abolition, 258–62; in Brazil, 123–24; in India, 196; in Mauritania, 81, 88, 94, 108–9, 112; in Pakistan, 191; working for, 263–64. See also freedom
activism, 43, 148, 231, 247–48, 258–62; for children, 43, 78, 241; in Mauritania, 82, 90, 109, 116, 120, 247–48, 254; in Thailand, 43, 78–79
Afghan workers, in Pakistan, 164–65
Afro-Mauritanians, 91, 113, 116; persecution of, 89–90, 93, 94
agriculture: debt bondage and, 9, 16, 17–18, 23; in India, 196–98, 201–2, 205–23; modernization and, 221–22, 232; in Pakistan, 154
Ahmadi Muslims, Pakistan, 177
AIDS/HIV, 36, 49, 54–55, 59–60, 76
All-Pakistan Brick Kiln Owners’ Association, 162–63
American South, 222; India parallels to, 226; Mauritania parallels to, 113–14, 119; old slavery in, 6, 10–11, 15–16, 24–25; segregation in, 6–7; slave codes in, 30
Amnesty International, 230, 247, 259, 260
ancient Egypt, slavery in, 12, 197
ancient Greece, slavery in, 12
Anderson, Bridget, 27–28
Angelou, Maya, 253
antiracist groups, British, 248
Anti-Slavery Award, 254
Anti-Slavery International (ASI), 7, 28, 247–48, 253, 258–59; addresses for, 263
antislavery organizations: in Mauritania, 90, 102–3, 109, 116, 120, 247–48, 254. See also activism; Anti-Slavery International; human rights
Antitrafficking Law (1928; Thailand), 72
apartheid, 248–49
Arabization, in Mauritania, 93–94, 113
ASI. See Anti-Slavery International
Baldev and Markhi (India), 205–11
Bandi village (India), 204–21
Bangladesh, bonded labor in, 9
barbarism, modern, 233
Bhutto Benazir, 191
Bilal, Mauritania, 100–103
blood ties, Pakistani, 172
bondage: history of, 197; length of, 15, 19; types of, in India, 198–99, 200
bonded labor, 23, 33; in Bangladesh, 9; in India, 9, 16–18, 219–23, 266, 286–87ni; in Nepal, 9; in Pakistan, 9, 191, 230, 233, 266. See also debt bondage
Bonded Labour Abolition Act (Pakistan), 191
Brazil, 121–48; abolition, 123–24; charcoal making in, 4, 23, 125–34, 147, 242, 266, 285; economy, 124–25; European settlement of, 123; foreign debt and, 124; government of, 125, 148; multinational corporations in, 125; new slavery in, 25, 31, 33, 232; old slavery in, 24–25
bribery, 54. See also corruption
brick kilns, in Pakistan, 152–54, 157, 161–64, 174
Brick Kiln Workers Union (Pakistan), 163
brickmaking, in Pakistan, 149–54, 185–93, 266
Brickworkers Union (Pakistan), 187–92
Britain: antiracist groups in, 248; antislavery enforcement in, 123, 250–51; domestic slaves in, 3, 26–28; Immigration Acts, 28; nineteenth-century textile industry in, 235, 238; prostitution in, 22
Britain’s Secret Slaves (Anderson), 27–28
brothels, 5; income of, 49, 54–57; in Thailand, 34–37, 40, 53–59, 73
Buddhism, in Thailand, 38–39, 62–63
Burma, 37, 247, 266; Thai prostitution and, 66–68; war slavery and, 21
business: slavery and, 142–43, 147, 238–39, 243
Cabral, Pedro Alvares, 123
CAFOD. See Catholic Agency for Overseas Development
Caldwell, Gillian, 251
carpet industry, child slavery in, 238, 240–41
case studies, 265–67; in Brazil (charcoal workers), 127–28, 135–39; in Britain (Laxmi Swami), 27–28; in France (Seba), 1–3; in India, 205–11 (Baldev and Markhi), 211–15 (Shivraj and Munsi), 215–17 (Leela), 225; in Mauritania (Bilal), 100–103; in Pakistan (brickworkers), 149–50, 157, 179–82; in Thailand (Siri), 34–37, 41–42, 63
caste: India, 202, 206, 218–19, 222–23; Pakistan, 172–73, 184
Catholic Agency for Overseas Development (CAFOD), 259
CCEM. See French Committee against Modern Slavery
Center for the Protection of Children’s Rights (Thailand), 43, 78
Centre for Human Rights (Geneva), 275
change: in developing countries, 234; economic, 12, 232, 236, 245; social, 12–13, 77–78,121–22
charcoal camps, in Brazil, 129–34, 147, 285n5
