{1} Carl von Clausewitz, On War (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1976), 109.

{2} U.S. Constitution, art. II, sec. 2.

{3} James R. Arnold, Presidents Under Fire: Commanders in Chief in Victory and Defeat (New York: Orion Books, 1994), x.

{4} Clement Eaton, Jefferson Davis (New York: The Free Press, a Division of MacMillan, Inc., 1977), 3.

{5} Robert McElroy, Jefferson Davis: The Real and Unreal (New York: Harper and Brother Publishers, 1937), 9.

{6} Eaton, Jefferson Davis, 5.

{7} Ibid., 6.

{8} Ibid., 14-15.

{9} McElroy, Jefferson Davis, 26.

{10} Varina Howell Davis, Jefferson Davis. Ex-President of the Confederate States of America: A Memoir by his Wife (New York, 1890), vol. I, 200; quoted in Eaton, Jefferson Davis, 17.

{11} Jefferson Davis, "Autobiographical Sketch," in The Papers of Jefferson Davis, eds. H. M. Monroe Jr. and J. T. Mcintosh, Vol. I (Baton Rouge, 1971), 379; quoted in Eaton, Jefferson Davis, 19.

{12} Eaton, Jefferson Davis, 69.

{13} Ibid., 76-77.

{14} Jefferson Davis, The Rise and Fall of the Confederate Government (South Brunswick: Thomas Yoseloff Ltd, 1958), 1:221.

{15} Ibid., 224-225.

{16} Philip Van Doren Stern, ed., The Life and Writings of Abraham Lincoln (New York: The Modern Library, 1940), 331.

{17} T. Harry Williams, Two War Leaders: Lincoln and Davis (Springfield, IL: The Abraham Lincoln Association, 1972), 10.

{18} Ibid.

{19} Ibid., 127.

{20} Philip B. Kunhardt, Jr., Philip B. Kunhardt III, and Peter W. Kunhardt, Lincoln (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, Inc, 1992), 85.

{21} T. Harry Williams, Two War Leaders: Lincoln and Davis (Springfield, IL: The Abraham Lincoln Association, 1972), 10.

{22} Carl von Clausewitz, On War (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1976), 128.

{23} JCS Pub 1: Dictionary of Military and Associated Terms (Washington, D.C.: U. S. Department of Defense, 1987), 232.

{24} James R. Arnold, Presidents Under Fire: Commanders in Chief in Victory and Defeat (New York: Orion Books, 1994), 106.

{25} Archer Jones, Civil War Command Strategy: The Process of Victory and Defeat (New York: The Free Press, A Division of MacMillan, Inc., 1992), 16.

{26} James M. McPherson, Battle Cry of Freedom: The Civil War Era (New York: Ballantine Books, 1988), 259.

{27} Jefferson Davis, The Rise and Fall of the Confederate Government (South Brunswick: Thomas Yoselhoff Ltd., 1958), I:233.

{28} Jefferson Davis to Joseph E. Davis, 18 June 1861, Lynda Laswell Crist, ed., Mary Seaton Dix, coed., The Papers of Jefferson Davis (Baton Rouge and London: Louisiana State University Press, 1992), vol. 7, 203.

{29} Arnold, Presidents Under Fire, 106.

{30} McPherson, Battle Cry of Freedom, 337.

{31} McPherson, Battle Cry of Freedom, 337. Dunbar Rowland, Jefferson Davis, Constitutionalist: His Letters, Papers, and Speeches (Jackson, MS,1923), vol. V, 436; quoted in Thomas Lawrence Connelly and Archer Jones, The Politics of Command: Factions and Ideas in Confederate Strategy (Baton Rouge, LA: Louisiana State University Press, 1973), 89.

{32} Ibid., 93.

{33} Beauregard to Davis, 9 July 1861, The War of the Rebellion: A Compilation of the Official Records of the Union and Confederate Armies (Washington, D. C.: U. S. Government Printing Office, 1891; reprint, Harrisburg, PA: Historical Times, Inc., 1985), ser. 1, vol. II, 969.

