The two men who led the United States into civil war began their lives in much the same manner. Abraham Lincoln and Jefferson Davis were both born in log cabins in Kentucky, separated by eight months and less than one hundred miles. From these similar beginnings, their lives went in completely different directions. Davis's family moved and became more prosperous, Lincoln's family also moved but did not. Davis attended various schools from the age of eight to twenty-one, Lincoln attended about one full year of formal school during his entire life. Davis was very familiar with federal government, Lincoln served only one term in Congress. Understanding the experiences that shaped them on their way to assuming the Presidency is critical to understanding their approach to the problems they faced.
Jefferson Davis was born in Christian County, Kentucky on 3 June 1808, the youngest of a large and very close farm family. His father, Samuel Davis, was a moderately successful tobacco farmer and horse breeder. The family lived in one of the better log cabins in the area; two cabins connected by a breezeway with glass windows.{4} As the youngest, he was the favorite of the family, and he wrote often of the great affection he received as a child.
The family moved when Davis was two, briefly to Louisiana, then to Mississippi. His father became a cotton farmer and the family began to prosper. His father owned a few slaves, but worked in the field with them. Since there were few good schools in Mississippi, Samuel decided to send Jefferson to Kentucky when he was old enough to attend school. At the age of eight, he enrolled him at St. Thomas Aquinas, a Catholic school run by Dominican priests. Davis was the youngest student at the school, and the only Protestant. Davis attended St. Thomas for two years, until his mother could convince his father to allow him to attend a local school in Mississippi. Jefferson returned home alone on a steamboat at the age of ten.
Back in Mississippi, Jefferson briefly attended Jefferson College near Natchez before entering Wilkinson Academy. It was here that he first displayed the temperament that would be a trademark later in his life. When the teacher assigned a piece to be memorized, Davis considered it too long and refused. The next day, when threatened with a whipping for his failure, Davis left the school and walked home. His father, rather than forcing him to return, told him if he was not in school he would have to work in the field. Davis did this for one day, before deciding that school was better than work and returned.{5}
In 1823, at the age of fifteen, Davis enrolled in Transylvania University in Lexington, Kentucky. This was one of the best schools in the country at the time, with a law school, medical school, and a larger enrollment than Harvard.{6} Little is recorded of his time at Transylvania, only that he belonged to a debating society and gave the commencement address on "Friendship," which was praised by the local papers.{7} Lexington was a much more sophisticated environment than the region of Mississippi where Davis grew up. The city was prosperous, and the surrounding countryside was home to fine race horses. This was Davis's first experience with the Southern aristocracy and society, but one can only speculate on its influences on him. He never kept a diary during this time, nor did he write much about the school later. He appeared, however, to acquire some expensive tastes, evidenced by later letters to his brother asking for money as a cadet at West Point.
While at Transylvania, Davis was surprised to find that his father and brother Joseph had obtained an appointment for him at West Point. Davis had never expressed a desire to attend West Point or to join the military; he planned to graduate from Transylvania and attend law school at the University of Virginia. He would have refused the appointment, but his brother convinced him to try West Point for a year. After that, he could leave and enroll at the University of Virginia if he still wished to. He accepted the appointment on 7 July 1824.
Davis entered West Point on 30 September 1824 at the age of seventeen. Here he first met some of the men who later held key roles in the Confederate Army, Albert Sidney Johnston, Leonidas Polk, and later Robert E. Lee and Joseph Johnston. Davis was not a model cadet at West Point. He was arrested and court-martialed his first year for being in Benny Haven's tavern. He was sentenced to dismissal, but the court recommended exoneration due to his previous good conduct. Davis was arrested again on Christmas Eve, 1826, for attending an eggnog party. There was a riot after the party by a group of cadets against the officers, but Davis was not part of this. For attending the party, he was confined to his quarters until 8 February. He also accumulated an impressive amount of demerits, including such offenses as:
visiting during study hours, having long hair at inspection, failing to keep his room in order, spitting on the floor, absence from reveille, absence from class, making unnecessary noise during study hours, firing his musket from the window{8}
Davis graduated West Point ranked twenty-three of thirty-two cadets. He was commissioned a brevet second lieutenant of infantry in January 1829. He was assigned to Fort Winnebago in the Michigan Territory, where he served as assistant quartermaster. He contracted pneumonia during his first winter there, very nearly dying. This was his first episode of poor health, a problem that plagued him later in life. Davis's wife Varina wrote that Davis and Robert Anderson (who later defended Fort Sumter) actually swore in Abraham Lincoln as a captain of the militia during the Black Hawk War.{9} While this makes for good irony, there is no other evidence to support her story. There is some debate whether Davis ever saw action in the Black Hawk War, but he did lead a detachment guarding Black Hawk and some of his warriors. Black Hawk later praised Davis for keeping a mob away from him and his men in Galena, Illinois.