charcoal making, in Brazil, 4, 23, 125–31, 242, 266
chattel slavery, 19–20
child labor: in Brazilian charcoal camps, 143–46; in carpet making, 225, 238, 240–41; in India, 198–99, 200, 209; in Mauritania, 112; in Pakistan brickmaking, 150–52, 154, 188
children: activism for, 43, 78, 241; in debt bondage, 150–52, 154, 188, 237; enslaved, 237, 238, 241, 254, 261, 274; as household slaves, 3, 21; in Mauritania, 86–87, 97, HI; in Pakistan, 184–85; in Rugmark Campaign, 241; in sex slavery, 39, 43, 73–74, 78–79. See also child labor
Christians, in Pakistan, 152, 162–64, 173, 177
churches, abolition role of, 261
civil order, breakdown of, 29–30
Claude, Richard Pierre, 255
cold war, end of, 13–14
commercial sex, in Thailand, 43–48, 51, 53–57, 71,75–79
compensation, in Mauritania, 113–14
Congress Party (India), 223
construction projects, Indian bonded labor in, 203–4
consumers: power of, 241; slave-produced goods and, 23–24, 239, 272
contracts: debt bondage and, 18–20; fraudulent, 17, 26–27, 31
corruption, 232; governmental, 12–14, 29–31, 32–33, 63–64, 244–47; police, 29–30, 179, 245–46, 251–52; in rehabilitation programs, 214–15, 219, 230, 257–58
CPT. See Pastoral Land Commission
credit, developing countries and, 257
Daddah, President Mokhtar ould, 92–93 debt bondage, 9, 19–20; agriculture and, 16–18, 23, 154, 196–98, 201–2, 205–23; in Brazil, 128–29; children in, 150–52, 154, 188, 237; contracts and, 18–20; in India, 9, 16–18, 195–231, 233, 266; inherited, 16–17, 152, 198, 202–3, 206–13; m Pakistan, 151–52, 155–59, 161–71, 179–83, 191 (abolition), 194; and Pakistan Brickworkers’ Revolution, 186–92; in Thailand, 18–19, 41–43, 53, 58, 62, 66; United Nations on, 167–68
Delta Chinese, in Mississippi, 226
dependence, overcoming, 256–57
devadasi prostitution, in India, 21, 199–200
developed countries, slave trade in, 266
developing countries: change in, 234; civil order in, 29–30; credit and, 257; modernization and, 12–13; slavery in, 4. See also specific countries
diet, of Indian bonded laborers, 195, 197
Dilokvidhyarat, Lae, 235
disposability: of Brazilian charcoal workers, 129; of Pakistani brickworkers, 159; of slaves, 4, 14–15, 25, 31; of Thai women, 54, 57–61
domestic slavery, r-3, 21–22, 26–28
Douglass, Frederick, 261–62
drought, in Mauritania, 93–94
drug trade, 24
economic growth: in Brazil, 124; in Thailand, 37, 39–40, 45, 77–78
economic pressure, against slavery, 144–45, 147, 240
economics: of farming, 220; of modern slavery, 4–6, 10–11, 31–32, 270–71
economic sanctions, 24, 33, 264
economy: Brazilian, 124–25; Mauritanian, 94–96; Thai, 39–40, 45, 52–53, 64–65, 77–78
ecosystem destruction, in Brazil, 121–22, 125
ECPAT See End Child Prostitution in Asian Tourism
education, 234–35, 257 Brazil, 145; in human rights, 255; in India, 215–17, 225; in Pakistan, 176–77, 184–85; in Thailand, 65; of women, 65, 215–17
EIA. See Environmental Investigation Agency
El Hor (Mauritania), 90, 102–3, 116, 120, 254
emancipation: process of, 7, 255–57. See also freedom
End Child Prostitution in Asian Tourism (ECPAT), 73, 79
enslavement: process, 272–73; seasonal, 25; short-term, 19, 25–26
environmental degradation: in Brazil, 121–22, 125–26; in Thailand, 77–78
Environmental Investigation Agency (EIA), 242
ethnic cleansing, in Mauritania, 94
ethnic differentiation, 11, 17, 118
euphemisms, for slavery, 260
Europe: domestic slavery in, 1–3, 22, 26–28; sex slavery in, 69
European Union, 247
Falk, Richard A., 265
false contracts, 17, 26–27, 31
fauna, of Brazilian cerrado, 133
feudalism, 233, 237; in India, 199; in Pakistan, 154, 171, 174
feuds, in Pakistan, 175
firework factories, child labor in, 200
foreign aid, to Mauritania, 115–16