{34} Davis to Johnston, 22 June 1861, Official Records, ser I, vol. 2, 945.

{35} Davis, The Rise and Fall of the Confederate Government, 1:346.

{36} Cooper to Beauregard, 17 July 1861, Official Records, ser. I, vol. 2, 980.

{37} Davis, The Rise and Fall of the Confederate Government. 1:345.

{38} Ibid., 347.

{39} Ibid., 348.

{40} Cooper to Johnston, 15 May 1861, Official Records, ser I, vol. 2,

{41} Davis to Cooper and Lee, 4 November 1861, Ibid., 511.

{42} Davis, The Rise and Fall of the Confederate Government, 11:69.

{43} Davis to A.S. Johnston, 30 January 1862, Official Records, ser. I, vol. 7, 850.

{44} Davis, The Rise and Fall of the Confederate Government, 11:94.

{45} Benjamin to A.S. Johnston, 8 February 1862, Official Records, ser. I, vol. 7, 862.

{46} Davis to A.S. Johnston, 6 March 1862, Official Records, ser. I, vol. 10, pt. II, 413.

{47} Davis, The Rise and Fall of the Confederate Government, 11:4142.

{48} Ibid., 47.

{49} Davis to Brown, 11 April 1862, Official Records, ser. I, vol. 10, pt. II, 413.

{50} Davis, The Rise and Fall of the Confederate Government, 11:69.

{51} Johnson to Lee, 27 March 1862, Official Records, ser. I, vol. 11, pt. III, 405.

{52} Johnston-to Lee, 30 April 1862, Ibid., 477.

{53} Lee to Johnston, 1 May 1862, Ibid., 485.

{54} Johnston to Lee, 10 May 1862, Ibid., 506.

{55} Davis to Johnston, 11 May 1862 and 25 May 1862, Ibid., 507, 546.

{56} Davis to Johnston, 17 May 1862, Ibid., 524.

{57} Davis to Johnston, 23 May 1862, Ibid., 536.

{58} Connely and Jones, The Politics of Command. 36.

{59} Jones, Civil War Command and Strategy, 68.

{60} Davis, The Rise and Fall of the Confederate Government, II:132.

{61} Lee to Davis, 23 August 1862, Lee to Davis, 24 August 1862, Official Records, ser. I, vol. 12, pt. III, 941-2.

{62} Davis to Lee, 26 August 1862, Ibid., 945.

{63} Lee to Davis, 3 September 1862, Lee to Davis, 5 September 1862, Official Records, ser. I, vol. 19, pt. II, 590-93.

{64} Lee to Davis, 7 September 1862, Ibid., 596.

{65} Davis to Lee, 7 September 1862, Ibid., 598.

{66} Lee to Davis, 8 September 1862, Ibid., 600.

{67} Davis to Johnston, 198 February 1863, Official Records, ser. I, vol. 23, pt. II, 640.

{68} Johnston to Davis, 2 April 1863, Ibid., 826.

{69} Lee to Davis, 2 April 1863, Lee to Davis, 16 April 1863, Official Records, ser. I, vol. 25, pt. II, 700, 725.

{70} Lee to Davis, 30 April 1863, Official Records, ser. I, vol. 25, pt. II, 761.

{71} Lee to Davis, 30 May 1863, Ibid., 832.

{72} Davis to Lee, 31 May 1863, Ibid., 841.

{73} Lee to Davis, 2 June 1863, Ibid., 848.

{74} Connely and Jones, Politics of Command, 133.

{75} Ibid.

{76} Ibid., 154.

{77} Davis to Johnston, 13 May 1864, Official Records, ser. I, vol. 38, pt. IV, 705.

{78} Johnston to Davis, 21 May 1864, Ibid., 736.

{79} Davis to Johnston, 7 July 1864, Official Records, ser. I, vol. 38, pt. V, 867.

