Porter Andrews, The History and Genealogy of the Gurley Family (Hartford, CT: Press of the Case, Lockwood, and Brainard Company, 1897), 72; Melish, “‘Condition’ Debate,” 658.

25. Thomas Jefferson to Jared Sparks Monticello, February 4, 1824, The Letters of Thomas Jefferson, 1743–1826, American History, www.let.rug.nl/usa/presidents/thomas-jefferson/letters-of-thomas-jefferson/jefl276.php.

26. “American Colonization Society,” African Repository and Colonial Journal 1 (1825): 1, 5; T.R., “Observations of the Early History of the Negro Race,” African Repository and Colonial Journal 1 (1825): 7–12.

27. Meacham, Thomas Jefferson, 488.

28. Bedini, Thomas Jefferson, 478–480; Meacham, Thomas Jefferson, 48, 492–496.

CHAPTER 13: GRADUAL EQUALITY

1. Ellis, American Sphinx, 298.

2. Wilder, Ebony & Ivy, 255, 256, 259, 265–266.

3. Henry Mayer, All on Fire: William Lloyd Garrison and the Abolition of Slavery (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1998), 3–13; John L. Thomas, The Liberator: William Lloyd Garrison, a Biography (Boston: Little, Brown, 1963), 7–20, 27–42.

4. Mayer, All on Fire, 51–55.

5. Ibid., 62–68.

6. Ibid., 68–70.

7. William Lloyd Garrison, “To the Public,” Genius of Universal Emancipation, September 2, 1829.

8. David Walker, David Walker’s Appeal (Baltimore: Black Classic Press, 1993), 36, 37, 39–42, 70, 91, 95.

9. Mayer, All on Fire, 77–78, 83–88, 91–94; Litwack, North of Slavery, 233–235.

10. Alexis de Tocqueville, Democracy in America, trans. Henry Reeve, 3rd American ed., vol. 1 (New York: G. Adlard, 1839), 340–356, 374.

11. William Lloyd Garrison, “To the Public,” The Liberator, January 1, 1831.

12. William Lloyd Garrison, An Address, Delivered Before the Free People of Color, in Philadelphia, 2nd ed. (Boston: S. Foster, 1831), 5–6; Thomas, The Liberator, 152.

13. Minutes and Proceedings of the Second Annual Convention, for the Improvement of the Free People of Color in These United States (Philadelphia, 1832), 34.

14. Alexander Saxton, “Problems of Class and Race in the Origins of the Mass Circulation Press,” American Quarterly 36, no. 2 (1984): 212, 213, 217, 231; Litwack, North of Slavery, 113, 119, 126, 131, 168–170; Tise, Proslavery, 294–302; Mayer, All on Fire, 117–118, 169; González and Torres, News for All the People, 50–51.

15. Bruce A. Glasrud and Alan M. Smith, Race Relations in British North America, 1607–1783 (Chicago: Nelson-Hall, 1982); Litwack, North of Slavery, 162–164.

16. Washington, Medical Apartheid, 86–90, 94–98; David R. Roediger, The Wages of Whiteness: Race and the Making of the American Working Class, rev. ed. (London: Verso, 2007), 115–116.

17. Leonard Cassuto, The Inhuman Race: The Racial Grotesque in American Literature and Culture (New York: Columbia University Press, 1997), 139–143; Paula T. Connolly, Slavery in American Children’s Literature, 1790–2010 (Iowa City: University of Iowa Press, 2013), 53, 56–57; David Kenneth Wiggins, Glory Bound: Black Athletes in a White America (Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, 1997), 14–15; John Pendleton Kennedy, Swallow Barn, or, a Sojourn in the Old Dominion, 2 vols. (Philadelphia: Carey and Lea, 1832).

18. Aptheker, American Negro Slave Revolts, 293–295, 300–307; Blum and Harvey, The Color of Christ, 123; Nat Turner and Thomas R. Gray, The Confessions of Nat Turner (Richmond: T. R. Gray, 1832), 9–10.

19. Mayer, All on Fire, 117, 120–123, 129–131; Thomas, The Liberator, 131–132, 136–137; Aptheker, American Negro Slave Revolts, 313.

20. Mayer, All on Fire, 131–134.

21. William Lloyd Garrison, Thoughts on African Colonization (New York: Arno Press, 1968), xix, 151; Mayer, All on Fire, 134–139, 140.

22. Garrison, Thoughts on African Colonization, ix–xi; Thomas R. Dew, Review of the Debate in the Virginia Legislature of 1831 and 1832 (Bedbord, MA: Applewood Books, 2008), 5, 93.

23. Litwack, North of Slavery, 153–158.

24. Chancellor Harper, Memoir on Slavery (Charleston: James S. Burges, 1838), 55; Ralph Gurley, “Garrison’s Thoughts on African Colonization,” African Repository and Colonial Journal 8, no. 8 (1832): 277; González and Torres, News for All the People, 42–44; Tise, Proslavery, 64–74, 267–268; Mayer, All on Fire, 139–145, 148, 157, 166–167.

25. Aptheker, Anti-Racism in U.S. History, 129; Mayer, All on Fire, 170–176.

26. Mayer, All on Fire, 195; Russel B. Nye, William Lloyd Garrison and the Humanitarian Reformers, Library of American Biography (Boston: Little, Brown, 1955), 81–82.

CHAPTER 14: IMBRUTED OR CIVILIZED

1. George M. Fredrickson, The Black Image in the White Mind: The Debate on Afro-American Character and Destiny, 1817–1914 (Middletown, CT: Wesleyan University Press, 1987), 103–104; Connolly, Slavery in American Children’s Literature, 26–30.

2. Ronald Bailey, “‘Those Valuable People, the Africans’: The Economic Impact of the Slave(ry) Trade on Textile Industrialization in New England,” in The Meaning of Slavery in the North, ed. David Roediger and Martin H. Blatt (New York: Garland, 1998), 13; Christine Stansell, City of Women: Sex and Class in New York, 1789–1860 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1987), 83–100; Jones, Dreadful Deceit, 107; Bertram Wyatt-Brown, “The Abolitionists’ Postal Campaign of 1835,” Journal of Negro History 50, no. 4 (1965): 227–238; González and Torres, News for All the People, 39–40, 46–47; Mayer, All on Fire, 196–199; Adams and Sanders, Alienable Rights, 146–147, 149; Tise, Proslavery, 279, 308–310.

