Augustus at War

Chapter 2: Command and Conquer

1. Dio 53 Index; Fasti Praenestini: CIL I.12 (Rome) (a) p. 231, (b) p. 236 = Dessau 2.2.8844 (Fasti Praenestini CIL I.12 236 (Rome) – Agrippa’s consulate is mentioned for 16 January and for 24 April = Dessau 2.2.8844 indicates 23 April; Tacitus, Annales 1.3.1 uses the phrase geminatis consulatibus.

2. Drogula (2015), pp. 354–55, refers to the Lex Titia or the statement ‘all of Italy’ in the law permitting Caesar to command the army in prosecution of the war against Antonius and Kleopatra.

3. Caesar was meticulous about carefully preparing what he wanted to say. Rather than commit his speech to memory and risk forgetting any points, he wrote his thoughts down: Suet., Div. Aug. 84.2; Dio 54.25.5.

4. Dio 53.3–11.4. For a full discussion of the account presented by Dio and Augustus’ version of events in Res Gestae see Turpin (1994), pp. 427–37.

5. Dio 53.2.7, 50.11.1.

6. Dio 50.11.2.

7. Dio 50.11.4, 50.12.1–3. On the imperium of Augustus see Jones (1951).

8. Dio 50.12.1.

9. Dio 53.11.5.

10. RG Introduction: orbem terrarum imperio populi Romani subiecit.

11. Dio 53.12.1–2, 53.13.4–7, 53.14.1–4; Strabo, Geog. 17.3.25.

12. Strabo, Geog. 17.3.25: ἐπειδὴ γὰρ ἡ πατρὶς ἐπέτρεψεν αὐτῷ τὴν προστασίαν τῆς ἡγεμονίας, καὶ πολέμου καὶ εἰρήνης κατέστη κύριος διὰ βίου, δίχα διεῖλε πᾶσαν τὴν χώραν καὶ τὴν μὲν ἀπέδειξεν ἑαυτῷ τὴν δὲ τῷ δήμῳ, ἑαυτῷ μὲν ὅση στρατιωτικῆς φρουρᾶς ἔχει χρείαν: αὕτη δ᾽ ἐστὶν ἡ βάρβαρος καὶ πλησιόχωρος τοῖς μήπω κεχειρωμένοις ἔθνεσιν ἢ λυπρὰ καὶ δυσγεώργητος, ὥσθ᾽ ὑπὸ ἀπορίας τῶν ἄλλων ἐρυμάτων δ᾽ εὐπορίας ἀφηνιάζειν καὶ ἀπειθεῖν, τῷ δήμῳ δὲ τὴν ἄλλην ὅση εἰρηνικὴ καὶ χωρὶςὅπλων ἄρχεσθαι ῥᾳδία . Cf. Suet., Div. Aug. 47.1.

13. Dio 53.12.4; Strabo, Geog. 17.3.25.

14. Dio 53.12.4, 53.13.1; Strabo, Geog. 17.3.25; Suet., Div. Aug. 47.1.

15. Dio 53.12.5–7: Dio notes Augustus soon swapped Cyprus and Narbonensis for Illyricum/ Dalmatia; Strabo, Geog. 17.3.25.

16. Dio 53.12.3. See Crook (1996), pp. 78–79; Parker (1928), pp. 72–92; Drogula (2015), pp. 354–55.

17. Orosius 6.19.14. The English word delegate finds its root in the Latin delegatus, meaning ‘sent on a commission’, from the verb delegare.

18. Joseph., Bell. Iud. 2.117. On the responsibilities of a legate and his commander see Caes., Bell. Civ. 3.51: ‘The duties of a legate and of a commander are different: the one ought to do everything under direction, the other should take measures freely in the general interest.’ | Aliae enim sunt legati partes atque imperatoris: alter omnia agere ad praescriptum, alter libere ad summam rerum consulere debet.

19. Dio 53.15.1.

20. See Drogula (2015), pp. 355–56.

21. Dio 53.15.6: ἐκεῖνα δὲ ἐπὶ πᾶσιν ὁμοίως ἐνομοθετήθη, μήτε καταλόγους σφᾶς ποιεῖσθαι, μήτ᾽ ἀργύριον ἔξω τοῦ τεταγμένου ἐσπράσσειν, εἰ μὴ ἤτοι ἡ βουλὴ ψηφίσαιτο ἢ ὁ αὐτοκράτωρ κελεύσειεν: ὅταν τέ τῳ ὁ διάδοχος ἔλθῃ, ἔκ τε τοῦ ἔθνονς αὐτίκα αὐτὸν ἐξορμᾶσθαι καὶ ἐν τῇ ἀνακομιδῇ μὴ ἐγχρονίζειν, ἀλλ᾽ ἐντὸς τριῶν μηνῶν ἐπανιέναι.

22. Dio, 53.13.3.

23. Dio, 53.13–2-4.

24. Dio 53.16.7–8.

25. Dio 53.16.6, 8; Vell. Pat. 2.91.1. See Turpin (1994), p. 437.

26. Dio 53.16.7–8; Suet., Div. Aug. 7; Vell. Pat. 2.91; Florus 4.12; Orosius 6.20; Censorinus 22; Ovid, Fasti 1.607.

27. For an example of usage of the full name see CIL III, 6070.749/5.

28. Dio 53.16.4–5; Aul. Gell., Noct. Att. 5.6.11–12. Coins: examples include BMCRE 317 (Rome), RIC I 36a (Caesareaugusta), RIC I 77a (Caesareaugusta), RIC I 79a (Colonia Patricia). The ‘civic crown’ (corona civica) was a military award of a wreath made of oak leaves tied with a fillet (also called the corona querceis) and was worn on the head.

29. The cardinal virtues were Virtus, clementia, iustitia and pietas. On these see Galinsky (1996), pp. 80–88.

30. Dio 51.22.1.

31. Dio 53.22.5: τότε μὲν δὴ ταῦτα ὁ Αὔγουστος ἔπραξε, καὶ ἐξώρμησε μὲν ὡς καὶ ἐς τὴν Βρεττανίαν στρατεύσων, ἐς δὲ δὴ τὰς Γαλατίας ἐλθὼν ἐνταῦθα ἐνδιέτριψεν: ἐκεῖνοί τε γὰρ ἐπικηρυκεύσεσθαί οἱ ἐδόκουν .

32. Caes., Bell. Gall. 4.20–36 and 5.1–23.

33. See Mommsen (1954) on a purported fragment of Livy, AUC concerning Augustus and Britain.

34. Dio 53.22.5: καὶ τὰ τούτων ἀκατάστατα ἔτι, ἅτε τῶν ἐμφυλίων πολέμων εὐθὺς ἐπὶ τῇ ἁλώσει σφῶν ἐπιγενομένων, ἦν .

35. App., Bell. Civ. 5.92.

36. Tib. 1.7.3–8; Eutrop. 7.9; Suet., Tibullus: cuius etiam contubernalis Aquitanico bello militaribus donis donatus est. App., Bell. Civ. 4.38. Tibullus would be better known in later ages for his Latin poetry.