{80} Johnston to Davis, 8 July 1864, Ibid., 848-9.

{81} Davis to Johnston, 11 July 1864, Ibid., 875-6.

{82} Davis to Johnston, 16 July 1864, Johnston to Davis, 16 July 1864, Ibid., 882-3.

{83} Beringer, Hattaway, Jones, and Still, Why the South Lost the Civil War, 323.

{84} U. S. Grant, Personal Memoire of U. S. Grant (New York: Literary Classics of the United States, Inc., 1990), 505.

{85} Seddon to Johnston, 17 July 1864, Seddon to Hood, 17 July 1864, Official Records, ser. I, vol. 28, pt. V, 885.

{86} Hood to Cooper, 18 July 1864, Davis to Hood, 18 July 1864, Ibid., 888.

{87} Davis to Hood, 5 August 1864, Ibid., 946.

{88} Hood to Davis, 6 September 1864, Ibid., 1023.

{89} Davis to Bragg, 15 October 1864, Official Records, ser. I, vol. 42, pt. II, 1149.

{90} Davis to Bragg, 2 November 1864, Ibid., 1225.

{91} Beauregard to Davis, 24 November 1864, Official Records, ser. I, vol. 44, 890.

{92} Davis to Beauregard, 30 November 1864, Ibid., 910.

{93} Davis, Rise and Fall of the Confederate Government, II:569.

{94} Beauregard to Davis, 6 December 1864, Official Records, ser. I, vol. 44, 931.

{95} Davis to Lee, 19 December 1864, Lee to Davis, 19 December 1864, Ibid., 966.

{96} Beauregard to Davis, 24 December 1864, Ibid., 984.

{97} Davis to Lee, 30 March 1865, Official Records, ser. I, vol. 47, pt. III, 712.

{98} Lee to Davis, 1 April 1865, Johnston to Beauregard, 1 April 1865, Ibid., 717, 737.

{99} Herman Hattaway and Archer Jones, How the North Won: A Military History of the Civil War (Urbana and Chicago: University of Illinois Press, 1983), 35.

{100} Clarence Edward Macartney, Lincoln and his Cabinet (New York and London: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1931), 40.

{101} Hattaway and Jones, How the North Won. 35.

{102} T. Harry Williams, Lincoln and His Generals (New York: Vintage Books, A Division of Random House, 1952), 21.

{103} James M. McPherson, Battle Cry of Freedom: The Civil War Era (New York: Ballantine Books, 1988), 339.

{104} James M. McPherson, Abraham Lincoln and the Second American Revolution (New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1990), 76.

{105} Williams, Lincoln and his Generals. 20.

{106} Abraham Lincoln, 23 and 27 July 1861, Roy P. Basler, ed., The Collected Works of Abraham Lincoln (New Brunswick, New Jersey: Rutgers University Press, 1953), IV:4S9.

{107} Lincoln to Halleck, 31 December 1861, Lincoln to Buell, 1 January 1862, Official Records, ser. I, vol. 7. 524, 526.

{108} Lincoln to Buell, 4 January 1862, Buell to Lincoln, 5 January 1862, McClellan to Buell, 6 January 1862, Halleck to Lincoln, 6 January 1862, Ibid., 530-2.

{109} Lincoln to Cameron, 10 January 1862, in Basler, Collected Works of Lincoln. V:95.

{110} Ibid., 111.

{111} Ibid., 115.

{112} Ulysses S. Grant, Personal Memoirs of U. S. Grant 2 vols., (New York: Literary Classics of the United States, Inc. 1990), II:473.

{113} Lincoln to Halleck, 16 February 1862, in Basler, Collected Works of Lincoln. V:135.

{114} Lincoln to McClellan, 3 February 1862, McClellan to Stanton, 31 January 1862, Ibid., 119-122.

{115} Lincoln, 11 March 1862, Ibid., 155.

{116} Hattaway and Jones, How the North Won. 102.

