INTRODUCTION TO
The Pastoral Epistles
FIRST TIMOTHY, Second Timothy, and Titus are commonly referred to as the Pastoral Epistles. There are good reasons for this. Paul addressed this cluster of letters to two former trainees and colleagues who were in need of pastoral advice on a wide range of issues. Timothy was pastoring a well-established church in the provincial capital of Ephesus. Titus was pastoring a recently planted church on the island of Crete (off the southern coast of Greece).
The issues addressed in these letters are not unlike those that the average pastor faces today. They include the choosing and training of church leaders, good stewardship of material resources, the way men and women are to relate in the church, the manner in which church discipline is to be carried out, support structures for widows, how to deal with false teaching, pastor-parishioner guidelines, the role of prayer in worship, the way the believer is to relate to government and society, and appropriate behaviors and activities for those in leadership roles.
AUTHOR
Paul has traditionally been ascribed the authorship of the Pastoral Epistles. External support for Paul’s authorship is impressive. The Muratorian Canon (c. 150), Irenaeus (c. 175) and Clement of Alexandria (c. 200) cite the Pastorals by book and author (Stromata 2.11). Irenaeus states, “The blessed apostles, then, having founded and built up the Church, committed into the hands of Linus the office of the episcopate. Of this Linus, Paul makes mention in the Epistles to Timothy” (Against Heresies 3.3.3). The Muratorian Canon says, “Paul wrote out of affection and love, one [letter] to Philemon, one to Titus and two to Timothy” (59-60).
Internal support for Paul’s authorship of the Pastoral Epistles is also striking. Autobiographical comments are numerous: “I used to blaspheme the name of Christ. In my insolence, I persecuted his people.” (1 Tim 1:13); “the worst [sinner] of them all” (1:15); “the God I serve with a clear conscience, just as my ancestors did” (2 Tim 1:3); “the time of my death is near” (2 Tim 4:6). The letters also contain numerous personal references: “Timothy, my son” (1 Tim 1:18); “do your best to meet me at Nicopolis” (Titus 3:12); “how I was persecuted in Antioch, Iconium, and Lystra” (2 Tim 3:11); “When you come, be sure to bring the coat I left with Carpus at Troas. Also bring my books, and especially my papers” (2 Tim 4:13).
Typical Pauline expressions are found: “Paul, an apostle of Christ Jesus” (1 Tim 1:1; 2 Tim 1:1; cf. Titus 1:1); “Titus, my true son” (Titus 1:4); “Night and day I constantly remember you in my prayers” (2 Tim 1:3); “So never be ashamed to tell others about our Lord. And don’t be ashamed of me, either, even though I’m in prison for him [Christ]” (2 Tim 1:8); and “Jesus Christ . . . was raised from the dead” (2 Tim 2:8). Familiar Pauline themes are also noticeable: “Christ Jesus came into the world to save sinners” (1 Tim 1:15); “he [God] saved us, not because of the righteous things we had done, but because of his mercy” (Titus 3:5); “believe in him and receive eternal life” (1 Tim 1:16b).
In spite of these external and internal arguments, many scholars in recent years have contested Paul’s authorship of the Pastoral Epistles. The primary factors against Paul’s authorship are listed below, followed by a counterargument:
1. 
46 (c. 200 AD) and Marcion’s Apostolikon (a second-century heretical work) omit this grouping of letters. 46 does not contain the Pastorals. But this is because the manuscript ends with 1 Thessalonians, thereby omitting the five canonical letters of Paul that follow (2 Thessalonians, 1–2 Timothy, Titus, and Philemon), including the Pastorals. It is hardly a matter of the Egyptian church not knowing these letters, since Clement of Alexandria, who predates 46, cites them by name and by author (Stromata 2.11). A reasonable explanation is that the papyrus lacked the space to include the Pastorals. The absence of the Pastorals from Marcion’s Apostolikon (c. 140) is also understandable. Their positive stance toward the Mosaic law (1 Tim 1:8-11), their rejection of asceticism (1 Tim 4:1-5), and the scriptural status they give to the Old Testament (2 Tim 3:16-17) are matters that Marcion would have found problematic.