foreign debt: Brazilian, 124; Mauritanian, 94, 120
foreign investment, in Brazil, 144–45, 147
Foundation for Women (Thailand), 78
France: domestic slavery in, 1–3, 22; Mauritania and, 91–92, 100, 116–17, 119
free market, moral indifference of, 249
freedom: in India, 196, 224–31; in Maurtania, 107–8, 119–20; in Pakistan, 186–92. See also emancipation
freedom of assembly, 13
Free the Slaves, xii, 230, 247, 248, 258–59
French Committee against Modern Slavery (CCEM), 2
Gandhi, Mahatma, 255
Gandhi, Rajiv, 223
Gap, the, 236
GATT. See General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade
Gazdar, Haris, 267
General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT), 236
Germany, Rugmark Campaign in, 241
Ghana, religious slaves in, 22, 31
Global Alliance against Traffic in Women, 78
Global Survival Network, 251
globalization: economic, 232, 233, 239, 242, 246; fraudulent contracts and, 26–27; materialism and, 233, 244–46; new slavery and, 9–10, 22–24, 32 post-cold war, 13–14
government: Brazilian, 125, 145–46; corruption, 12–14, 29–31, 32—33, 63–64, 244–52; honesty, 230; Indian, and rehabilitation programs, 215–19, 223–31; indifference, 252; Mauritanian, 112–17; Pakistani, 164, 194; Thai, 63–64
Greider, William, 13–14, 233–34, 239, 245, 249, 28on7
growth: economic, 13, 235; of slavery, 4, 233–34
Gujral, Inder Kujmal, 223
Gulf states, 266
Haratines (Mauritania), 80, 84, 89–90, 113
Hassaniya Arabs (Mauritania). See White Moors
Hinduism, 204
HIV infection: Burmese executions and, 68; in Thailand, 18–19, 36, 42, 49, 54–60, 65, 69, 76
honesty: of Brazilian charcoal workers, 137–38; of governments, 230; of Mauritanian slaves, 106; of Pakistani brickworkers, 169; of rehabilitation administration, 230
human rights, 32; education, 255, 258; international finance and, 249; in Mauritania, 112, 120; in Pakistan, 186; post-cold war, 13–14; of workers, 148, 247, 258. See also activism
Human Rights Commission (Pakistan), 192, 247
human rights organizations, 8, 68, 78, 230, 258–60; Brazilian, 143–44; Mauritanian, 90, 102–3, 109, 116, 120, 247–48, 254; Pakistani, 163. See also activism; Amnesty International; Anti-Slavery International
Human Rights Watch, 65–66, 68, 74, 157; 247–48, 259
hyperinflation, in Brazil, 124–25
ignorance, public, 259–61
illegality: of slavery, 5, 15, 26–27; of Thai prostitution, 37, 63–64, 72–75
illiteracy, in Mauritania, 97
illness, of Pakistani brickworkers, 155, 156
ILO. See International Labour Office
IMF. See International Monetary Fund
Immigration Acts (Great Britain), 28
immigration laws (Thailand), 66–68
India: abolition in, 196; ancient slavery in, 197; “attached” labor in, 218; castes in, 202, 206, 218–19, 222–23; child labor/ slavery in, 236–37, 240; cultural diversity in, 198; debt bondage in, 9, 16–18, 195–231, 233, 266 (action against, 224–25; laws against, 217–18); devadasi women, 21, 199–200; population of, 198; rehabilitation programs in, 215–19, 223–31, 255, 258; slavery in, 4, 11, 33
Indian National Academy of Administration, 229, 257
industrialization, in Thailand, 39
industry, slave labor in, 4, 9, 23–24
inequalities, in Brazil, 124–25
Initiative for the Support of the Activities of the President (Mauritania), 115–16
interest rates, debt bondage and, in India, 203
International Court of Justice (The Hague), 249–50
International Labour Office (ILO), 8, 243
International Monetary Fund (IMF), 249–250
international opinion, on Mauritanian slavery, 88–89, 115–17
investments, 4, 21, 237, 238–39, 243, 264
Islam: fundamentalists, 116, 119; in Mauritania, 84–88, 91, 110–11; in Pakistan, 176–77
Islamic law: in Mauritania, 87, 88; in Pakistan, 178; on slavery, 85–88, no; on usury, 170
Israel, 251