{117} Stanton to McClellan, 13 March 1862, in Basler, collected Works of Lincoln, V:157.

{118} Lincoln to Stanton, 3 April 1862; Ibid., 179.

{119} McClellan to Lincoln, 6 April 1862, Official Records, ser. I, vol. 11, pt. III, 73.

{120} Lincoln to McClellan, 9 April 1862, in Basler, Collected Works of Lincoln. V:185.

{121} Lincoln to McClellan, 1 May 1862, Official Records, Vol. 11, pt. III, 154.

{122} Lincoln to McClellan, 9 May 1862, Ibid., 154.

{123} Lincoln to McClellan,18 June 1862, Ibid., 232.

{124} Lincoln to McClellan,19 June 1862, Lincoln to McClellan, 19 June1862, Ibid., 234, 236.

{125} Lincoln to Fremont, Lincoln to McDowell, 30 May 1862, in Basler, Collected Works of Lincoln, V:251-52.

{126} Lincoln to Fremont, 9 June 1862, Ibid., 264.

{127} Williams, Lincoln and His Generals, 126.

{128} Lincoln to McClellan, 28 June 1862, Official Records, ser. I, vol. 11, pt. III, 269.

{129} Lincoln to McClellan, 2 July 1862, Ibid., 286.

{130} Lincoln to Halleck, 4 July 1862, Ibid., 294.

{131} Lincoln to McClellan, 13 July 1862, Ibid., 319.

{132} Hattaway, and Jones, How the North Won, 223.

{133} Stephen E. Ambrose, Halleck: Lincoln's Chief of Staff (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1962), 76.

{134} Lincoln to McClellan, 6 September 1862, in Basler, Collected Works of Lincoln. V:407.

{135} Ambrose, Halleck. 76.

{136} Hattaway and Jones, How the North Won. 240.

{137} Lincoln to McClellan, 8 September 1862, 10 September 1862, Official Records, ser. I, vol. 19, pt. II, 210, 232.

{138} Lincoln to McClellan, Ibid., 270.

{139} Lincoln to McClellan, 15 September 1862, in Basler, Collected Works of Lincoln, V:426.

{140} Lincoln to McClellan, 13 October 1862; Ibid., 460.

{141} Lincoln to McClellan, 24 October 1862, Official Records, ser. I, vol. 19, pt. II, 485.

{142} Williams, Lincoln and His Generals, 180.

{143} Basler, Collected Works of Lincoln, V:433.

{144} Ibid., 518-19.

{145} McPherson, Battle Cry of Freedom, 577-578

{146} Ambrose, Halleck, 110.

{147} Philip Van Doren Stern, ed., The Life and Writings of Abraham Lincoln (New York: The Modern Library, 1940), 750.

{148} Lincoln to Hooker, 5 June 1863, Official Records, ser. I, vol. 27, pt. I, 30.

{149} Lincoln to Hooker, 11 June 1863, Ibid., 35.

{150} Lincoln to Hooker, 14 June 1863, Hooker to Lincoln, 16 June 1863 Lincoln to Hooker, 16 June 1863, Ibid., 39, 45, 47.

{151} Williams, Lincoln and His Generals, 262.

{152} Meade to Halleck, 4 July 1863, Official Records, ser. I, vol. 27 pt. I, 78.

{153} Lincoln to Halleck, 6 July 1863, Ibid., 567.

{154} Halleck to Meade, 8 July 1863, Ibid., 82-84.

{155} Meade to Halleck, 12 July 1863, Meade to Halleck, 13 July 1863, Ibid., 91.

{156} Halleck to Meade, 14 July 1863, Ibid., 92.

{157} Lincoln to Meade, 14 July 1863, in Van Doren Stern, Life and Writings of Abraham Lincoln. 765.

{158} Lincoln to Halleck, 19 September 1863, Ibid., 781.

{159} Lincoln to Rosecrans, 4 October 1863, Official Records, ser. I, vol. 30, pt. IV,.79.