2. Luke’s account in Acts doesn’t include this stage of Paul’s ministry; therefore, it did not happen. The ending of Acts is a notorious puzzle. A missionary tour through Greece and Asia in the early 60s is indeed absent from Luke’s record. The likely explanation, however, is that it had not yet occurred at the time Luke penned Acts. Later church writings confirm that Paul engaged in mission work after leaving Rome. First Clement 5:6-7 and the Muratorian Canon 37-38 state that Paul was released from prison and did pursue further missionary work. The early church historian Eusebius goes even further. “There is evidence,” he says, “that having been brought to trial, the apostle again set out on the ministry of preaching, and having appeared a second time in the same city [Rome], found fulfillment in his martyrdom” (Ecclesiastical History 2.22).
It is sometimes argued that Acts 20:25 and 38 preclude Paul’s returning east. The NLT translation of Acts 20:25, “none of you . . . will ever see me again,” certainly points us in that direction. But the word “ever” is not in the Greek text. So a better translation would be, “you no longer (ouketi [TG3765, ZG4033]) will see my face.” In this case, Paul would have been merely telling the Ephesian leaders that he was leaving the region.
More broadly speaking, it is important to keep in mind that Luke did not intend to write an exhaustive history of Paul’s life. One needs only compare 2 Corinthians 11:23–12:6 with Acts 9–20 to see that there was much that Luke left out. It would be presumptuous, therefore, to conclude that if something is not in Acts it couldn’t have taken place.
3. The ecclesiastical infrastructure in the Pastorals is too advanced for a mid-first-century congregation (i.e., overseers, elders, deacons, a widows’ ministry team). At the time Paul wrote 1 Timothy, the Ephesian church had a well-developed leadership infrastructure. But is such an infrastructure really too complex for a Pauline church? Paul routinely appointed elders in the churches that he founded (Acts 14:23; Titus 1:5). The church at Philippi certainly had overseers (NLT, “church leaders”) and deacons (Phil 1:1). The church at Cenchrea had a woman deacon (Rom 16:1-2). And the Judean churches had something that approached a ministerial team of widows (Acts 9:39). Also the church in Ephesus was 10 years old at the time Paul wrote 1 Timothy. However, this is not the case with the recently planted church at Crete. Elders had not yet even been appointed by the time Paul wrote Titus (Titus 1:5).
What we do not find in the Pastorals is anything like the second-century monarchical episcopate, although this is often read into the roles of Timothy and Titus. Timothy and Titus merely serve as Paul’s stand-ins. Paul states this very thing: “I am writing these things to you [Timothy] now . . . so that if I am delayed, you will know how people must conduct themselves in the household of God” (1 Tim 3:14-15). Nor do we find anything like our modern concept of a bishop. The fluidity with which overseer and elder are mentioned in these letters speaks decisively against distinctive and official roles. Episkopē [TG1985, ZG2176] is an honorable task (lit., ergon, “work,” rather than an office, 1 Tim 3:1) and is descriptive of what an elder does (episkopos = “one who watches over,” “a shepherd”; see Acts 20:28; 1 Pet 5:1-2; Titus 1:6-7). For these reasons episkopos should not be translated “bishop.”
4. The Pastorals’ emphasis on orthodoxy (e.g., “wholesome teaching,” “trustworthy sayings,” “the deposit,” and “the faith”) better fits the postapostolic period. Is the concern for “wholesome teaching” (1 Tim 1:10; 6:3; 2 Tim 1:13; 4:3; Titus 1:9), “the faith” (1 Tim 1:19; 3:9; 4:1, 6; 5:8; 6:10, 21; 2 Tim 2:18; 3:8; 4:7; Titus 1:4, 13; 2:2), the Christological confessions (1 Tim 3:16; 2 Tim 2:11-13), and the transmission of “trustworthy sayings” (1 Tim 1:15; 3:1; 4:9; 2 Tim 2:11; Titus 3:8) too settled for the Pauline period? Those who are quick to say yes overlook several things. Christological confessions are found throughout Paul’s writings (e.g., Rom 1:2-5; 1 Cor 8:6; 2 Cor 8:9; Phil 2:6-11; Col 1:15-20). The theme of receiving and passing on the faith is also constant in Paul’s epistles. The ease with which Paul shifts between “my gospel” (e.g., Rom 2:16; 16:25; 2 Tim 2:8, ESV), “the gospel” (e.g., Rom 1:1, 9, 16; 2 Tim 1:10, ESV) and “our gospel” (e.g., 2 Cor 4:3; 2 Thess 2:14, ESV) indicates a role of transmitter versus innovator. Paul’s statements regarding passing on what he himself has received (technical language for the transmission of tradition) highlight his trustworthy role in this regard (Rom 6:15-18; 1 Cor 11:2, 23-26; 15:3-8; Phil 4:8-9; 2 Thess 2:15). Although the precise phraseology of “a trustworthy saying,” “the faith,” and “wholesome teaching” is lacking in Paul’s other letters, comparable terminology can be easily found: “the norm of teaching” (Rom 6:17, my translation), “the word of life” (Phil 2:16), “your faith” (Col 2:6-7), “the truth” (2 Thess 2:13), “the truth of the Good News” (Col 1:5), and “the faith, which is the Good News” (Phil 1:27).