Japan: enslaved prostitutes in, 11, 69–67, 251–52; investment of, in Thailand, 50–51
Jehangir, Asma, 186
Jha, Praveen, 267
Johnson, Robert A., 236
Kershaw, Ian, 244
kidnapping: in Mauritania, 109; in Thailand, 42
kleptocrats, 12–13
Kuwait, 11
labor: cheapest, 232, 236; fraudulent contracts and, 17, 26–27, 31. See also bonded labor; debt bondage
Laing, R. D., 61
land reform: in India, 225; in Mauritania, 113–15; in Pakistan, 154
landlords, Indian bonded labor and, 218–21
Laos, 66–68
law, Islamic, 85–88, no, 170, 178
law enforcement: antislavery, 32, 237–38, 240, 249–51; corruption in, 245; Indian, 202; Mauritanian, 109–10; Pakistani, 177–78, 186–92; Thai, 72–75. 78
laws, slavery, in Mauritania, 86
League of Nations, Slavery Convention of (1926), 275–77
living conditions: of Brazilian charcoal workers, 134–35; of Indian bonded laborers, 195–96, 203, 208–9; Mauritanian water carriers, 101–3; of Pakistani brickmakers, 155–56; of Thai sex slaves, 35
Loyola, Pureza Lopes, 253–54
lynch mobs, in Mauritania, 89–90
male slaves, in Mauritania, 84, 86, 111
marriage: bride-price and, in India, 202–3; of Pakistani bonded slaves, 158
Massaoud, Boubacar ould, 247
Mato Grosso do Sul (Brazil), 122, 126–29, 131–33, 143–45, 147–48
Mauritania, 15, 33, 80–120; abolition in, 81, 88, 94, 108–9, 112; antislavery organizations in, 90, 102–3, 109, 116, 120, 247–48, 254; chattel slavery in, 19; economy in, 94–96, 120; ethnic divisions in, 81–82; foreign debt of, 94, 120; history of, 91–94; international opinion of, 88–89, 110, 115–17; old slavery in, 232–34, 246; police state in, 80, 82–83; racial divisions in, 11; slavery laws in, 86; water carrying in, 100–106, 119–20, 266
mechanization, in Indian agriculture, 221–22
Mesopotamia, 197
migrant workers, in Pakistan, 164–65
modernization: in agriculture, 221–22, 232; in developing countries, 12–13; in India, 221–22; in Thailand, 40, 45, 64–65
Moors, Mauritanian. See White Moors
morality, of Mauritanian slaves, 106
Morrison, Toni, 253
multinational corporations, 9–10, 13, 25, 252; Brazil and, 125, 142; slavery links of, 235–36, 242
murder: of antislavery workers, 247; in Pakistan, 176; of prostitutes, 64, 69–70; of slaves, 86, 90, 103, 246
Muslim Sheikhs (Pakistan), 152, 162–64, 173,184
Nabuco, Joaquim, 123–24
NAFTA. See North American Free Trade Agreement
National Committee for the Struggle against the Vestiges of Slavery in Mauritania, 115
National Project Construction Corporation (India), 204
Nepal, 9
Nestlé, 125
new slavery, 232, 242; in Brazil, 121–22, 126–31; characteristics of, 31–33, 237; global economy and, 9–10, 22–24, 32> in India, 196, 201–4; multinational links of, 235–36, 242; old slavery compared with, 5–6, 14–19, 24–25, 30; in Pakistan, 168–69, 179, 193; psychological violence in, 246; rise of, 12–22; in Thailand, 48–53
N’Gadi N’di, 267
NGOs. See nongovernmental organizations
Nike, 236
Nirawan, Gampol, 267
nongovernmental organizations (NGOs), 144, 230, 247. See also Anti-Slavery International; El Hor; SOS Slaves
North Africa, 266
North America, 70–71. See also United States
North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA), 236
Nouakchott (Mauritania), 93, 97–99, 105, 107
old slavery, 232, 233; in American South, 15–16, 24–25; in Mauritania, 80–120, 237, 246; nature of, 83–84; new slavery compared with, 5–6, 14–19, 24–25, 30, 118
otherness, as slavery justification, 10–11
Oxfam, 259
Padrao, Luciano, 267
Pakistan, 149–94; bonded labor in, 9, 230, 233, 266; brickmaking in, 149–54, 185–93, 266; Brickworkers’ Revolution (1988) in, 186–92; feudalism vs. modernism in, 174; government of, 164, 194; human rights in, 186; politics in, 177–78; population growth in, 184; Punjab, 183–86; slavery in, 3, 11, 25, 31, 33