3. John C. Calhoun, “Speech on Slavery,” US Senate, Congressional Globe, 24th Cong., 2nd sess. (February 6, 1837), 157–159.

4. Mayer, All on Fire, 218.

5. Colored American, June 1, 1839.

6. Calvin Colton, Abolition a Sedition (Philadelphia: G. W. Donohue, 1839), 126; William Ragan Stanton, The Leopard’s Spots: Scientific Attitudes toward Race in America, 1815–59 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1960), 24–25.

7. Samuel George Morton, Crania Americana (Philadelphia: J. Dobson, 1839), 1–7.

8. Ann Fabian, The Skull Collectors: Race, Science, and America’s Unburied Dead (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2010), 24, 81–82, 90; “Crania Americana,” Boston Medical and Surgical Journal 21, no. 22 (1840): 357; “Review,” American Journal of Science and Arts 38, no. 2 (1840): 341; Sven Lindqvist, The Skull Measurer’s Mistake: And Other Portraits of Men and Women Who Spoke Out Against Racism (New York: New Press, 1997), 44–47.

9. Edward Jarvis, “Statistics of Insanity in the United States,” Boston Medical and Surgical Journal 27, no. 7 (1842): 116–121.

10. “Vital Stastitics of Negroes and Mulattoes,” Boston Medical and Surgical Journal 27, no. 10 (1842); Stanton, The Leopard’s Spots, 65–68.

11. Edward Jarvis, “Insanity Among the Coloured Population of the Free States,” American Journal of Medical Sciences 6, no. 13 (1844): 71–83.

12. Mayer, All on Fire, 326; Nye, William Lloyd Garrison, 148–149.

13. Stanton, The Leopard’s Spots, 45–53, 60–65; Fredrickson, The Black Image in the White Mind, 74–75; H. Shelton Smith, In His Image: But . . . Racism in Southern Religion, 1780–1910 (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1972), 144; Litwack, North of Slavery, 46.

14. Fergus M. Bordewich, Bound for Canaan: The Underground Railroad and the War for the Soul of America (New York: Amistad, 2005), 224–226.

15. Frederick Douglass, Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass, an American Slave (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2001), 3, 4, 6, 8, 9; Mayer, All on Fire, 350–352.

16. Connolly, Slavery in American Children’s Literature, 35, 38; Stanton, The Leopard’s Spots, 68–72, 97–99; Josiah Clark Nott, Two Lectures on the Natural History of the Caucasian and Negro Races (Mobile: Dade and Thompson, 1844), 38; E. G. Squier, “American Ethnology,” American Review 9 (1849): 385–398.

17. Michael T. Bernath, Confederate Minds: The Struggle for Intellectual Independence in the Civil War South, Civil War America (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2010), 83–84; González and Torres, News for All the People, 138.

18. Samuel A. Cartwright, “Report on the Diseases and Physical Peculiarities of the Negro Race,” De Bow’s Review 7 (1851), 692–696.

19. Washington, Medical Apartheid, 55, 57, 61–68.

20. González and Torres, News for All the People, 118–119.

21. Litwack, North of Slavery, 47–48; James D. Bilotta, Race and the Rise of the Republican Party, 1848–1865 (New York: P. Lang, 1992), 83–99.

22. Patricia A. Schechter, “Free and Slave Labor in the Old South: The Tredegar Ironworkers’ Strike of 1847,” Labor History 35, no. 2 (1994): 165–186.

23. William Lloyd Garrison, “Complexional Prejudice,” in Selections from the Writings and Speeches of William Lloyd Garrison (New York: Negro Universities Press, 1968), 286–288.

24. Mayer, All on Fire, 393.

25. John Bachman, The Doctrine of the Unity of the Human Race Examined on the Principles of Science (Charleston, SC: C. Canning, 1850), 91, 212.

26. Peter A. Browne, The Classification of Mankind, by the Hair and Wool of Their Heads (Philadelphia, 1850), 1, 8, 20; M. H. Freeman, “The Educational Wants of the Free Colored People,” Anglo-African Magazine, April 1859.

27. Henry Clay, “Remark in Senate,” in The Papers of Henry Clay: Candidate, Compromiser, Elder Statesman, January 1, 1844–June 29, 1852, vol. 10, ed. Melba Porter Hay (Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 2015), 815.

28. Henry Clay, “Remark in Senate,” in ibid., 815.

CHAPTER 15: SOUL

1. Joan D. Hedrick, Harriet Beecher Stowe: A Life (New York: Oxford University Press, 1994), 202–205.

2. Giddings, When and Where I Enter, 54–55, 132–133.

3. Hedrick, Harriet Beecher Stowe, 206–207.

4. Harriet Beecher Stowe, Uncle Tom’s Cabin (London: George Bell and Sons, 1889), iii, 193.

5. A Key to Uncle Tom’s Cabin: Presenting the Original Facts and Documents upon Which the Story Is Founded (London: Sampson Low, Son and Company, 1853), 52; Stowe, Uncle Tom’s Cabin, 327.

6. Stephan Talty, Mulatto America: At the Crossroads of Black and White Culture. A Social History (New York: HarperCollins, 2003), 22–24.

7. Stowe, Uncle Tom’s Cabin, 80, 473; Millard Fillmore, “Mr. Fillmore’s Views Relating to Slavery,” in Millard Fillmore Papers, vol. 1, ed. Frank H. Severance (Buffalo: Buffalo Historical Society, 1907), 320–324.

8. William Lloyd Garrison, “Review of Uncle Tom’s Cabin; or, Life Among the Lowly,” The Liberator, March 26, 1852.

9. Frederick Douglass, The Life and Times of Frederick Douglass: From 1817–1882 (London: Christian Age Office, 1882), 250.