Davis gave an indication of his thoughts on states' rights in 1832. South Carolina nullified federal tariffs, and Congress passed a Force Bill, allowing the federal government to use force if necessary to collect the tariffs. Varina Davis quoted her husband's view:
looking the issue squarely in the face, I chose the alternative of abandoning my profession rather than be employed in the subjugation or coercion of a State of the Union{10}
After the Black Hawk Wars, Davis returned to life as a frontier soldier and was assigned to a regiment in Fort Jackson, Arkansas. In 1835, he was charged by his commanding officer with conduct subversive to military discipline for an incident of insubordinate conduct. He was tried by a court martial and testified passionately in his own behalf. He asked the court "Can it be required of a Gentleman, is it part of the character of a soldier, to humble himself beneath the haughty tone, or quail before the angry eye of any man?"{11} The court ruled in his favor.
Davis resigned his commission on 30 June 1835. He had fallen in love with Sarah Taylor, daughter of Colonel Zachary Taylor, who was opposed to his daughter marrying an officer. They were married; but on a visit to his sister in Louisiana only three months later, both contracted malaria. Sarah died, and Davis was seriously ill for more than a month. He would suffer recurring attacks of malaria for years after, another of his bouts of ill health. The death of his wife devastated Davis, and he remained in seclusion at his brother's plantation for seven years.
Politics gradually drew Davis out of his seclusion in 1842. He became an active Democrat and ran for the Lower House of the Mississippi Legislature. He lost the election, but remained politically active. He was a presidential elector at large for Mississippi in the election of 1844, and campaigned extensively for James Polk. He was erratic in his speeches, sometimes stiff and uninspiring, sometimes very persuasive. The Democrats nominated him for Congress in 1845, and he was elected to the House of Representatives, receiving the second highest popular vote. He served only a few months before resigning to serve in the Mexican War, but became known as an ardent expansionist, supporting the expansion into Oregon, California, and Texas. He also continued to be plagued by poor health, experiencing problems with his eyes. Sometime before 1850, he would eventually lose sight completely in his left eye, the probable result of a corneal ulcer or glaucoma.
He resigned his seat in Congress to serve in the war with Mexico, volunteering against his second wife's wishes to serve in the Mississippi militia. He was elected Colonel of the First Mississippi Rifles, a volunteer regiment of gentleman warriors looking for an adventure. These were men much like Davis himself; mostly wealthy men who brought their slaves with them, and rode into battle wearing red shirts, white pants, and black hats. They were, however, excellent marksmen, and Davis ensured they were outfitted with the latest in percussion rifles. He was a stern disciplinarian, but his men were devoted to him. He first led them in action under his former father-in-law, General Zachary Taylor, at the Battle of Monterey. Davis and the First Mississippi Rifles were involved in the storming of Fort Teneria and Fort Diablo.