37. Fast. Capitol.

38. Dio 51.21.6; see Ch. 1, n. 221.

39. For the transformation of Gallic communities into Roman provinces see the excellent survey by Woolf (1998).

40. Roth (1999), p. 237.

41. Powell (2015), pp. 140–42.

42. Dio 53.25.1; Plut., Ant. 61.

43. Dio 53.21.1.

44. Fast. Capitol.

45. RG 32: Dumnobellaunus may have ruled the Cantiaci whose territory covered Kent or Trinovantes of Essex; Tin[comarus] likely ruled the Atrebates located in Berkshire and Hampshire.

46. Dio 53.25.2.

47. Dio 53.22.1. Strabo, Geog. 2.5.8 speculated about the cost benefit of annexation of the island in the last decade of the First Century BCE: For although they could have held even Britannia, the Romans scorned to do so, because they saw that there was nothing at all to fear from the Britons (for they are not strong enough to cross over and attack us), and that no corresponding advantage was to be gained by taking and holding their country. For it seems that at present more revenue is derived from the duty on their commerce than the tribute could bring in, if we deduct the expense involved in the maintenance of an army for the purpose of guarding the island and collecting the tribute; and the unprofitableness of an occupation would be still greater in the case of the other islands about Britannia. | τὸ δ᾽ ἐκεῖθεν ἐπὶ τὴν Βρεττανικὴν δύναται συμφωνεῖν τῷ ἀπὸ Βυζαντίου ἐπὶ Βορυσθένη: τὸ δ᾽ ἐκεῖθεν ἐπὶ τὴν Ἰέρνην οὐκέτι γνώριμον πόσον ἄν τις θείη, οὐδ᾽ εἰ περαιτέρω ἔτι οἰκήσιμά ἐστιν, οὐδὲ δεῖ φροντίζειν τοῖς ἐπάνω λεχθεῖσι προσέχοντας: πρός τε γὰρ ἐπιστήμην ἀρκεῖ τὸ λαβεῖν, καθάπερ ἐπὶ τῶν νοτίων μερῶν, ὅτι ὑπὲρ Μερόης μέχρι τρισχιλίων σταδίων προελθόντι τῆς οἰκησίμου τίθεσθαι πέρας προσῆκεν (οὐχ ὡς ἂν τούτου ἀκριβεστάτου πέρατος ὄντος, ἀλλ᾽ ἐγγύς γε τἀκριβοῦς), οὕτω κἀκεῖ τοὺς ὑπὲρ τῆς Βρεττανικῆς οὐ πλείους τούτων θετέον ἢ μικρῷ πλείους, οἷον τετρακισχιλίους. πρός τε τὰς ἡγεμονικὰς χρείας οὐδὲνἂν εἴη πλεονέκτημα τὰς τοιαύτας γνωρίζειν χώρας καὶ τοὺς ἐνοικοῦντας, καὶ μάλιστα εἰ νήσους οἰκοῖεν τοιαύτας, αἳ μήτε λυπεῖν μήτ᾽ ὠφελεῖν ἡμᾶς δύνανται μηδὲν διὰ τὸ ἀνεπίπλεκτον: καὶ γὰρ τὴν Βρεττανικὴν ἔχειν δυνάμενοι Ῥωμαῖοι κατεφρόνησαν, ὁρῶντες ὅτι οὔτε φόβος ἐξ αὐτῶν οὐδὲ εἷς ἐστιν (οὐ γὰρ ἰσχύουσι τοσοῦτον ὥστ᾽ ἐπιδιαβαίνειν ἡμῖν) οὔτ᾽ ὠφέλεια τοσαύτη τις, εἰ κατάσχοιεν. πλέον γὰρ ἐκ τῶν τελῶν δοκεῖ προσφέρεσθαι νῦν ἢ ὁ φόρος δύναται συντελεῖν, ἀφαιρουμένης τῆς εἰς τὸ στρατιωτικὸν δαπάνης τὸ φρουρῆσον καὶ φορολογῆσον τὴν νῆσον: πολὺ δ᾽ ἂν ἐπιγένοιτο τὸ ἄχρηστον ἐπὶ τῶν ἄλλων τῶν περὶ ταύτην νήσων.

48. Dio 53.22.5: κἀντεῦθεν ἔς τε τὴν Ἰβηρίαν ἀφίκετο, καὶ κατεστήσατο καὶ ἐκείνην . For a summary of the wars before Augustus see Van Nostrand (1915), pp. 84–91.

49. Florus 2.33; Orosius 6.21.4. For surveys of archeological evidence see Morillo and García-Marcos (2002), pp. 779–89, and Rodà de Llanza (2003), pp. 53–63.

50. The military settlement in Álava was active between 40–30 BCE: see Morillo (2011), pp. 12–13. On Celt-Iberian war and society see Almagro-Gorbea and Lorrio (2004).

51. Dio 51.20.5, 53.25.2.

52. Florus 2.33: qui non contenti libertatem suam defendere proximis etiam imperitare temptabant Vaccaeosque et Turmogidos et Autrigonas crebris incursionibus fatigabant. Cf. Strabo, Geog. 3.3.8.

53. Dio 56.43.3: Κοροκότταν γοῦν τινα λῃστὴν ἐν Ἰβηρίᾳ ἀκμάσαντα τὸ μὲν πρῶτον οὕτω δι᾽ ὀργῆς ἔσχεν ὥστε τῷ ζωγρήσαντι αὐτὸν πέντε καὶ εἴκοσι μυριάδας ἐπικηρῦξαι, ἔπειτ᾽ ἐπειδὴ ἑκών οἱ προσῆλθεν, οὔτε τι κακὸν εἰργάσατο καὶ προσέτι καὶ τῷ ἀργυρίῳ ἐκείνῳ ἐπλούτισε . For an in-depth discussion of brigandage in the Roman world see Grünewald (2004).

54. Strabo 3.4.5; Dio 53.25.5; Florus 2.33; Suet., Div. Aug. 20 and 21. For a discussion of the Bellum Cantabricum et Asturicum see Morillo (2011), pp. 13–15.

55. For a discussion of the number and whereabouts of units present see Syme (1934a), pp. 298–301. Curchin (1995), p. 69.

56. Curchin (1995), pp. 71–72, casts doubt on the presence of Cohors Thracum.

57. For a discussion of the legates with Augustus see Syme (1934a), pp. 301–02. Florus 2.33 mentions M. Agrippa was involved, which is problematic since he was certainly in Rome at this time. Magie (1920), p. 335, suggests Florus may have compressed three different campaigns into a single statement.