10. Martin Robison Delany, The Condition, Elevation, Emigration, and Destiny of the Colored People of the United States, Politically Considered (Philadelphia, 1852), 10, 24–27.

11. Giddings, When and Where I Enter, 60–61; Christian G. Samito, Changes in Law and Society During the Civil War and Reconstruction: A Legal History Documentary Reader (Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press, 2009), 17.

12. Connolly, Slavery in American Children’s Literature, 69–76; “Southern Slavery and Its Assailants: The Key to Uncle Tom’s Cabin,” De Bow’s Review, November 1853.

13. Franklin Pierce, “Address by Franklin Pierce, 1853,” Joint Congressional Committee on Inaugural Ceremonies, www.inaugural.senate.gov/swearing-in/address/address-by-franklin-pierce-1853; Mayer, All on Fire, 425–427.

14. Josiah Clark Nott and George R. Gliddon, Types of Mankind, 7th ed. (Philadelphia: J.B. Lippincott, Grambo, 1855), v, 60.

15. John H. Van Evrie, Negroes and Negro “Slavery”: The First an Inferior Race: The Latter Its Normal Condition, 3rd ed. (New York: Van Evrie, Horton, 1963), 221; Thomas F. Gossett, Race: The History of an Idea in America, new ed. (New York: Oxford University Press, 1997), 342–346; Stanton, The Leopard’s Spots, 174–175.

16. Carolyn L. Karcher, “Melville’s ‘the ‘Gees’: A Forgotten Satire on Scientific Racism,” American Quarterly 27, no. 4 (1975): 425, 430–431.

17. Waldo E. Martin, The Mind of Frederick Douglass (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1984), 229.

18. James McCune Smith, “On the Fourteenth Query of Thomas Jefferson’s Notes on Virginia,” The Anglo-African Magazine, August 1859.

19. Frederick Douglass, The Claims of the Negro, Ethnologically Considered (Rochester, NY: Lee, Mann, 1854); Wilson Jeremiah Moses, Afrotopia: The Roots of African American Popular History (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1998), 111–113.

20. William Lloyd Garrison, “Types of Mankind,” The Liberator, October 13, 1854.

21. “Frederick Douglass and His Paper,” The Liberator, September 23, 1853.

22. Mayer, All on Fire, 431–434.

CHAPTER 16: THE IMPENDING CRISIS

1. Eric Foner, The Fiery Trial: Abraham Lincoln and American Slavery (New York: W. W. Norton, 2010), 65–67.

2. Mayer, All on Fire, 424–425.

3. Foner, Fiery Trial, 5, 11, 12, 31, 60–62.

4. James Buchanan, “Inaugural Address,” March 4, 1857, at Gerhard Peters and John T. Woolley, The American Presidency Project, www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/?pid=25817.

5. Dred Scott v. John F. A. Sanford, March 6, 1857, Case Files 1792–1995, Record Group 267, Records of the Supreme Court of the United States, National Archives.

6. Harding, There Is a River, 195, 202–204.

7. Abraham Lincoln and Stephen A. Douglas, Political Debates Between Hon. Abraham Lincoln and Hon. Stephen A. Douglas, in the Celebrated Campaign of 1858, in Illinois (Columbus, OH: Follett, Foster, 1860), 71, 154, 232, 241.

8. Foner, Fiery Trial, 101–111.

9. Mayer, All on Fire, 474–477.

10. Hinton Rowan Helper, The Impending Crisis of the South: How to Meet It (New York: Burdick Brothers, 1857), 184.

11. Fredrickson, The Black Image in the White Mind, 113–115.

12. Adams and Sanders, Alienable Rights, 178; Mayer, All on Fire, 494–507.

13. William C. Davis, Jefferson Davis: The Man and His Hour (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1996), 277–279.

14. Charles Darwin, On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection, or the Preservation of Favoured Races in the Struggle for Life, 3rd ed. (London: J. Murray, 1861), 4, 6, 18, 24, 35, 413, 524.

15. Richard Hofstadter, Social Darwinism in American Thought (Boston: Beacon Press, 1992), 5, 13, 22, 29, 31–41.

16. Francis Galton, Hereditary Genius: An Inquiry into Its Laws and Consequences (New York: D. Appleton, 1891), 338; Gossett, Race, 155–158.

17. Carl N. Degler, In Search of Human Nature: The Decline and Revival of Darwinism in American Social Thought (New York: Oxford University Press, 1991), 59–61.

18. Charles Darwin, The Descent of Man, and Selection in Relation to Sex (New York: D. Appleton, 1872), 163, 192–193, 208.

19. “Free Negro Rule,” De Bow’s Review 3, no. 4 (1860): 440.

20. “Review 2,” De Bow’s Review 3, no. 4 (1860): 490–491; John Tyler Jr., “The Secession of the South,” De Bow’s Review 3, no. 4 (1860): 367.

21. Mayer, All on Fire, 508–509; Foner, Fiery Trial, 139–142.

22. Mayer, All on Fire, 513–514; Litwack, North of Slavery, 269–276.

23. Abraham Lincoln, “To John A. Gilmer,” in Collected Works of Abraham Lincoln, vol. 4 (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 2001), 152; Aptheker, American Negro Slave Revolts, 357–358; Bernard E. Powers Jr., “‘The Worst of All Barbarism’: Racial Anxiety and the Approach of Secession in the Palmetto State,” South Carolina Historical Magazine 112, nos. 3–4 (2011): 152–156.

CHAPTER 17: HISTORY’S EMANCIPATOR

1. “Declaration of the Immediate Causes Which Induce and Justify Secession of South Carolina from the Federal Union,” The Avalon Project: Documents in Law, History and Diplomacy, Lillian Goldman Law Library, Yale Law School, http://avalon.law.yale.edu/19th_century/csa_scarsec.asp; Roediger, How Race Survived U.S. History, 70–71; Eric Foner, Reconstruction: America’s Unfinished Revolution, 1863–1877 (New York: Perennial Classics, 2002), 25; Foner, Fiery Trial, 146–147; Myron O. Stachiw, “‘For the Sake of Commerce’: Slavery, Antislavery, and Northern Industry,” in The Meaning of Slavery in the North, ed. David Roediger and Martin H. Blatt (New York: Garland, 1998), 33–35.