partition, of Pakistan, 154, 183–85
Pastoral Land Commission (CPT) (Brazil), 144–45, 148, 247–48, 254
patronage, in Pakistan, 171–74
pedophiles, 73
pension funds, 4, 238, 243, 264
peshgi system, in Pakistan, 162–63, 71, 173–74, 185–86, 188, 192–93
Philippines, 31
police: corruption, 29–30, 179, 245–46, 251–52; Mauritanian, 80, 82–83; Pakistani, 168, 172, 179–83, 194; slavery enforcement and, 5, 251–52; Thai prostitution and, 54, 59, 61, 63–64, 67, 72–74
Polisario Front, 93
politics, 20–21, 29, 177–78, 223
polygamy, in Thailand, 44–46, 76
population: explosion, 12, 14, 232, 234; growth, in Pakistan, 184–85; in India, 198
poverty, 11, 31–32, 234; in Brazil, 124, 126; in Mauritania, 96–97; in Thailand, 52, 71
power, in Pakistan, 171–74
profits, 4, 234, 246, 271; antislavery measures and, 238, 240; Brazilian charcoal making and, 140–42; Indian bonded labor and, 220–21; Mauritanian slaveholders and, 103–6; moral indifference and, 244, 249; new slavery and, 14, 17–18, 23, 25; Pakistan brickmaking and, 192–93; prostitution and, 29; slavery justification and, 10; Thai sex slavery and, 54–57
prostitution, 4–5, 22–23, 42; Indian devadan and, 199–200; Indian rehabilitation program and, 203, 225; physical damage of, 59–60; psychological damage of, 59, 61–62; Thai, 18, 34–79, 266–68; trafficking in, 65–66, 72
psychological violence, 246, 274
PTT Exploration and Production (Thailand), 21
Punjab (Pakistan), 183–86
race, 10–11
racism, 7, 93. See also ethnic differentiation
rain forest, Brazilian, destruction of, 121–22
recruitment, into slavery, 126–27
Red Cross, 230
reforms, Mauritanian, 119–20
refugees, 65
rehabilitation programs, 2–3; anti-corruption powers, 257–58; India, 214–19, 223–31, 255–56 (cash grants, 227–28; vigilance committees, 228–29)
relationships: slave-slaveholder, 14, 273–74; Mauritanian, 84–86, 108; Thai, 61–63
religion, 11, 21–22; in Mauritania, 85–88, no; in Pakistan, 172–74, 176–78, 194 (See also Christians, in Pakistan); slaves and, 106–8; in Thailand, 38–39, 62–63. See also Hinduism; Islam
research, 8, 257; methods, 265–74; questions, 268–74; slavery links and, 243. See also case studies
Rio de Janeiro, 132
Roman Empire, slavery in, 12
Rugmark Campaign, 240–41
Russia, slave shipments from, 251
SACCS. See South Asian Coalition on Child Servitude
Sahara, 91
sale, of slave families, in Pakistan, 158–59
sanctions: economic, 24, 33, 264; UN, 250
Saudi Arabia, slavery in, 11
Seba (France), 1–3
segregation, in American South, 6–7
Selfridges, 241
Senegalese, persecution of, 89–90
sex industry, in Thailand, 43–48, 51, 53–57,71, 75–79
sex slavery: in Europe, 69; gangs, 70; state enforcement of, 63–64, 71–72, 75; in Thailand, 34–79
sexual assault: of Mauritanian women slaves, 111; of Pakistani women brickworkers, 158–60, 175, 194
sharecropping, in India, 216–17
shareholders, exposure of, 247
Sharia: in Mauritania, 85–88, no; in Pakistan, 178. See also Islamic law
Shivraj and Munsi (India), 211–15
Singh, Pramod, 267
Siri (Thailand), 34–37, 41–42, 63, 234, 256
slave codes, in American South, 30
slave trade, in Brazil, 122–23
slave-slaveholder relations, 14, 273–74; in Mauritania, 84–86, 108; in Thailand, 61–63
slaveholders, 5, 10–11, 270; bonded labor and, 17; in Brazil, 140–43; economics and, 31–32; false contracts and, 26–27; in India, 210–11, 218–21; in Pakistan, 161–64, 174; profits of, 23–24; in Thailand, 48–53, 57
slaveholding, diffusion of, 237–38
slavery: government complicity in, 63–64, 71; preconditions for, 31–32; reality of, 259–61. See also new slavery; old slavery
Slavery Convention of the League of Nations (1926), 275–76
slaves: defined, 279–80n4; estimated numbers of, 8–9; self-help by, 253, 254–57