58. Florus 2.33; Orosius 6.21.6–7; Dio 53.25.7–8; Velleius 2.90.4.

59. See Syme (1934a), p. 315.

60. App., Bell. Civ. 5.111.1; Florus 2.33; Orosius 6.21.10; Dio 53.25.8, 54.5.1–2. See Syme (1934a), pp. 315–16.

61. Suet., Tib. 9.1.

62. Dio 53.25.6.

63. Strabo, Geog. 3.3.6; Lucan, Pharsalia 6.259; Silius Italicus, Punica 5.195–97. For a discussion of evidence for arms of the Cantabri see Illarregui (2005).

64. The weapon is depicted on the denarius of Carisius (BMC 281; Cohen 406; Paris 1046 pl. XLII; RIC 7a; RSC 405.).

65. Strabo, Geog. 3.4.15; Arrian, Techne Taktike 40.

66. Strabo, Geog. 3.4.18.

67. Dio 53.25.5–6: αὐτὸς δὲ ὁ Αὔγουστος πρός τε τοὺς Αστυρας καὶ πρὸς τοὺς Καντάβρους ἅμαἐπολέμησε . For an interpretation of the confused chronology see Syme (1934a), pp. 295–301.

68. Florus 2.33. Two Roman camps have been identified in the locality of La Poza in Peña Cutral (Enmedio, Prov. Cantabria) near the native hillfort of Las Rabas: see Torres-Martínez, Martínez Velasco and Pérez Farraces (2012), p. 527.

69. Attica/Velica: Dio 53.25.6, Orosius 6.2.5 – on its modern identity see Syme (1934a), p. 310; Bergida: Florus 2.33.

70. Dio 53.25.7. Florus 2.33; Orosius 6.21.4: Vinnium montem natura tutissimum confugerunt. Mons Vinnius may have been one of the mountain peaks in the Cordillera Cantábrica.

71. Dio 53.25.5–6: καὶ ἐπειδὴ μήτε προσεχώρουν οἱ ἅτε ἐπὶ τοῖς ἐρυμνοῖς ἐπαιρόμενοι, μήτε ἐς χεῖρας διά τε τὸ τῷ πλήθει ἐλαττοῦσθαι καὶ διὰ τὸ ἀκοντιστὰς τὸ πλεῖστον εἶναι ᾖσαν, καὶ προσέτι καὶ πράγματα αὐτῷ πολλά, εἴ που κινηθείη, τά τε ὑπερδέξια ἀεὶ προκαταλαμβάνοντες καὶ ἐν τοῖς κοίλοις τοῖς τε ὑλώδεσιν ἐνεδρεύοντες παρεῖχον, ἐν ἀπόρῳ παντάπασιν ἐγένετο(1934a), pp. 302–05.

72. Orosius 6.21.5.

73. Florus 2.33; Orosius 6.21.4: hostibus admoueri classem atque exponi copias iubet; Strabo, Geog. 3.3.8. Cohors I Aquitanorum Veterana e.g. CIL XIII, 7399a.

74. Dio 53.27.3, 53.28.1; Florus 2.33.49–50; Orosius 6.21.11. Florus 2.33 mentions Aracillum, but Orosius 6.21 mentions Racilium. For a discussion see Martino (1982), pp. 32–33, 94–98 and 142. Illarregui (2005), p. 84, notes evidence of burning at several archaeological sites including Castro de Fontibre, Argüeso, and Castro de San Julián.

75. Florus 2.33: quasi quadam cogebat indagine.

76. For a full discussion of the site and finds of catapult bolt points and ballista stones see Torres-Martínez, Martínez Velasco and Pérez Farraces (2012).

77. Avery (1957), pp. 225 and 227.

78. Suet., Verg. 106–09: Augustus vero – nam forte expeditione Cantabrica aberat – supplicibus atque etiam minacibus per iocum litteris efflagitarat, ut ‘sibi de Aeneide,’ ut ipsius verba sunt, ‘vel prima carminis hupographe vel quodlibet kolon mitteretur’.

79. Dio 53.23.5: πολλὰ μὲν γὰρ καὶ μάταια ἐς τὸν Αὔγουστον ἀπελήρει, πολλὰ δὲ καὶ ἐπαίτια παρέπραττε: καὶ γὰρ καὶ εἰκόνας ἑαυτοῦ ἐν ὅλῃ ὡς εἰπεῖν τῇ Αἰγύπτῳ ἔστησε, καὶ τὰ ἔργα ὅσα ἐπεποιήκει ἐς τὰς πυραμίδας ἐσέγραψε.

80. Dio 53.23.6, Rutledge (2001), Case 99, characterises Largus as a delator, an accuser or informer.

81. Dio 53.23.7.

82. Dio 53.23.7; Suet., Div. Aug. 66.2; Suet., Grammat. 16.

83. Dio 53.24.1.

84. Dio 53.24.2: ὁ μέντοι Προκουλέιος οὕτω πρὸς αὐτὸν ἔσχεν ὥστ᾽ ἀπαντήσας ποτὲ αὐτῷ τήν τε ῥῖνα καὶ τὸ στόμα τὸ ἑαυτοῦ τῇ χειρὶ ἐπισχεῖν, ἐνδεικνύμενος τοῖς συνοῦσιν ὅτι μηδ᾽ ἀναπνεῦσαί τινι παρόντος αὐτοῦ ἀσφάλεια εἴη.

85. Strabo, Geog. 2.5.12: he acknowledges his friendship with Gallus and accompanied him on a trip down the Nile to Syene and the border with Ethiopia.

86. Strabo, Geog. 4.6.7.

87. App., Ill. 17.

88. Dio 53.25.3; Suet., Div. Aug. 21.1.

89. Strabo, Geog. 4.6.7.

90. Dio 53.25.3.

91. Livy, Peri. 135: Salassi, gens Alpina, perdomiti. Eutrop., 7.9.

92. Suet., Div. Aug. 21.

93. Dio 53.25.4: καὶ συμβῆναι καταναγκάσας ἀργύριόν τέ τι ῥητόν, ὡς καὶ μηδὲν δεινὸν ἄλλο δράσων, ᾔτησε, κἀκ τούτου πανταχῇ πρὸς τὴν ἔσπραξιν δῆθεν αὐτοῦ στρατιώτας διαπέμψας συνέλαβέ τε τοὺςἐν τῇ ἡλικίᾳ καὶ ἀπέδοτο, ἐφ᾽ ᾧ μηδείς σφων ντὸς εἴκοσιν ἐτῶν ἐλευθερωθείη.