2. Abraham Lincoln, “First Inaugural Address,” March 4, 1861, The Avalon Project: Documents in Law, History, and Diplomacy, Lillian Goldman Law Library, Yale Law School, http://avalon.law.yale.edu/19th_century/lincoln1.asp; Alexander H. Stephens, “‘Corner Stone’ Speech,” Teaching American History, http://teachingamericanhistory.org/library/document/cornerstone-speech.

3. Connolly, Slavery in American Children’s Literature, 76, 77, 80, 81, 83, 84; Bernath, Confederate Minds, 13; William C. Davis, Look Away!: A History of the Confederate States of America (New York: Free Press, 2002), 142–143.

4. Mayer, All on Fire, 525–526.

5. See Weekly Anglo-African, April 27, 1861.

6. Davis, Look Away, 142–143.

7. Andrew Johnson, “Proclamation on the End of the Confederate Insurrection,” April 2, 1866, Miller Center, University of Virginia, http://millercenter.org/president/johnson/speeches/proclamation-on-the-end-of-the-confederate-insurrection; Washington, Medical Apartheid, 149–150.

8. “The President’s Proclamation,” New York Times, September 26, 1862; Abraham Lincoln, “First Annual Message,” December 3, 1861, Messages and Papers of the Presidents, at Gerhard Peters and John T. Woolley, The American Presidency Project, www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/?pid=29502; William Lloyd Garrison, “To Oliver Johnson, December 6, 1861,” The Letters of William Lloyd Garrison: Let the Oppressed Go Free, 1861–1867 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1979), 47.

9. Aptheker, American Negro Slave Revolts, 359–367; Foner, Reconstruction, 15–17.

10. Foner, Fiery Trial, 215–220.

11. Ibid., 221–227; William Lloyd Garrison, “The President on African Colonization,” The Liberator, August 22, 1862; Mayer, All on Fire, 531–539; Paul D. Escott, “What Shall We Do with the Negro?” Lincoln, White Racism, and Civil War America (Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press, 2009), 53–55; Litwack, North of Slavery, 277–278.

12. Horace Greeley, “The Prayer of Twenty Millions,” New York Tribune, August 20, 1862.

13. Abraham Lincoln, “A Letter from the President,” National Intelligencer, August 23, 1862.

14. Abraham Lincoln, “Preliminary Emancipation Proclamation,” September 22, 1862, National Archives and Records Administration, www.archives.gov/exhibits/american_originals_iv/sections/transcript_preliminary_emancipation.html.

15. Foner, Fiery Trial, 227–232; Peter S. Field, “The Strange Career of Emerson and Race,” American Nineteenth Century History 2, no. 1 (2001): 22–24; Mayer, All on Fire, 537–543.

16. Abraham Lincoln, “Second Annual Message,” December 1, 1862, Messages and Papers of the Presidents, at Gerhard Peters and John T. Woolley, The American Presidency Project, University of California at Santa Barbara, www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/?pid=29503.

17. Foner, Fiery Trial, 238–247; Escott, “What Shall We Do with the Negro”, 62–63.

18. Mayer, All on Fire, 544–547; Thomas, The Liberator, 419–420.

19. Escott, “What Shall We Do with the Negro”, 62–64.

CHAPTER 18: READY FOR FREEDOM?

1. Henry Villard, Memoirs of Henry Villard, Journalist and Financier, 1863–1900, 2 vols., vol. 2 (Boston: Houghton, Mifflin, 1904), 14–24, 52–55.

2. Escott, “What Shall We Do with the Negro”, 42–50; Fredrickson, The Black Image in the White Mind, 233–235.

3. Foner, Fiery Trial, 52–53; James Brooks, The Two Proclamations (New York: Printed by Van Evrie, Horton, 1862), 6.

4. Forrest G. Wood, Black Scare: The Racist Response to Emancipation and Reconstruction (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1968), 40–52.

5. Foner, Fiery Trial, 251.

6. Orestes Augustus Brownson, “Abolition and Negro Equality,” in The Works of Orestes A. Brownson, vol. 17, ed. Henry F. Brownson (Detroit: Thorndike Nourse, 1885), 553.

7. Foner, Fiery Trial, 258–260.

8. Foner, Reconstruction, 35–37, 46–50, 63–64; Mayer, All on Fire, 562–563.

9. William Lloyd Garrison, “To Oliver Johnson,” in The Letters of William Lloyd Garrison: Let the Oppressed Go Free, 1861–1867, vol. 10, ed. Walter M. Merrill (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1979), 201.

10. Abraham Lincoln, “Address at Sanitary Fair, Baltimore, Maryland,” in Collected Works of Abraham Lincoln, 7:302–303.

11. Foner, Fiery Trial, 275–277.

12. Samuel G. Howe, The Refugees from Slavery in Canada West, Report to the Freedmen’s Inquiry Commission (Boston: Wright and Potter, 1864), 1, 33; Robert Dale Owen, The Wrong of Slavery: The Right of Emancipation, and the Future of the African Race in the United States (Philadelphia: J. B. Lippincott, 1864), 219–222.

13. Escott, “What Shall We Do with the Negro”, 73–93.

14. William Lloyd Garrison, “To Francis W. Newman,” in The Letters of William Lloyd Garrison, 10:228–229.

15. Foner, Fiery Trial, 302–311.

16. “Account of a Meeting of Black Religious Leaders in Savannah, Georgia, with the Secretary of War and the Commander of the Military Division of the Mississippi,” in Freedom: A Documentary History of Emancipation, 1861–1867, series 1, vol. 3, ed. Ira Berlin et al. (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1982), 334–335.

17. Nicholas Guyatt, “‘An Impossible Idea?’: The Curious Career of Internal Colonization,” Journal of the Civil War Era 4, no. 2 (2014): 241–244.