social change, 13
social chaos, 232; in Brazil, 121–22; in Pakistan, 175–78; in Thailand, 77–78
social consent, 245
SOS Slaves (Mauritania), 90, 109, 116, 120, 247–48, 254
South. See American South
South America, 9, 266. See also Brazil
South Asian Coalition on Child Servitude (SACCS), 255
Southeast Asia: slavery in, 9, 12. See also Thailand
state violence, in developing countries, 29–30
steel industry, indirect slave labor in, 23, 125–26
subsistence: of Indian bonded labor, 207–8; of slaves, 17
Sudan, kidnappings in, 33
Supplementary Convention on the AbolItion of Slavery, the Slave Trade, and Institutions and Practices Similar to Slavery (1956), 276
sustainable freedom, in Mauritania, 120
Swami, Laxmi (Britain), 27–28
Task Force to End Child Sexploitation, 79
Taya, President Maawiya Sid’Ahmed ould, 94, 112
tea, bonded workers and, in India, 198
Thailand: debt bondage in, 18–19, 41–3, 53, 58, 62, 66; economy in, 39–40, 45, 52–53, 64–65, 77–78; foreign prostitutes in, 66–67; girk as commodities in, 38–42; HIV/AIDS in, 54–55, 59–60, 76; industrialization in, 39, 65; legislation in, 73–74; natural resources in, 37–38; new slavery in, 232; prostitution in, 18, 25, 28–29, 34–79, 266 (numbers, 43; research methods, 267–68); sex industry in, 43–48, 51, 53–57, 71, 75–79; slavery in, 11, 33; social structure in, 44–45
torture, in Pakistan, 158, 179
Total, 21
tourism, sex industry and, 75–77
trade, moral values and, 249–52
traditional societies, erosion of, 13
trafficking: in prostitution, 65–66, 72; in slaves, 250–52; in women, 283n22
training, 255–56
transfer market, Pakistani brickworkers and, 170
trickery: in debt bondage, 168; false contracts as, 17, 20, 26–27, 31; into prostItution, 42, 62, 65–66, 69; into slavery, in Brazil, 126–28, 137
Ukraine, slave shipments from, 251
UNICEF. See United Nations Children’s Fund
United Nations (UN), 7, 32–33, 68, 243, 247, 250–53, 260; on debt bondage, 167–68; on Mauritanian slavery, 116; on murder of Afro-Mauritanians, 90; Supplemental Convention on the Abolition of Slavery (1956), 168
United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF), 200, 241, 259
United States: child labor controversy in, 236; Drug Enforcement Agency, 251; Mauritania and, 116–17, 118–19; Prostitution in, 22, 70; slavery in, 3, 9, 22. See also American South
Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1948), 276
Unocal, 21
urbanization, in Mauritania, 93, 97–100
Uttar Pradesh (India), 199, 201–4, 225–28, 286–87nI
violence, 232; government-sponsored, 89–90; in Pakistan (debt bondage and, 157–58, 164, 168, 179; political, 177; religious intolerance and, 176–78; society and, 174, 175–78); prostitution enforcement and, 41, 58–59, 69–70; psychological, 246; slavery enforcement and, 5, 17, 19–20, 30, 234, 245–47, 274 (in Brazil, 138–39; in India, 199; in Mauritania, 88, 89–90)
vocational rehabilitation, 255–56
Volkswagen, 125
voting rights, in India, 223
war slavery, 20–21
water carrying, in Mauritania, 100–106, 119–20, 266
White Moors: in Mauritania, 80–81, 84–89, 92–93, 96–97, 102, 112–15; racism of, 119
women: in Brazilian charcoal camps, 144–45; in India (as bonded laborers, 209; in government programs, 215–18; in self-help organizations, 215–17); as Mauritanian slaves, 84, 86–87, 111–12; in Pakistan (at brick kilns, 159–60, 188; violence toward, 158–60, 175, 194); powerlessness of, 111; trafficking in, 283n22
working conditions: at Brazilian charcoal camps, 130–31; of Indian child labor, 200; of Mauritanian water carriers, 101–2; of Pakistani brickmakers, 149–50, 155–56, 159; of Thai sex slaves, 34–37
World Bank, 24
World Trade Organization (WTO), 249, 250, 252
Yin, Robert K., 266