94. Strabo, Geog. 4.6.7.

95. Strabo, Geog. 4.6.7; Dio 53.25.5.

96. Dio 51.21.6, 53.25.4.

97. Dio 53.25.7; Suet., Div. Aug. 81.1: cum etiam destillationibus iocinere vitiato ad desperationem redactus contrariam.

98. Suet., Div. Aug. 81.1; Dio 53.25.7; Florus 2.33.

99. Dio 53.25.8: Γάιος δὲ Ἀντίστιος προσεπολέμησέ τε αὐτοῖς ἐν τούτῳ καὶ συχνὰ κατειργάσατο, οὐχ ὅτι καὶ ἀμείνων τοῦ Αὐγούστου στρατηγὸς ἦν, ἀλλ᾽ ὅτι καταφρονήσαντες αὐτοῦ οἱ βάρβαροι ὁμόσε τε τοῖς Ῥωμαίοις ἐχώρησαν καὶ ἐνικήθησαν. καὶ οὕτως ἐκεῖνός τέ τινα ἔλαβε, καὶ Τίτος μετὰ ταῦτα Καρίσιος τήν τε Λαγκίαν τὸ μέγιστον τῶν Ἀστύρων πόλισμα ἐκλειφθὲν εἷλε καὶ ἄλλα πολλὰ παρεστήσατο. Dio has Carisius’ praenomen as Titus whereas coins show P. for Publius. Cf. Florus 2.33.

100. Such a camp with agger and fossae duplex has been identified at El Castichu de la Carisa, Lena in prov. Asturias and dated to 25 BCE: Morillo (2011), p. 14. Cf. Orosius 6.21.6. See Syme

101. Florus 2.33: the Roman historian specifically states montibus niveis, which would date this event to the end of the winter of 26/25 BCE or the spring of 25. Cf. Orosius 6.21.10. For a discussion of the tangled sources see Syme (1934a), p. 307.

102. Florus 2.33: Reliquias fusi exercitus validissima civitas Lancia excepti, ubi cum locis adeo certatum est, ut cum in captam urbem faces poscerentur, aegre dux impetraverit veniam, ut victoriae Romanae stans potius esset quem incensa monumentum.

103. Orosius 6.2.7: nam et Medullium montem Minio flumini inminentem; cf. Florus 2.33. The Miño is the longest river in Galicia, Spain, with a length of 340km. For a discussion of the whereabouts of Mons Medullus see Magie (1920), pp. 334–45, and Syme (1934a), p. 296 and 302–03.

104. Florus: 2.33 says 18 miles; Orosius 6.21.7 says 15 miles.

105. For a discussion of this and other tropaea see Powell (2016).

106. RIC I 1, a silver quinarius shows Victory crowning a trophy while RIC I 4, a denarius, shows the trophy itself. Both, minted at Emerita Augusta, bear the legend P CARISIVS LEG AVGVSTI PRO P.

107. Dio 53.26.1. See Syme (1934a), p. 307.

108. Dio 53.26.2; Strabo, Geog. 17.3.9.

109. Strabo, Geog. 12.6.3, 5.

110. Dio 53.26.3; Eutrop. 7.10.2.

111. Ramsay (1916 and 1924).

112. Dio 53.26.5: καὶ ἐψηφίσθη μέν που καὶ τὰ ἐπινίκια αὐτῷ καὶ ἐπὶ τούτοις καὶ ἐπὶ τοῖς ἄλλοις τοῖς τότε γενομένοις: ἐπεὶ δ᾽ οὐκ ἠθέλησεν αὐτὰ πέμψαι, ἁψίς τε ἐν ταῖς Ἄλπεσι τροπαιοφόρος οἱ ᾠκοδομήθη, καὶ ἐξουσία ἐδόθη τοῦ τῇ πρώτῃ τοῦ ἔτους ἡμέρᾳ καὶ τῷ στεφάνῳ καὶ τῇ ἐσθῆτι τῇ νικητηρίᾳ ἀεὶ χρῆσθαι. Florus 2.33 also mentions digna res lauro, a laurel crown.

113. Dio 53.26.5; Suet., Div. Aug. 22; RG 13.

114. Dio 53.29.1.

115. Dio 53.28.3: ταῦτα μὲν ἀποδημοῦντι ἔτ᾽ αὐτῷ ἐψηφίσθη, ἀφικομένῳ δὲ ἐς τὴν Ῥώμην ἄλλα τινὰ ἐπί τε τῇ σωτηρίᾳ καὶ ἐπὶ τῇ ἀνακομιδῇ αὐτοῦ ἐγένετο. τῷ τε Μαρκέλλῳ βουλεύειν τε ἐν τοῖς ἐστρατηγηκόσι καὶ τὴν ὑπατείαν δέκα θᾶττον ἔτεσιν ἤπερ ἐνενόμιστο αἰτῆσαι, καὶ τῷ Τιβερίῳ πέντε πρὸ ἑκάστης ἀρχῆς ἔτεσι τὸ αὐτὸ τοῦτο ποιῆσαι ἐδόθη .

116. L. (Aelius) Lamia: Cassiodorus Chron. Ann. 730; cf. L. (Aemilius Paullus) Lepidus: Dio 53.29.1. On the identity of the governor see Syme (1934a), pp. 315–16.

117. Vell. Pat. 2.116.3: vir antiquissimi moris et priscam gravitatem semper humanitate temperans

118. Dio 53.29.1–2: ἀπηλλάγη, ἐπανέστησαν, καὶ πέμψαντες πρὸς τὸν Αἰμίλιον, πρὶν καὶ ὁτιοῦν ἐκφῆναί οἱ, σῖτόν τε καὶ ἄλλα τινὰ χαρίσασθαι τῷ στρατεύματι βούλεσθαι ἔφασαν, κἀκ τούτου στρατιώτας συχνοὺς ὡς καὶ κομιοῦντας αὐτὰ λαβόντες ἔς τε χωρία αὐτοὺς ἐπιτήδειά σφισιν ἐσήγαγον καὶ κατεφόνευσαν.

119. Dio 53.29.2; Vell. Pat. 2.90.1.

120. Dio 53.29.3.

121. Strabo, Geog. 16.4.22: τοῦτον δ᾽ ἔπεμψεν ὁ Σεβαστὸς Καῖσαρ διαπειρασόμενον τῶν ἐθνῶν καὶ τῶν τόπων τούτων τε καὶ τῶν Αἰθιοπικῶν, ὁρῶν τήν τε Τρωγλοδυτικὴν τὴν προσεχῆ τῇ Αἰγύπτῳ γειτονεύουσαν τούτοις, καὶ τὸν Ἀράβιον κόλπον στενὸν ὄντα τελέως τὸν διείργοντα ἀπὸ τῶν Τρωγλοδυτῶν τοὺς Ἄραβας: προσοικειοῦσθαι δὴ διενοήθη τούτους ἢ καταστρέφεσθαι . Confirmed by RG 26. Strabo accompanied Gallus on a trip down the Nile River – Geog., 2.5.12.