18. Foner, Reconstruction, 59; Guyatt, “‘An Impossible Idea?’” 241–244; Foner, Fiery Trial, 320–321; Horace Greeley, “Gen. Sherman and the Negroes,” New York Tribune, January 30, 1865.

19. Foner, Fiery Trial, 313, 317–320; Mayer, All on Fire, 572–576.

20. Samuel Thomas, “To General Carl Schurz,” in Senate Executive Documents for the First Session of the Thirty-Ninth Congress of the United States of America (Washington, DC: US Government Printing Office, 1866,) 81; General O. O. Howard, Report of the Brevet Major General O. O. Howard, Commissioner Bureau of Refugees, Freedmen, and Abandoned Lands, to the Secretary of War (Washington, DC: US Government Printing Office, 1869), 8; Josiah C. Nott, “The Problem of the Black Races,” De Bow’s Review, new ser., vol. 1 (1866): 266–270.

21. Foner, Reconstruction, 73.

22. Ibid., 31, 67–68; Foner, Fiery Trial, 330–331.

23. Terry Alford, Fortune’s Fool: The Life of John Wilkes Booth (New York: Oxford University Press, 2015), 257.

24. Blum and Harvey, The Color of Christ, 131.

25. Foner, Reconstruction, 67; Adams and Sanders, Alienable Rights, 196–197; Hans L. Trefousse, Andrew Johnson: A Biography (New York: W. W. Norton, 1989), 183; Clifton R. Hall, Andrew Johnson: Military Governor of Tennessee (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1916), 102.

CHAPTER 19: RECONSTRUCTING SLAVERY

1. Foner, Reconstruction, 103–106, 110, 132–133, 138, 153–155, 198–205, 209–210, 215.

2. Ibid., 235–237; “The Negro’s Claim to Office,” The Nation, August 1, 1867.

3. James D. Anderson, The Education of Blacks in the South, 1860–1935 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1988), 6–7, 11–12.

4. William Lloyd Garrison, “Official Proclamation,” The Liberator, December 22, 1865; William Lloyd Garrison, “Valedictory: The Last Number of the Liberator,” The Liberator, December 29, 1865.

5. Mayer, All on Fire, 594–603; Foner, Reconstruction, 180–181.

6. Matt Wray and Annalee Newitz, White Trash: Race and Class in America (New York: Routledge, 1997), 2–3.

7. Adam I. P. Smith, No Party Now: Politics in the Civil War North (New York: Oxford University Press, 2006), 54–55; Andrew Johnson, “Veto of the Freedmen’s Bureau Bill,” February 19, 1866, http://teachingamericanhistory.org/library/document/veto-of-the-freedmens-bureau-bill/.

8. Andrew Johnson’s Veto of the Civil Rights Bill, March 27, 1866, America’s Reconstruction: People and Politics After the Civil War, www.digitalhistory.uh.edu/exhibits/reconstruction/section4/section4_10veto2.html.

9. Foner, Reconstruction, 241–251; C. Vann Woodward, American Counterpoint: Slavery and Racism in the North-South Dialogue (Boston: Little, Brown, 1971), 168–171; Roediger, How Race Survived U.S. History, 130.

10. Howard N. Rabinowitz, Race Relations in the Urban South, 1865–1890 (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1996), 24–182; Foner, Reconstruction, 261–264.

11. Wood, Black Scare, 120–123, 141–143.

12. Text of Fourteenth Amendment, Cornell University Law School, https://www.law.cornell.edu/constitution/amendmentxiv.

13. Foner, Reconstruction, 255, 261.

14. Elizabeth Cady Stanton, Susan B. Anthony, and Matilda Joslyn Gage, eds., History of Woman Suffrage, 1861–1876, vol. 2 (Rochester, NY: Charles Mann, 1887), 188, 214; Frances Ellen Watkins Harper, “We Are All Bound Up Together,” in Proceedings of the Eleventh Women’s Rights Convention (New York: Robert J. Johnston, 1866); Giddings, When and Where I Enter, 65–67; Davis, Women, Race & Class, 64–65, 70–75, 80–81.

15. Gerda Lerner, ed., Black Women in White America: A Documentary History (New York: Pantheon Books, 1972), 569–570.

16. Foner, Reconstruction, 253–271, 282–285, 288–291, 308–311.

17. Paul D. Moreno, Black Americans and Organized Labor: A New History (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 2006), 24–26.

18. Ibram H. Rogers, The Black Campus Movement: Black Students and the Racial Reconstitution of Higher Education, 1965–1972 (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2012), 13–15; National Freedman’s Relief Association of New York Annual Report of 1865/66 (New York: Holman, 1866), 22; Anderson, Education of Blacks in the South, 28–63.

19. Kathy Russell-Cole, Midge Wilson, and Ronald E. Hall, The Color Complex: The Politics of Skin Color Among African Americans (New York: Harcourt, Brace, Jovanovich, 1992), 26–29.

20. Woodward, American Counterpoint, 172–176; Andrew Johnson, “Third Annual Message,” December 3, 1867, at Gerhard Peters and John T. Woolley, The American Presidency Project, www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/?pid=29508.

21. Foner, Reconstruction, 340–345; Adams and Sanders, Alienable Rights, 211; Wood, Black Scare, 116–117, 120, 123–129.

22. Foner, Reconstruction, 446–447; Fredrickson, The Black Image in the White Mind, 185–186; Woodward, American Counterpoint, 177–179.

23. Louise Michele Newman, White Women’s Rights: The Racial Origins of Feminism in the United States (New York: Oxford University Press, 1999), 65.

24. Giddings, When and Where I Enter, 68–70; Moreno, Black Americans and Organized Labor, 27–32; Roediger, How Race Survived U.S. History, 103–104.

25. Davis, Women, Race & Class, 82–86; Giddings, When and Where I Enter, 67–71.

26. Wood, Black Scare, 102.

CHAPTER 20: RECONSTRUCTING BLAME

1. Mayer, All on Fire, 613–614; Foner, Reconstruction, 448–449.

2. William A. Sinclair, The Aftermath of Slavery: A Study of the Condition and Environment of the American Negro (Boston: Small, Maynard, 1905), 104.