{160} Phillip Shaw Paludan, The Presidency of Abraham Lincoln (Lawrence, KS: University Press of Kansas, 1994), 249.

{161} James M. McPherson, Ordeal by Fire (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, Inc, 1982), 3 vol., vol. II, 391..

{162} Grant, Memoirs, vol. II, 473-74.

{163} Ambrose, Halleck, 164.

{164} Benjamin P. Thomas and Harold M. Hyman, Stanton: The Life and Times of Lincoln's Secretary of War (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1962), 300.

{165} Lincoln to Grant, 15 June 1864, Official Records, ser. I, vol. 40, pt. II, 47.

{166} Benjamin P. Thomas and Harold M. Hyman, Stanton: The Life and Times of Lincoln's Secretary of War (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1962), 300

{167} Lincoln to Grant, 10 July 1864, Grant to Lincoln, 10 July 1864, Lincoln to Grant, 11 July 1864, Official Records, ser. I, vol. 40, pt. III, 121, 122, 143.

{168} Grant to Halleck, 1 August 1864, Official Records, ser. I, vol. 40, pt. II, 558.

{169} Lincoln to Grant, 3 August 1864, in Basler, Collected Works of Abraham Lincoln. VII:476.

{170} Lincoln to Grant, 17 July 1864, Official Records, ser. I, vol. 40, pt. III, 289.

{171} Lincoln to Sherman, 26 December 1864, in Basler, Collected Works of Abraham Lincoln, VIII:182.

{172} Stanton to Grant, 4 February 1865, Ibid., 258.

{173} Lincoln to Grant, 19 January 1865, Ibid., 223.

{174} Abraham Lincoln, 4 March 1865, Ibid., 332.

{175} Gordon A. Craig, "The Political Leader as Strategist," in Makers of Modern Strategy ed. Peter Paret, (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1986), 503.

{176} Davis to Provisional Confederate Congress, 26 February 1861, Official Records, Series IV, vol. 1, 114.

{177} Ibid., 117.

{178} Ibid., 126.

{179} Walker to Pickens, 8 April 1861, Ibid., 211.

{180} Davis, Address to the Confederate Congress, 25 February 1862, Ibid., 951.

{181} Davis to Speaker of the House, 3 March 1862, Ibid., 969.

{182} Davis to Confederate Congress, 28 March 1892, Ibid., 1095.

{183} Brown to Davis, 22 April 1892, Ibid., 1082-85.

{184} Davis to Brown, 28 April 1862 Ibid., 1100.

{185} Brown to Davis, 8 May 1862, Ibid., 1116-20.

{186} Davis to Brown, 29 May 1862, Ibid., 1133.

{187} Ibid., 1133-38.

{188} Brown to Randolph, 17 June 1862, Randolph to Brown, 17 June 1862, Ibid., 1154.

{189} Brown to Davis, 21 June 1862, Ibid., 1156-69.

{190} Davis to Brown, 10 July 1862, Official Records, ser. IV, vol. 2, 2-3 .

{191} Brown to Davis, 22 July 1862, Ibid., 10-13.

{192} Davis to Confederate Congress, 13 August 1862, Ibid., 54.

{193} Brown to Davis, 18 October 1862, Ibid., 128-31.

{194} Louise Biles, Joseph E. Brown and the Confederacy (Chapel Hill: The University of North Carolina Press, 1939; repr., Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1972), 85.

{195} Ibid. , 87.

{196} Davis to Confederate Congress, Official Records, ser. IV, vol. 2,

{197} Biles, Joseph E. Brown and the Confederacy. 89.

{198} Davis to Confederate Congress, 7 December 1863, Official Records, ser. IV, vol. 2, 1040.

{199} Brown to Davis, 23 December 1863, Seddon to Davis 23 December 1863, Ibid., 1062-63

{200} Biles, Joseph E. Brown and the Confederacy, 90.