122. Strabo, Geog. 16.4.22, 24. Other?

123. Strabo, Geog. 16.4.23, 17.1.53; Joseph., Ant. Iud. 15.317.

124. The Red Sea?

125. Dio 53.29.4.

126. Strabo, Geog. 16.4.22.

127. This example of trust betrayed anticipates the story of Arminius and Varus in 9 CE.

128. Strabo, Geog. 16.4.24.

129. Dio 53.29.4.

130. Dio 53.29.5: τὸ δὲ δὴ νόσημα οὐδενὶ τῶν συνήθων ὅμοιον ἐγίγνετο, ἀλλ᾽ ἐς τὴν κεφαλὴν ἐνσκῆψαν ἐξήραινεν αὐτήν, καὶ τοὺς μὲν πολλοὺς αὐτίκα ἀπώλλυε, τῶν δὲ δὴ περιγιγνομένων ἔς τε τὰ σκέλη κατῄει, πᾶν τὸ μεταξὺ τοῦ σώματος ὑπερβάν.

131. Strabo, Geog. 16.4.24. It may have been scurvy.

132. Strabo, Geog. 16.4.24.

133. Strabo, Geog. 16.4.24; cf. Dio 53.29.6–7.

134. Strabo, Geog. 17.1.53: Γάλλος τε Αἴλιος μέρει τῆς ἐν Αἰγύπτῳ φρουρᾶς εἰς τὴν Ἀραβίαν ἐμβαλὼν εἴρηται τίνα τρόπον ἐξήλεγξε τοὺς ἀνθρώπους ἀπολέμους ὄντας: εἰ δὴ μὴ ὁ Συλλαῖος αὐτὸν προὐδίδου, κἂν κατεστρέψατο τὴν εὐδαίμονα πᾶσαν.

135. Strabo, Geog. 16.4.24: δι᾽ ἃς αἰτίας οὐδ᾽ ἐπὶ πολὺ πρὸς τὴν γνῶσιν τῶν τόπων ὤνησεν ἡ στρατεία αὕτη: μικρὰ δ᾽ ὅμως συνήργησεν. Pliny, Nat. Hist. 6.32 attributes to the expedition several natural history discoveries and states that: in his expedition, Gallus destroyed the following towns, the names of which are not given by the authors who had written before his time, Negrana, Nestum, Nesca, Masugum, Caminacum, Labecia, and Mariva above-mentioned, 6 miles in circumference, as also Caripeta, the furthest point of his expedition. | Gallus oppida diruit, non nominata auctoribus qui ante scripserunt, Negranam, Nestum, Nescam, Magusum, Caminacum, Labaetiam et supra dictam Maribam circuitu VI, item Caripetam, quo longissime processit.

136. Dio 53.29.8: πρῶτοι μὲν δὴ Ῥωμαίων οὗτοι, νομίζω δ᾽ ὅτι καὶ μόνοι, τοσοῦτον ἐπὶ πολέμῳ τῆςἈραβίας ταύτης ἐπῆλθον: μέχρι γὰρ τῶν Ἀθλούλων καλουμένων, χωρίου τινὸς ἐπιφανοῦς, ἐχώρησαν.

137. RG 26.

138. Dio 53.29.8; Strabo, Geog. 17.1.54. On Ethiopians see Pliny, Nat. Hist. 5.8. Opper (2014), p. 23.

139. The bronze head is now in the British Museum, accession number GR 1911.9–1.1. For a discussion of the artefact see Opper (2014), pp. 8–17.

140. Strabo, Geog. 17.1.

141. Strabo, Geog. 16.4.24.

142. Dio 53.30.1.

143. Dio 53.30.2: διαλεχθεὶς δέ τινα αὐτοῖς περὶ τῶν δημοσίων πραγμάτων τῷ μὲν Πίσωνι τάς τε δυνάμεις καὶ τὰς προσόδους τὰς κοινὰς ἐς βιβλίον ἐσγράψας ἔδωκε, τῷ δ᾽ Ἀγρίππᾳ τὸν δακτύλιον ἐνεχείρισε. The significance was two-fold. The imperium proconsulare maius gave him power that was superior to all other consuls and proconsuls in all provinces, not just his own. The power of a plebeian tribune gave him the right to veto decrees of the Senate and personal immunity, without having to hold the office of the tribunate itself – though in practice he used it on behalf of the Senate to advance its wishes (RG 6). On the transfer of powers (the so-called Second Constitutional Settlement), see Grant (1949); Jameson and Jameson (1969); and Salmon (1956). Cf. Ch. 7, n. 35.

144. Suet., Div. Aug. 59; Dio 53.30.3.

145. Dio 53.30.4. On the rumours of Livia’s hand in Marcellus’ death see Dio 53.33.4.

146. Dio 53.30.5.

147. Suet., Verg. 110–14; Marcellus’ name is mentioned in Aen., 6.883.

148. Dio 53.30.2 and 4–6; 53.30.1–3. In the 30s BCE, by popular consent, Imp. Caesar had been granted use of the appellation Princeps Civitatis (‘First Man of the State’) or Princeps Civium (‘First Citizen’). It was an unofficial, courtesy title and did not confer upon him any formal social or political rank (Tac. Ann. 3.53). It is the origin of the word principate. Modern historians refer to the period of imperial autocracy established by him and his immediate successors as the Principate to distinguish it from the preceding epoch known as the Republic.

149. Vell. Pat. 2.93.2; Suet., Div. Aug. 66.3, Tib. 10.1; Pliny, Nat. Hist. 7.149; Tac., Ann. 14.53.3, 55.2–3; Dio 53.32.1; Joseph., Ant. Iud. 15.10.2 For a novel interpretation of Agrippa’s mission see Magie (1908), pp. 145–52.

150. Dio 53.32.1.

151. Dio 54.8.1.

152. Vell. Pat. 2.91.1.

153. Suet., Div. Aug. 23.1.

154. For example RIC I 1 and 2, 4, 7, 10, 15 and 19 bear the legend P CARISIVS LEG AVGVSTI PRO P. See Powell (2016).

155. Vell. Pat. 2.94.1.

156. Suet., Tib. 8.1: et repurgandorum tota Italia ergastulorum, quorum domini in invidiam venerant quasi exceptos supprimerent non solum viatores sed et quos sacramenti metus ad eius modi latebras compulisset. The ergastula were prisons for slaves, who were made to work in chains in the fields.