3. Wood, Black Scare, 143–153.

4. Adams and Sanders, Alienable Rights, 212–215; Woodward, American Counterpoint, 179–182.

5. Foner, Reconstruction, 316–331, 346–365, 379–390.

6. Fionnghuala Sweeney, Frederick Douglass and the Atlantic World (Liverpool: Liverpool University Press, 2007), 175.

7. Adams and Sanders, Alienable Rights, 215–217.

8. Henry Ward Beecher, The Life of Jesus, the Christ (New York: J. B. Ford, 1871), 134–137.

9. Stetson Kennedy, After Appomattox: How the South Won the War (Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 1995), 220–221; Jack B. Scroggs, “Southern Reconstructions: A Radical View,” in Reconstruction: An Anthology of Revisionist Writings, ed. Kenneth M. Stampp and Leon F. Litwack (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1969), 422–423; Foner, Reconstruction, 499–504.

10. LeeAnna Keith, The Colfax Massacre: The Untold Story of Black Power, White Terror, and the Death of Reconstruction (New York: Oxford University Press, 2008); Peter H. Irons, A People’s History of the Supreme Court (New York: Viking, 1999), 202–205.

11. Irons, A People’s History of the Supreme Court, 197–201; Slaughterhouse Cases, 83 US 36, see https://www.law.cornell.edu/supremecourt/text/83/36.

12. Foner, Reconstruction, 512–517, 525, 531–532, 537–539; Adams and Sanders, Alienable Rights, 219.

13. Foner, Reconstruction, 393–411, 536–538.

14. Rabinowitz, Race Relations in the Urban South, 237–238, 243–248.

15. Mayer, All on Fire, 616; James S. Pike, The Prostrate State: South Carolina Under Negro Government (New York: D. Appleton, 1874), 12.

16. Adams and Sanders, Alienable Rights, 219–220; Foner, Reconstruction, 525–527, 554; González and Torres, News for All the People, 151–153; Mayer, All on Fire, 615–616.

17. Irons, A People’s History of the Supreme Court, 206–207; Foner, Reconstruction, 532–534, 563, 590.

18. Foner, Reconstruction, 565; Mayer, All on Fire, 617.

19. Foner, Reconstruction, 571–573; Adams and Sanders, Alienable Rights, 223–224.

20. Mary Gibson, Born to Crime: Cesare Lombroso and the Origins of Biological Criminology, Italian and Italian American Studies (Westport, CT: Praeger, 2002), 43–44, 249–250; Degler, In Search of Human Nature, 35–36; Giddings, When and Where I Enter, 79; Washington, Medical Apartheid, 247; Cesare Lombroso and William Ferrero, The Female Offender (New York: D. Appleton, 1895), 111–113.

21. Moreno, Black Americans and Organized Labor, 45–67.

22. Adams and Sanders, Alienable Rights, 222–227; Irons, A People’s History of the Supreme Court, 206–209; Foner, Reconstruction, 575–596.

23. George B. Tindall, South Carolina Negroes, 1877–1900 (Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 1952), 12; Wade Hampton, “Ought the Negro to Be Defranchised? Ought He to Have Been Enfranchised?” North American Review 168 (1879): 241–243.

24. Isabel Wilkerson, The Warmth of Other Suns: The Epic Story of America’s Great Migration (New York: Random House, 2010), 39.

25. Adams and Sanders, Alienable Rights, 228; Foner, Reconstruction, 598–602; Mayer, All on Fire, 624–626.

CHAPTER 21: RENEWING THE SOUTH

1. W. E. B. Du Bois, Black Reconstruction in America: An Essay Towards a History of the Part Which Black Folk Played in the Attempt to Reconstruct Democracy in America, 1860–1880 (New York: Atheneum, 1971), 30.

2. David Levering Lewis, W. E. B. Du Bois: Biography of a Race, 1868–1919 (New York: Henry Holt, 1993), 11–37.

3. Washington, Medical Apartheid, 152–153.

4. Lewis, W. E. B. Du Bois, 1868–1919, 31–40.

5. Irons, A People’s History of the Supreme Court, 209–215.

6. Henry W. Grady, The New South (New York: Robert Bonner’s Sons, 1890), 146, 152; Atticus G. Haygood, Pleas for Progress (Cincinnati: M. E. Church, 1889), 28; Our Brother in Black: His Freedom and His Future (New York: Phillips and Hunt, 1881).

7. Thomas U. Dudley, “How Shall We Help the Negro?” Century Magazine 30 (1885): 273–280; George Washington Cable, The Silent South, Together with the Freedman’s Case in Equity and the Convict Lease System (New York: Scribner’s, 1885); Henry W. Grady, “In Plain Black and White: A Reply to Mr. Cable,” Century Magazine 29 (1885), 911.

8. “Two Colored Graduates,” Philadelphia Daily News, February 22, 1888.

9. Robert L. Dabney, A Defense of Virginia (New York: E. J. Hale and Son, 1867); Thomas Nelson Page, In Ole Virginia; or, Marse Chan and Other Stories (New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1887); Philip Alexander Bruce, The Plantation Negro as a Freeman: Observations on His Character, Condition, and Prospects in Virginia (New York: G. P. Putnam’s Sons, 1889), 53–57.

10. Lewis, W. E. B. Du Bois, 1868–1919, 51–76.

11. “Review of History of the Negro Race in America from 1619 to 1880, by George W. Williams,” Magazine of American History 9, no. 4 (1883): 299–300.

12. George W. Williams, History of the Negro Race in America from 1619 to 1880 (New York: G. P. Putnam’s Sons, 1885), 1:60, 2:451, 548.

13. Lewis, W. E. B. Du Bois, 1868–1919, 76–78; W. E. B. Du Bois, The Autobiography of W. E. B. Du Bois: A Soliloquy on Viewing My Life from the Last Decade of Its First Century (New York: International Publishers, 1968), 142.

14. Benjamin Harrison, “First Annual Message,” December 3, 1889, in Gerhard Peters and John T. Woolley, The American Presidency Project, www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/?pid=29530.