{201} Davis to Confederate Congress, 20 February 1865, Official Records, ser. IV, vol. 3, 796-98.

{202} Biles, Joseph E. Brown and the Confederacy, 99.

{203} Davis to Confederate Congress, 20 February 1865, Official Records, ser. IV, vol. 3, 1096.

{204} Davis to John Forsyth, 21 February 1865, Ibid., 1110.

{205} Davis to Confederate Congress, 13 March 1865, Ibid., 1133.

{206} Biles, Joseph E. Brown and the Confederacy, 96.

{207} Basler, Collected Works of Lincoln, IV:353-54.

{208} Lincoln to Congress, 4 July 1861, Ibid., 427-31.

{209} Basler, Collected Works of Lincoln, V:296.

{210} An Act to Amend the Act Calling Forth the Militia to Execute the Laws of the Union, Suppress Insurrection, and Repel Invasion, Official Records ser. III, vol. 2, 280.

{211} Lincoln to Stanton, 22 July 1862, in Basler, Collected Works of Lincoln, V:338.

{212} Official Records, ser. III, vol. 2, 586.

{213} James M. McPherson, Battle Cry of Freedom: The Civil War Era (New York: Ballantine Books, 1989), 600.

{214} Fry to Stanton, May 1863, Official Records, ser. III, vol. 3, 180.

{215} Fry to Stanton, 2 May 1863, Ibid., 186.

{216} Lincoln to Seymour, 23 March 1863, in Basler, Collected Works of Lincoln, VI:145.

{217} Seymour to Lincoln, 14 April 1863, Ibid., 146.

{218} Iver Bernstein, The New York City Draft Riots (New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1990), 11.

{219} Opdyke to Stanton, 13 July 1863, Official Records, ser. I, vol. 27, pt. II, 913.

{220} Halleck to Seymour, 14 July 1863, Ibid., 914.

{221} Kirkwood to Stanton, 15 July 1863, Official Records, ser. III, vol. 3, 4 94.

{222} Stanton to Kirkwood, 17 July 1863, Ibid., 525.

{223} Bernstein, New York City Draft Riots. 62.

{224} Seymour to Lincoln, 1 August 1863, Official Records, ser. III, vol. 3, 6 07.

{225} Lincoln to Seymour, 1 August 1863, Ibid.

{226} Seymour to Lincoln, 3 August 1863, Ibid.,. 712-18.

{227} Lincoln to Seymour, 7 August 1863, Ibid., 635-36.

{228} Seymour to Lincoln, 7 August 1863, Ibid.

{229} Seymour to Lincoln, 8 August 1863, Ibid.,. 639-40.

{230} Phillip Van Doren Stern, ed., The Life and Writings of Abraham Lincoln (New York: The Modern Library,194 0), 770-75.

{231} Lincoln to Seymour, 11 August 1863, Official Records, ser. III, vol. 3, 666-67.

{232} Dix to Seymour, 30 July 1863, Ibid., 592.

{233} Stanton to Dix, 15 August 1863, in Basler, Collected Works of Lincoln. VI:390.

{234} Dix to Halleck, 16 August 1863, Official Records, ser. III, vol. 3, 699.

{235} Seymour to Lincoln, 16 August 1863, Ibid., 681.

{236} Lincoln to Seymour, 16 August 1863, Ibid.

{237} Dix to Halleck, 20 August 1863, Ibid.

{238} Seymour to Lincoln, 21 August 1863, Ibid., 703.

{239} Seymour to Lincoln 22 August 1863, Ibid., 708.

{240} Fry to Stanton, 15 November 1864, Official Records, ser. III, vol. 4, 925-34.

{241} Seddon to Davis, Official Records, ser. IV, vol. 2, 995.

{242} James M. McPherson, Ordeal By Fire vol. II, The Civil War; (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, Inc., 1982), 181.

{243} A. K. McClure, Lincoln and Men of War Times J. Stuart Torrey, (New York: Rolley and Reynolds, Inc., 1962), 168.