Davis's most famous moment came at the Battle of Buena Vista. Santa Anna faced General Taylor with a four to one superiority, demanding a surrender. When Taylor refused, Santa Anna attacked, and Taylor's left flank began to give way. Taylor ordered Davis to attack. Davis, who had been wounded in the foot earlier, rallied his men and some volunteers from Indiana who had broken earlier and stopped the attacking Mexicans. When the enemy cavalry attacked again, he arranged his men into a "V" formation, with the open end facing the enemy. The Mexicans rode into the formation, and Davis's men destroyed them. He would later be criticized for the "V" formation, but regardless of the tactical merits of his performance, he showed incredible bravery and leadership in the face of a greatly superior enemy force. He was justly proud of the performance of his regiment and took great insult to any slight directed at him or his tactics. He even challenged the colonel of the Indiana volunteers to a duel for his comments on the "V."
He returned to Mississippi to a hero's welcome, and was offered Brigadier General of the Mississippi reserves by President Polk. Again suggesting his opinions on states' rights, he refused on the grounds that it was a state appointment, and the President had no authority to make it. The wound he sustained kept him on crutches for two years, continuing his health problems.
In August 1847, Davis was appointed by the governor of Mississippi to serve out the term of the late Senator Jesse Spreight. In January 1848, the Mississippi state legislature unanimously elected him to a full term of his own. Davis served as Chairman of the Senate Military Affairs Committee, and became a very vocal defender of the Southern states and slavery. Davis stated several times in the Senate that he did not believe slavery was a permanent institution, but it was an "institution for the preparation of that race for civil liberty and social enjoyment."{12} However, he deeply resented the North, especially New England, meddling in the affairs of southern states. He voted against every provision of the Compromise of 1850 except the Fugitive Slave Act. On 17 November 1850, Davis responded to a series of questions on the Compromise posed to him in a Woodville Mississippi, newspaper called the Republican. Davis called for a state convention to prepare for armed defense of the state if necessary, and a convention of slave states to win Northern guarantees of Southern states' rights. Failing these guarantees, he said that peaceful separation was the only answer.{13}
In September 1851, Davis resigned his seat in the Senate to run for governor of Mississippi. He preferred to remain in the Senate, but the Democrats convinced him to run to prevent Mississippi from accepting the Compromise of 1850. Davis lost a close election, and after was accused of being a secessionist by his opponent.
Davis returned to his home in Mississippi for fifteen months before returning to politics. He was offered the position of Secretary of War by President Franklin Pierce on inauguration day. He served for Pierce's entire term and was considered a very successful Secretary. Probably remembering his own experiences, he urged fewer forts and larger detachments for the frontier soldiers. He went to Congress to increase pay, accelerate promotions, and provide pensions for widows and orphans. In 1855, he sent a commission, including then Lieutenant George McClellan, to Europe to study the Crimean War. He also promoted government weapon manufacturing instead of reliance on private companies.
At the end of Pierce's term of office, the Mississippi legislature again elected Davis to the Senate, and he entered the day after Pierce left office in 1857. He became one of the more vocal defenders of the Southern states, joining in the heated debates in Congress during this period. Although completely opposed to any interference from the northern states, Davis was not among those favoring a quick secession after Lincoln's election. However, when Mississippi seceded, Davis left the Senate defending his state with one last long and eloquent speech.
In his farewell, he began by reminding Senators that he had always believed the sovereignty of a state gave it the right of secession. He reaffirmed his commitment to his own state saying:
If I had thought Mississippi was acting without sufficient provocation, or without an existing necessity, I should still, under my theory of the Government, because of my allegiance to the State of which I am a citizen, have bound by her action.{14}
He went on to say that the principles of the Declaration of Independence "have no reference to the slave," and the forefathers affirmed this by charging George III with attempting to cause insurrection among the slaves.