CHAPTER 22: SOUTHERN HORRORS

1. Fredrickson, The Black Image in the White Mind, 262–268.

2. Edward Wilmot Blyden, “The African Problem, and the Method of Its Solution,” African Repository 66, no. 3 (1890): 69; Henry M. Stanley, Through the Dark Continent (New York: Harper and Brothers, 1878); Joseph Conrad, Heart of Darkness (New York: Penguin, 2007), 41.

3. Thomas Adams Upchurch, Legislating Racism: The Billion Dollar Congress and the Birth of Jim Crow (Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 2004), 23–45; Keim, Mistaking Africa, 47–53.

4. Mary Frances Berry, My Face Is Black Is True: Callie House and the Struggle for Ex-Slave Reparations (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2005), 33–49, 75–80.

5. Lewis, W. E. B. Du Bois, 1868–1919, 100–102.

6. Albert Bushnell Hart, The Southern South (New York: D. Appleton, 1910), 99–105, 134; Lewis, W. E. B. Du Bois, 1868–1919, 111–113.

7. Lewis, W. E. B. Du Bois, 1868–1919, 116.

8. Upchurch, Legislating Racism, 85–128.

9. August Meier, Negro Thought in America, 1880–1915 (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1963), 192.

10. Giddings, When and Where I Enter, 123–125; Moreno, Black Americans and Organized Labor, 68–81, 93–96, 99–100.

11. Giddings, When and Where I Enter, 18; Ida B. Wells, Southern Horrors: Lynch Law in All Its Phases (New York: New York Age, 1892), www.gutenberg.org/files/14975/14975-h/14975-h.htm; Adams and Sanders, Alienable Rights, 231–232.

12. Giddings, When and Where I Enter, 81–83; Anna Julia Cooper, A Voice from the South (Xenia, OH: Aldine, 1892), 34, 134.

13. Wells, Southern Horrors.

14. Deborah Gray White, Too Heavy a Load: Black Women in Defense of Themselves, 1894–1994 (New York: W. W. Norton, 1999), 22–27, 71, 78, 109.

15. Geoffrey C. Ward, Before the Trumpet: Young Roosevelt (New York: Harper and Row, 1985), 215–216.

16. Lewis, W. E. B. Du Bois, 1868–1919, 144–149.

17. W. E. B. Du Bois, “My Evolving Program for Negro Freedom,” in What the Negro Wants, ed. Rayford W. Logan (New York: Agathon, 1969), 70.

18. For Washington’s private civil rights activism, see David H. Jackson, Booker T. Washington and the Struggle Against White Supremacy: The Southern Educational Tours, 1908–1912 (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2008); David H. Jackson, A Chief Lieutenant of the Tuskegee Machine: Charles Banks of Mississippi (Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 2002).

19. Booker T. Washington, “Atlanta Compromise Speech,” 1895, http://historymatters.gmu.edu/d/39/.

20. Lewis, W. E. B. Du Bois, 1868–1919, 174–175.

21. Paula Giddings, Ida: A Sword Among Lions—Ida B. Wells and the Campaign Against Lynching (New York: Amistad, 2009), 366–367.

22. Irons, A People’s History of the Supreme Court, 219–232; Woodward, American Counterpoint, 230–232.

23. See Robert H. Wiebe, The Search for Order, 1877–1920 (New York: Hill and Wang, 1967).

CHAPTER 23: BLACK JUDASES

1. Havelock Ellis, Studies in the Psychology of Sex, vol. 1 (London: Wilson and Macmillan, 1897), x.

2. Siobhan Somerville, “Scientific Racism and the Emergence of the Homosexual Body,” Journal of the History of Sexuality 5, no. 2 (1994): 244–259.

3. Frederick L. Hoffman, Race Traits and Tendencies of the American Negro (New York: Macmillan, 1896), 311–312.

4. W. E. B Du Bois, “Review of Race Traits and Tendencies, by Frederick L. Hoffman,” Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 9 (1897): 130–132; Khalil Gibran Muhammad, The Condemnation of Blackness: Race, Crime, and the Making of Modern Urban America (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2010), 61–65, 78.

5. W. E. B. Du Bois, “The Conservation of Races,” in W. E. B. Du Bois: A Reader, ed. David Levering Lewis (New York: Henry Holt, 1995), 20–27.

6. W. E. B. Du Bois, The Philadelphia Negro: A Social Study (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1899), 68, 387–389; “Review of The Philadelphia Negro, by W. E. B. Du Bois,” American Historical Review 6, no. 1 (1900): 162–164.

7. Lewis, W. E. B. Du Bois, 1868–1919, 238–239.

8. González and Torres, News for All the People, 157–160; W. Fitzhugh Brundage, “The Darien ‘Insurrection’ of 1899: Black Protest During the Nadir of Race Relations,” Georgia Historical Quarterly 74, no. 2 (1990): 234–253; W. E. B. Du Bois, Dusk of Dawn (New York: Oxford University Press, 2007), 34; Du Bois, “My Evolving Program,” 70.

9. W. E. B. Du Bois, “To the Nation of the World,” in W. E. B. Du Bois: A Reader, 639–641.

10. Rudyard Kipling, “The White Man’s Burden,” McClure’s Magazine, February 1899.

11. Fredrickson, The Black Image in the White Mind, 305–310; González and Torres, News for All the People, 178–179.

12. Roediger, How Race Survived U.S. History, 141–142, 156–158, 160; Douglas S. Massey and Nancy A. Denton, American Apartheid: Segregation and the Making of the Underclass (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1993), 29.

13. George H. White, “Farewell Speech,” in Benjamin R. Justesen, George Henry White: An Even Chance in the Race of Life (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 2001), 441.

14. Howard K. Beale, “On Rewriting Reconstruction History,” American Historical Review 45, no. 4 (1940): 807; William Archibald Dunning, Reconstruction, Political and Economic, 1865–1877 (New York: Harper and Brothers, 1907), 212.