157. Suet., Div. Aug. 24.1.

158. Dio 54.1.1–2.

159. Dio 54.1.3.

160. Dio 54.1.3–4.

161. Dio 54.3.2. Proconsul Primus likely followed M. Licinius Crassus – see Ch. 1, n. 223.

162. Dio 54.3.4: τοῦ τε συναγορεύοντος τῷ Πρίμῳ Λικινίου Μουρήνου ἄλλα τε ἐς αὐτὸν οὐκ ἐπιτήδεια ἀπορρίψαντος, καὶ πυθομένου ‘τί δὴ ἐνταῦθα ποιεῖς, καὶ τίς σε ἐκάλεσεν;’ τοσοῦτον μόνον ἀπεκρίνατο ὅτι ‘τὸ δημόσιον .

163. Dio 54.3.5; Vell. Pat. 2.91.2.

164. Vell. Pat. 2.91.2–4. and 2.93.1.

165. Dio 54.6.1; Vell. Pat. 2.94.4.

166. Dio 54.7.1.

167. Cyprus and Gallia Narbonensis: Dio 54.4.1: τότε δ᾽ οὖν καὶ τὴν Κύπρον καὶ τὴν Γαλατίαν τὴν Ναρβωνησίαν ἀπέδωκε τῷ δήμῳ ὡς μηδὲν τῶν ὅπλων αὐτοῦ δεομένας . Illyricum: Dio 53.12.7, 54.34.3.

168. Dio 54.5.1.

169. Seneca, De Ben. 2.25.1.

170. Dio 52.42.4.

171. Dio 54.5.1–2.

172. Dio 54.5.3.

173. Orosius 6.21.6.

174. Dio 54.5.4; Strabo, Geog. 17.1.54.

175. Strabo, Geog. 17.1.54. Her full name and title was Amnirense qore li kdwe li, ‘Ameniras, Qore and Kandake’. The name Kandake, the Greek form of the Nubian word, indicates she was a queen. She is mentioned in the Bible, Acts 8:26–27.

176. Strabo, Geog. 17.1.54. Opper (2014), p. 25.

177. Prince Akinidad is known from the stele, EA 1650 in the British Museum, which was found in building M 292 at Hamadab, located 3km south of Meroë. It is carved in Meroitic script. See Opper (2014), pp. 27–29, fig. 15.

178. Strabo, Geog. 17.1.54.

179. Dio 54.6.1–2.

180. Dio 54.6.2–3.

181. Dio 54.6.4: ἀγανακτήσας οὖν ἐπὶ τούτῳ ὁ Αὔγουστος, καὶ μήτε μόνῃ τῇ Ῥώμῃ σχολάζειν δυνάμενος μήτ᾽ αὖ ἄναρχον αὐτὴν καταλιπεῖν τολμῶν, ἐζήτει τινὰ αὐτῇ ἐπιστῆσαι, καὶ ἔκρινε μὲν τὸν Ἀγρίππανἐπιτηδειότατον ἐς τοῦτο εἶναι .

182. Dio 54.6.5.

183. Dio 54.6.6.

184. See ‘New Clues as to the Whereabouts of the Lost Varus Inscription LWL-Römermuseum makes a surprise discovery during research for the ‘‘IMPERIUM’’-exhibition’, LWL-Römermuseum, Haktern am (online at http://www.lwl.org/varus-download/presse_imperium/ Presseinformation_I_eng.pdf – accessed 29 February 2016).

185. See Hoff (1989), pp. 270–74.

186. See Hoff (1989) p. 269 for his interpretation of Dio 54.7.3.

187. Dio 54.7.2.

188. Aigina: Plutarch, Reg. et imp. Apophth. 207 f.; Samos: Dio 54.7.4.

189. Strabo, Geog. 17.1.54.

190. Dio 54.7.4.

191. Dio 54.7.6.

192. Dio 54.7.6.

193. Dio 54.9.2.

194. Dio 54.9.4; Jos., Ant. Iud. 15.105.

195. Fasti Triumphales.

196. Vell. Pat. 2.94.4.

197. Dio 54.9.4.

198. Dio 54.9.5.

199. Suet., Tib. 9.1; Vell. Pat. 2.94.4 calls the new regent by the name Artavasdes.

200. Vell. Pat. 2.94.4: tanti nominis fama territus.

201. Vell. Pat. 2.94.4; Strabo, Geog. 6.4.2; Eutrop., 7.9. Dio is less than flattering about Tiberius’ contribution: yet he assumed a lofty bearing, especially after sacrifices had been voted to commemorate what he had done, as though he had accomplished something by valour | ὁ δ᾽ οὖν Τιβέριος, ἄλλως τε καὶ ἐπειδὴ θυσίαι ἐπὶ τούτῳ ἐψηφίσθησαν, ἐσεμνύνετο ὡς καὶ κατ᾽ ἀρετήν τι ποιήσας – Dio 54.9.5.

202. Dio 54.8.2–3: καὶ αὐτοὺς ἐκεῖνος ὡς καὶ πολέμῳ τινὶ τὸν Πάρθον νενικηκὼς ἔλαβε: καὶ γὰρ ἐπὶ τούτοις ἐφρόνει μέγα, λέγων ὅτι τὰ πρότερόν ποτε ἐν ταῖς μάχαις ἀπολόμενα ἀκονιτὶ ἐκεκόμιστο.

203. Dio 54.9.7–10.

204. Strabo, Geog. 17.53: Πετρώνιός τε ὕστερον τοῦ Ἀλεξανδρέων πλήθους τοσούτων μυριάδων ὁρμήσαντος ἐπ᾽ αὐτὸν μετὰ λίθων βολῆς, αὐτοῖς τοῖς περὶ ἑαυτὸν στρατιώταις ἀντέσχε, καὶ διαφθείρας τινὰς αὐτῶν τοὺς λοιποὺς ἔπαυσε.

205. Some historians assign this war to 19 BCE, the same year Balbus was in Rome celebrating his military award. This makes no sense given the date of his triumph, 27 March 19 BCE. Consistent with his whereabouts, the campaign must surely have been fought in his first or second year in office: I opt here for his second year.

206. Pliny, Nat. Hist. 5.5: clarissimumque Garama, caput Garamantum. For the list of cities see Ch. 2, n. 200. Cf. Cornelius Gallus’ claim of capturing five cities in fifteen days, Ch.1, n. 329.

207. Pliny, Nat. Hist. 5.5: a Cornelio Balbo triumphata, unius omnium curru externo et Quiritum iure donato; quippe Gadibus genito civitas Romana cum maiore Balbo patruo data est.