They also provided for the slaves as property in the Constitution, and considered them equal to only three-fifths of a free man when determining the number of representatives a state could have. He concluded by saying the Government and the principles on which it was founded had been "perverted," and while this forced Mississippi to declare independence, he wished for peaceful relations.{15}
Abraham Lincoln was born on 12 February 1809 in Hodgeville, Kentucky. His father, Thomas Lincoln, was a moderately successful farmer, and both his mother and father were illiterate. Abraham spent his first seven years growing up on the farm, only occasionally attending a local school when he could be spared from farm work. His father moved the family to Indiana in 1816 after losing most of his land in title disputes. The family had a difficult life the first few years in Indiana. They spent their first winter in a cabin with only three sides closed in; a fire was kept burning at the open end to provide heat. Lincoln attended school again that winter, the last formal schooling he would ever receive. Lincoln later estimated that he spent less than one year in school, quite in contrast with Jefferson Davis. In 1818, an epidemic swept through the area, killing many settlers, Lincoln's mother among them. His father remarried in 1819, and his new wife became very fond of Abraham. He remained close to her throughout his life, unlike his relationship with his father. Lincoln and his father were never close; later, when notified by his brother of his father's illness and impending death, Lincoln replied that seeing his father again would "be more painful than pleasant."{16}
Lincoln's family moved to Illinois in 1830, where he got his first job. Along with one other man, Lincoln was hired to pilot a flat boat down the Mississippi River to New Orleans. After his return, he was offered a job helping in a general store in New Salem, Illinois. He was popular in New Salem, considered cheerful and strong, but also lazy. New Salem was a rough, frontier town; and Lincoln soon attracted the attention of a group of local rowdies called the Clary's Grove Boys. Their leader's name was Jack Armstrong, and he challenged Lincoln to a wrestling match. This was quite an event in the town; many people came to watch and place bets. Lincoln beat Armstrong, then fought several of his men who jumped in to help their leader. Armstrong called them off and congratulated Lincoln. The Clary's Grove Boys became Lincoln's close friends, later serving in the militia with him.
Lincoln's first foray into politics was as a candidate for the Illinois State Legislature in 1832. His campaign was interrupted by the Black Hawk Wars, when he joined the militia for a thirty-day stint. He was elected captain, mainly because the Clary's Grove Boys joined with him and all voted for him. The militia was a loose organization; Lincoln once wrestled another captain for choice of campsites. He was arrested twice during his short stint in the militia; once for shooting his gun in camp, and again when his men raided the quartermaster's stores and made off with the liquor. As punishment for the latter, he was forced to wear a wooden sword as a sign of an officer who could not control his men.{17} When his thirty days were up, he reenlisted as a private for twenty days and again for thirty days. During his eighty days in the military, Lincoln saw no combat and only one Indian, an old man with a safe conduct pass. Some accounts tell of Lincoln saving the man from death at the hands of angry militiamen, but later authors consider the story more legend than fact.{18}
Lincoln resumed his campaign after the Black Hawk Wars, making several speeches in the New Salem area. Accounts of him during this campaign paint a colorful picture; tall and thin, wearing an old straw hat, calico shirt, and pants much too short held up by one suspender. He lost the election, carrying New Salem but only finishing eighth of thirteen candidates. After his initial venture into politics, Lincoln entered a partnership running a general store. The store failed, and the partner died leaving Lincoln with over one thousand dollars of debt. He eventually paid all of it back, finally clearing the debt when he was a Congressman in 1847. Lincoln got a job as Postmaster and supplemented his income by surveying, farming, and taking on odd jobs. He was not very successful and was sued for debts.
Lincoln ran for the State Legislature again as a Whig in 1834. He was elected this time and served four consecutive terms. During his term, he was not particularly noteworthy in the Legislature. He voted mainly for internal improvements like canals. He continued as Postmaster and surveyor between sessions, and began studying law. He had taught himself enough to be certified by the Illinois Bar in 1836. Also during this time, Lincoln ended his courtship of Mary Todd; breaking their engagement in late 1840, only to change his mind and marry her in November 1842. He wanted to run for Congress at the end of his fourth term, but was not nominated by the Whigs.
Lincoln left politics for a short period after the end of the 1843 session. He began practicing law in Springfield, going through two partners in a fairly short time before settling on William Herndon. The firm of Lincoln and Herndon became very successful, although the two lawyers were noted for their lack of organization and cluttered office as much as for their court room skill. Lincoln was unable to stay out of politics, however; campaigning for the Whig party in 1844, and elected to the United States Congress on the Whig ticket in 1846.