15. Ulrich Bonnell Phillips, American Negro Slavery (New York: D. Appleton, 1929), 8; John David Smith, Slavery, Race, and American History: Historical Conflict, Trends, and Method, 1866–1953 (Armonk, NY: M. E. Sharpe), x–xii, 28, 29.

16. Joseph Moreau, Schoolbook Nation: Conflicts over American History Textbooks from the Civil War to the Present (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 2003), 163–174; Will Kaufman, The Civil War in American Culture (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2006), 28–29.

17. Booker T. Washington, Up from Slavery: An Autobiography (New York: Doubleday, Page, 1901).

18. Lewis, W. E. B. Du Bois, 1868–1919, 262–264.

19. William Hannibal Thomas, The American Negro: What He Was, What He Is, and What He May Become (New York: Macmillan, 1901), 129, 195, 296, 410; John David Smith, Black Judas: William Hannibal Thomas and the American Negro (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 2000), 161–164, 177–178, 185–189.

20. Addie Hunton, “Negro Womanhood Defended,” Voice 1, no. 7 (1904): 280; Smith, Black Judas, xxvi, 206–209; Muhammad, Condemnation of Blackness, 79–81.

21. Clarence Lusane, The Black History of the White House, Open Media Series (San Francisco: City Lights Books, 2011), 225–233; Seth M. Scheiner, “President Theodore Roosevelt and the Negro, 1901–1908,” Journal of Negro History 47, no. 3 (1962): 171–172; Stephen Kantrowitz, Ben Tillman and the Reconstruction of White Supremacy (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2000); 259; Charles Carroll, The Negro a Beast; Or, In the Image of God (Miami: Mnemosyn, 1969).

22. Aptheker, Anti-Racism in U.S. History, 25; James Weldon Johnson, Along This Way: The Autobiography of James Weldon Johnson (Boston: Da Capo, 2000), 203; W. E. B. Du Bois, The Souls of Black Folk: Essays and Sketches (Chicago: A. C. McClurg, 1903), 11–12.

23. Ibid., 3–4, 11.

24. Ibid., 53.

25. W. E. B. Du Bois, “The Talented Tenth,” in The Negro Problem: A Series of Articles by Representative American Negroes of Today (New York: James Pott, 1903), 43–45.

26. Lewis, W. E. B. Du Bois, 1868–1919, 291–294; Carl Kelsey, “Review of The Souls of Black Folk, by W. E. B. Du Bois,” Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 22 (1903): 230–232.

CHAPTER 24: GREAT WHITE HOPES

1. Sander Gilman, Jewish Frontiers: Essays on Bodies, Histories, and Identities (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2003), 89.

2. W. E. B. Du Bois, ed., The Health and Physique of the American Negro (Atlanta: Atlanta University Press, 1906).

3. Michael Yudell, Race Unmasked: Biology and Race in the Twentieth Century (New York: Columbia University Press, 2014), 48–49; W. E. B. Du Bois, Black Folk Then and Now: An Essay in the History and Sociology of the Negro Race (New York: Henry Holt, 1939), vii.

4. Lewis, W. E. B. Du Bois, 1868–1919, 331–333; Theodore Roosevelt, “Sixth Annual Message,” December 3, 1906, at Gerhard Peters and John T. Woolley, American Presidency Project, www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/?pid=29547.

5. Lester Frank Ward, Pure Sociology: A Treatise on the Origin and Spontaneous Development of Society (New York: Macmillan, 1921), 359; James Elbert Cutler, Lynch Law: An Investigation into the History of Lynching in the United States (New York: Longman, Green, 1905), 269; W. E. B. Du Bois, “Some Notes on Negro Crime,” Atlanta University Publications (Atlanta: Atlanta University Press, 1904), 56.

6. Lewis, W. E. B. Du Bois, 1868–1919, 332.

7. Geoffrey C. Ward, Unforgivable Blackness: The Rise and Fall of Jack Johnson (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2004), 98–100, 130–133, 137–139, 144–145, 422–424.

8. John Gilbert, Knuckles and Gloves (London: W. Collins Sons, 1922), 45; González and Torres, News for All the People, 209–211; Ward, Unforgivable Blackness, 115–116.

9. Keim, Mistaking Africa, 48; Emily S. Rosenberg, Financial Missionaries to the World: The Politics and Culture of Dollar Diplomacy, 1900–1930 (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2003), 201–203.

10. Du Bois, Autobiography, 227–229.

11. Lewis, W. E. B. Du Bois, 1868–1919, 386–402.

12. Charles Benedict Davenport, Heredity in Relation to Eugenics (New York: Henry Holt, 1911), 1; Yudell, Race Unmasked, 31–40; Dorothy E. Roberts, Killing the Black Body: Race, Reproduction, and the Meaning of Liberty (New York: Pantheon Books, 1997), 61–62, 66–68.

13. Lewis, W. E. B. Du Bois, 1868–1919, 413–414.

14. Franz Boas, The Mind of Primitive Man (New York: Macmillan, 1921), 127–128, 272–273; Lee D. Baker, Anthropology and the Racial Politics of Culture (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2010), 24.

15. Giddings, Ida, 479–480.

16. The Crisis, June 1911.

17. W. E. B. Du Bois, “Hail Columbia!” in W. E. B. Du Bois: A Reader, 295–296.

18. Nannie H. Burroughs, “Not Color but Character,” Voice of the Negro 1 (1904), 277–278.

19. Giddings, When and Where I Enter, 122–123; N. H. Burroughs, “Black Women and Reform,” The Crisis, August 1915.

20. Lewis, W. E. B. Du Bois, 1868–1919, 419–424; Woodrow Wilson, Division and Reunion, 1829–1909 (New York: Longman, Green, 1910).

21. Blum and Harvey, The Color of Christ, 141–142.

22. Louis R. Harlan, Booker T. Washington: The Wizard of Tuskegee, 1901–1915 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1983), 431–435; Lewis, W. E. B. Du Bois, 1868–1919, 460–463, 501–509; Ed Guerrero, Framing Blackness: The African American Image in Film (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1993), 10–17; W. E. B. Du Bois, The Negro (New York: Cosimo, 2010), 82.