208. Dio 54.10.1.

209. Dio 54.10.2.

210. Fasti Triumphales.

211. Pliny, Nat. Hist. 5.5: et hoc mirum, supra dicta oppida ab eo capta auctores nostros prodidisse, ipsum in triumpho praeter Cidamum et Garamam omnium aliarum gentium urbiumque nomina ac simulacra duxisse, quae iere hoc ordine: Tabudium oppidum, Niteris natio, Miglis Gemella oppidum, Bubeium natio vel oppidum, Enipi natio, Thuben oppidum, mons nomine Niger, Nitibrum, Rapsa oppida, Viscera natio, Decri oppidum, flumen Nathabur, Thapsagum oppidum, Tamiagi natio, Boin oppidum, Pege oppidum, flumen Dasibari, mox oppida continua Baracum, Buluba, Alasit, Galsa, Balla, Maxalla, Cizania, mons Gyri, in quo gemmas nasci titulus praecessit.

212. Dio 54.10.1; Vell. Pat. 2.92.1–5.

213. Dio 54.20.3.

214. Dio 54.11.1–2. Dio calls the Germanic invaders by the name Κελτῶὶ .

215. Dio 54.11.2: ταῖς Γαλατίαις προσετάχθη: ἔν τε γὰρ ἀλλήλοις ἐστασίαζον καὶ ὑπὸ τῶν Κελτῶν ἐκακοῦντο.

216. Strabo, Geog. 4.3.4, Tac., Ann. 12.27.1–2, Germ. 28.5, cf. Hist. 4.28, 4.63; and Suet., Div. Aug. 21.1.

217. Strabo Geog. 4.3.4: οὓς μετήγαγεν Ἀγρίππας ἑκόντας εἰς τὴν ἐντὸς τοῦ Ῥήνου . Cf. Suet., Div. Aug. 21.1.

218. Tac., Germ. 28. The archaeological evidence suggests that a Roman army was based here at different times over several years, but that the successive military encampments were probably sited some distance away from the civilian settlement. See Wells (1972), pp. 134–36.

219. During Iulius Caesar’s Gallic War T. Labienus had defeated and killed their leader Indutiomarus and broken the Treveran resistance. Expelled from their strongholds, such as the hillfort at Hunnering – or ‘Circle of the Huns’ – located at Otzenhausen, St Wendel, in the Rhineland-Palatinate, this crushed nation had been largely left to its own devices.

220. Wightman (1971), p. 36.

221. Cohors Ubiorum peditum et equitum: Cheesman (1914), p. 29, and Haynes (2013), p. 44, both citing CIL X, 4862 = ILS 2690 dated to the end of Augustus’ reign. Ala Treverorum: Cheesman (1914), p. 68, and Haynes (2013), p. 31.

222. Dio 54.11.2: οἱ γὰρ Κάνταβροι οἱ ζωργηθέντες τε ἐν τῷ πολέμῳ καὶ πραθέντες τούς τε δεσπότας σφῶν ὡς ἕκαστοι ἀπέκτειναν, καὶ πρὸς τὴν οἰκείαν ἐπανελθόντες πολλοὺς συναπέστησαν, καὶ μετ᾽ αὐτῶν χωρία καταλαβόντες καὶ ἐντειχισάμενοι τοῖς τῶν Ῥωμαίων φρουροῖς ἐπεβούλευον .

223. CIL II, 3414 (Carthago Nova).

224. Dio 54.11.3: ἐπ᾽ οὖν τούτους ὁ Ἀγρίππας ἐπιστρατεύσας ἔσχε μέν τι καὶ πρὸς τοὺς στρατιώτας ἔργον: πρεσβύτεροι γὰρ οὐκ ὀλίγοι αὐτῶν ὄντες καὶ τῇ συνεχείᾳ τῶν πολέμων τετρυχωμένοι, τούς τε Καντάβρους ὡς καὶ δυσπολεμήτους δεδιότες, οὐκ ἐπείθοντο αὐτῷ.

225. Augustus forbade his legates to use the term comilitiones, insisting on milites: After the civil wars he never called any of the troops ‘comrades’, either in the assembly or in an edict, but always ‘soldiers’; and he would not allow them to be addressed otherwise, even by those of his sons or stepsons who held military commands, thinking the former term too flattering for the requirements of discipline, the peaceful state of the times, and his own dignity and that of his household | Neque post bella civilia aut in contione aut per edictum ullos militum ‘commilitones’ appellabat, sed ‘milites’, ac ne a filiis quidem aut privignis suis imperio praeditis aliter appellari passus est, ambitiosius id existimans, quam aut ratio militaris aut temporum quies aut sua domusque suae maiestas postularet – Suet., Div. Aug. 25.1.

226. Dio 54.11.4: ἀλλ᾽ ἐκείνους μέν, τὰ μὲν νουθετήσας τὰ δὲ παραμυθησάμενος τὰ δὲ καὶ ἐπελπίσας, διὰ ταχέων πειθαρχῆσαι ἐποίησε .

227. Dio 54.11.4: πρὸς δὲ δὴ τοὺς Καντάβρους πολλὰ προσέπταισεν . Roddaz (1984), pp. 405–10, questions Dio’s account, beginning with the date. He believes the rebellion began in 20 BCE and only after appreciating the gravity of the situation did Agrippa intervene in the spring of the following year. He posits that the captives turned rebels could not have been held far beyond the conflict zone, perhaps at the mines in northwestern Spain, which would explain the speed of the uprising so soon after the war supposedly ended. He further suggests that the entire region, in particular the mountainous areas, had not been subdued in that war. This difficult terrain was unsuited to the Roman style of war fighting, the effect of which was to degrade the morale of the legionaries who perceived the conflict as a war without end.

228. Dio 54.11.4: καὶ γὰρ ἐμπειρίᾳ πραγμάτων, ἅτε τοῖς Ῥωμαίοις δεδουλευκότες, καὶ ἀπογνώσει τοῦ μὴ ἂν ἔτι σωθῆναι ἁλόντες ἐχρῶντο .

229. Strabo, Geog. 3.4.17.

230. Dio 54.11.5: ἀποβαλὼν τῶν στρατιωτῶν, συχνοὺς δὲ καὶ ἀτιμώσας ὅτι ἡττῶντο ῾τά τε γὰρ.

231. Dio 54.11.5. Augustus came down hard on recalcitrant units – Suet., Div. Aug. 24. It is possible Legio I was removed to Aquitania or Belgica where it was reconstituted, suggests Syme (1933), p. 16.

232. Dio 54.11.5: τέλος δέ ποτε συχνοὺς μὲν ἀποβαλὼν τῶν στρατιωτῶν . . . τούς τε ἐν τῇ ἡλικίᾳ πολεμίους πάντας ὀλίγου διέφθειρε καὶ τοὺς λοιποὺς τά τε ὅπλα ἀφείλετο καὶ ἐς τὰ πεδία ἐκ τῶν ἐρυμνῶν κατεβίβασεν.

233. Strabo, Geog. 3.3.8: ἀλλὰ νῦν, ὡς εἶπον, πέπαυται πολεμοῦντα πάντα: τούς τε γὰρ συνέχοντας ἔτι νῦν μάλιστα τὰ λῃστήρια Καντάβρους καὶ τοὺς γειτονεύοντας αὐτοῖς κατέλυσεν ὁ Σεβαστὸς Καῖσαρ.