Following the Whig platform, Lincoln vigorously opposed the Mexican War. His first important speech in Congress was against the war, and along with other Whigs he introduced various measures designed to embarrass President Polk. None of these were popular back in Illinois, and Lincoln was not nominated by the Whigs to run for a second term. During his tenure in Congress, Lincoln again showed no great potential. He was a good party man, but generally stayed out of the anti-slavery debates that were going on. He did, however, vote for free states in Colorado and New Mexico and drew up a bill to free the children of slave mothers born in Washington, D.C., but never proposed it.{19}
Out of politics again in 1849, Lincoln settled into law practice as a circuit lawyer. His partnership with Herndon was flourishing, and he was becoming a well-known lawyer. He was especially good at arguing before a jury. Herndon recalled one case in particular: he and Lincoln represented an old widow of a Revolutionary War soldier who had half her pension withheld by an unscrupulous pension agent. Lincoln closed with a meandering speech, discussing the start of the war, then Valley Forge, then describing the old soldier as a young man kissing his young wife and child goodbye to go off to face these hardships. After bringing the jury to tears, he tore into the defendant. The jury ruled in favor of the widow for the amount asked. Lincoln's notes for the closing argument were:
No contract. -Not professional services. -Unreasonable charge. Money retained by def't not given by pl'ff. Revolutionary War. -Describe Valley Forge privations. -Ice Soldier's bleeding feet. -Pl'ffs husband. -Soldier leaving home for army. -Skin Def’t. - Close.{20}
Lincoln even asked Herndon to stay for the closing, obviously knowing he would enjoy the performance.
He followed the slavery debates, as did most everyone else at the time. While believing the Compromise of 1850 was a reasonable solution, he entered politics briefly again in 1854 to oppose Senator Douglas's Kansas-Nebraska Act. Lincoln was galvanized by the Kansas-Nebraska Act as never before. He gave speeches around the state, condemning the spread of slavery into new territories. Lincoln was elected to the State Legislature in 1854, but resigned his seat two months later to become eligible for a United States Senate seat, elected by the Legislature. Lincoln lost the election and again returned to law. He was approached during these few months by the new Republican party, but considered them too radical.
Lincoln returned to traveling the circuit, but kept his hand in politics. Joining the Republicans in 1856, he was nominated for Vice President on the first ballot, but lost on the second. Lincoln was now firmly in the anti-slavery camp, disagreeing particularly with the Dred Scott decision in 1857. He was nominated for the Senate by the Republicans in 1857, running against Stephen Douglas. This campaign was marked by their famous series of debates, which brought Lincoln much recognition. Lincoln never spoke out on abolishing slavery where it already existed, he wished only to stop the spread into new territories. Lincoln again lost a close election, but had made a national name for himself. He was nominated for President by the Republicans on the third ballot at their convention in 1859, and elected President on 6 November 1860. His well-known opposition to slavery prompted the secession of South Carolina on 20 December 1860, followed shortly after by six more states.
Lincoln and Davis brought unique qualifications to their jobs as Commander in Chief. Davis's were obvious; most of his adult life was spent in the government or the military. He had military and political experience, and organizational and administrative skills that Lincoln sorely lacked. He was also very proud and could be stubborn, a fault that many authors describe at great length. However, T. Harry Williams pointed out that Davis was perhaps the consummate "southern man," and was no more proud or stubborn than his contemporaries.{21} Also of interest in Davis's background is the fact that he rarely had to campaign for office. In his time, Senate seats were elected by state legislatures. The only two elections Davis lost were his two attempts at state offices, both of which were popular votes. For all his time in public office, he never really developed a sense of how to deal with people.
Lincoln was almost a polar opposite to Davis. He had very little military experience, and his political experience was limited almost exclusively to state office. Whereas Davis was well respected, Lincoln was initially considered incapable of assuming the Presidency by many in Washington. Lincoln himself knew better; his years as a stump speaker and trial lawyer gave him valuable experience in understanding people and knowing how to influence them. He could use his image as an "uneducated bumpkin" to put people at ease, or to put them off their guard. His greatest strengths were Davis's greatest weaknesses.