234. Hor., Ep.1.12.26–27: Cantaber Agrippae . . . virtute . . . cecidit; Vell. Pat. 2.90.1; Strabo, Geog. 3.3.8, 6.4.2; Suet., Div. Aug. 21.1.

235. Dio 54.11.6: οὐ μὴν οὔτε ἐπέστειλέ τι τῇ βουλῇ περὶ αὐτῶν, οὔτε τὰ ἐπινίκια καίτοι ἐκ τῆς τοῦ Αὐγούστου προστάξεως ψηφισθέντα προσήκατο, ἀλλ᾽ ἔν τε τούτοις ἐμετρίαζεν ὥσπερ εἰώθει .

236. Aul. Gell., Noct. Att. 5.6.8; Livy, AUC 26.4. Maxfield (1981), pp. 76–79.

237. Aureus: BMCRE I 110. Denarius: BMCRE I 121, RIC I 414.

238. Pliny, Nat. Hist. 4.34; Pomponius Mela 3.13; Ptolemy, Geog. 2.6.3. See Fishwick (1987), Part 1, pp. 141–44. Syme (1934a), p. 316, advances Albinianus as the successor of Carisius; an alternative theory by Diego Santos (1975), p. 541, posits he is he succeeded P. Silius Nerva in 14 BCE.

239. On the auxilia raised in the Iberian Peninsula see Roxan (1973).

240. Suet., Verg. 125–28. The hurriedly erected circular monopteros temple in front of the Parthenon on the Acropolis of Athens was dedicated to Roma et Augustus and temporarily housed the aquilae and signa recovered from Parthia (Rose (2005), pp. 50–52).

241. Avery (1957), p. 228.

242. Suet., Verg. 26–27, 50–52.

243. Suet., Verg. 22, 152–65.

244. Ver., Aen. 1.278–83: His ego nec metas rerum nec tempora pono; | imperium sine fine dedi. Quin aspera Iuno, | quae mare nunc terrasque metu caelumque fatigat, | consilia in melius referet, mecumque fovebit | Romanos rerum dominos gentemque togatam: | sic placitum. (Trans. Theodore C. Williams).

245. RG 12.

246. Dio 54.10.4: cf. Suet., Div. Aug. 53.2.

247. Dio 54.10.3. One of these was the curator legum et morum summa potestate solus, ‘sole and plenipotentiary guardian of law and order’ (RG 6).

248. RG 11; Fast. Amit. ad IV Id. Oct. et ad XVIII Kal. Ian; Fast. Cum. ad XVIII Kal. Ian.; Prop. 4.3.71; Dio 54.10.3. Suet., Div. Aug. 29; Pliny, Nat. Hist. 36.50; Prop. 4.3.71. The altar is depicted on a denarius, BMC 4; RIC 322.

249. Dio 54.8.3: καὶ προσέτι καὶ ἐπὶ κέλητος ἐς τὴν πόλιν ἐσήλασε καὶ ἁψῖδι τροπαιοφόρῳ ἐτιμήθη.

250. The silver coins bear the legend SIGNIS RECEPTIS: e.g. RIC2 86b (Colonia Patricia). The same mint issued a denarius the following year showing on the obverse a toga picta over tunica palmate between aquila on the left and wreath on the right, and the legend SPQR PARENT (above) CONS SVO (below), and on the reverse a triumphal quadriga facing right, ornamented with two Victories and surmounted by four miniature galloping horses, and the legend CAESARI (above) AVGVSTO (below): RIC I 99.

251. RG 29. Cf. Dio 54.8.3: in honour of this success he commanded that sacrifices be decreed and likewise a temple to Mars Ultor on the Capitolium, in imitation of that of Iupiter Feretrius, in which to dedicate the signa; and he himself carried out both decrees. | ἀμέλει καὶ θυσίας ἐπ᾽ αὐτοῖς καὶ νεὼν Ἄρεως Τιμωροῦ ἐν τῷ Καπιτωλίῳ, κατὰ τὸ τοῦ Διὸς τοῦ Φερετρίου ζήλωμα, πρὸς τὴν τῶν σημείων ἀνάθεσιν καὶ ψηφισθῆναι ἐκέλευσε καὶ ἐποίησε . Coins show the recovered signa standing in a domed temple. See Appendix 4.

252. RG 21; Suet., Div. Aug. 56.2.

254. Dio 54.10.4, cf. 53.28.3.

255. Hor., Carm. 1.35.29–32: Serves iturum Caesarem in ultimos | orbis Britannos et iuvenum recens | examen Eois timendum | partibus Oceanoque rubro – trans. John Conington. The poem was published in 23 BCE.

256. Dio 54.10.5: ἐπειδή τε μηδὲν ὡμολόγει ὅσα τε ἀπόντος αὐτοῦ στασιάζοντες καὶ ὅσα παρόντος φοβούμενοι ἔπρασσον, ἐπιμελητής τε τῶν τρόπων ἐς πέντε ἔτη παρακληθεὶς δὴ ἐχειροτονήθη, καὶ τὴν ἐξουσίαν τὴν μὲν τῶν τιμητῶν ἐς τὸν αὐτὸν χρόνον τὴν δὲ τῶν ὑπάτων διὰ βίου ἔλαβεν, ὥστε καὶ ταῖς δώδεκα ῥάβδοις ἀεὶ καὶ πανταχοῦ χρῆσθαι, καὶ ἐν μέσῳ τῶν ἀεὶ ὑπατευόντων ἐπὶ τοῦ ἀρχικοῦ δίφρου καθίζεσθαι . For a discussion of the measures of 19 BCE see Ferrary (2001), pp. 103–10.

257. This despite what Augustus claims in RG 34. For an in-depth discussion of the summum imperium auspiciumque see Vervaet (2014). In an email to me dated 24 October 2014, Frederik Vervaet explained his choice of 19 BCE as the crucial year: ‘this was when he [Augustus] completed and consolidated his constitutional domination of the old republican machinery of state as he assumed prioritary (sic) consular powers for life, as a proconsul, becoming in all but in name a third consul, with legally defined precedence over the two nominal consuls. Outward symbols of his new position: the right to carry the fasces always and anywhere (normally the consuls alternated these in Rome on a monthly basis, the consul holding the fasces having the right of initiative) as well as to sit in between the consuls, like before Augustus, the triumvirs r.p.c. and possibly the dictators. So, in a very real way, that’s when the old Republic was definitively extinguished in Rome, after it had already been killed in the provinces by virtue of the sweeping settlements of 27 and 23.’ For a critical review see Berthelet and Dalla Rosa (2015).

258. Dio 54.12.3.