Moreover, concern for faithful adherence to and transmission of the tradition in 2 Timothy 2:2 is exactly the same concern that surfaces in other Pauline letters (e.g., Phil 4:9; 2 Thess 2:15; 3:6). The only distinction is the number of times this concern surfaces in the Pastorals. But with the rise of heresy, the need for emphasizing wholesome teaching and reinforcing the content of Christian belief would increase as well.
5. About 20 percent of the vocabulary is distinctive to these letters; characteristic Pauline phraseology is absent; customary Pauline concepts are lacking or are used in unfamiliar ways. Are the vocabulary and the ideas of the Pastorals too different to be Paul’s? The Pastorals are certainly not lacking typical Pauline words and concepts. “Genuine faith” (1 Tim 1:5; 2 Tim 1:5), “Jesus Christ our Savior” (Titus 3:6), “because of his grace he made us right in his sight” (Titus 3:7), and “the glorious Good News” (1 Tim 1:11) are about as Pauline as phrases can be.
Yet there is a religious vocabulary that is distinct to the Pastorals. There are frequently used words such as “godliness” (eusebeia [TG2150, ZG2354], 10/15), “sober-minded” (nēphalios [TG3524, ZG3767], 15/21, NKJV), “teaching” (didaskalia [TG1319, ZG1436], 10/24), and “Savior” (sōtēr [TG4990, ZG5400], 6/24) in addition to regularly occurring phrases that speak of “the appearing of our God” (Titus 2:13; 3:4, NIV), “God our Savior” (1 Tim 1:1; 2:3; Titus 1:4; 2:10, 13; 3:4), “wholesome teaching” (1 Tim 1:10; 2 Tim 4:3; Titus 1:9; 2:1), “sound in [the] faith” (Titus 1:13; 2:2, NIV), “a trustworthy saying” (1 Tim 1:15; 3:1; 4:9; 2 Tim 2:11; Titus 3:8), “eagerly look forward to his appearing” (2 Tim 4:8), and “the washing of rebirth” (Titus 3:5, NIV).
What explains this state of affairs? Difference in subject matter is unquestionably a big factor. Language is dictated by the topic at hand and by the recipient(s). The wide-ranging pastoral advice that makes up these letters to two trusted colleagues is without parallel in the New Testament. This by itself should caution against drawing any hasty conclusions about non-Pauline authorship. Surely one would not expect Paul to address a trusted colleague in the ministry the same way he would address a congregation. Also, most of the unique vocabulary is found in contexts dealing with heresy, leadership qualifications, and widows—topics that are specific to these letters.
The real question is whether the language of these letters is foreign to a first- century religious milieu. And here one would have to say no. In fact about 85 percent of the language finds a parallel in Paul’s religious contemporary Philo, and roughly 80 percent appears in the Septuagint.
So what is a reasonable explanation? The use of an amanuensis would go a long way toward explaining the uniform and yet unique vocabulary and style of these letters. Paul’s regular use of such a person is well-attested in his letters (1 Cor 16:21; Gal 6:11; Col 4:18; 2 Thess 3:17; Phlm 1:19). In fact, the amanuensis for Paul’s letter to the Romans pens his own personal greeting at the end: “I, Tertius, the one writing this letter for Paul, send my greetings, too, as one of the Lord’s followers” (Rom 16:22).
6. Restrictive statements about women’s roles are at odds with Paul’s affirmations of women in ministry elsewhere. In actuality there is only one restriction, which targets only younger widows and is phrased as advice, not as a command: “So I advise these younger widows to marry again, have children, and take care of their own homes” (1 Tim 5:14). At first glance Paul’s counsel appears to conflict with his opinion elsewhere that women are better off to remain unmarried (1 Cor 7:34-35). Indeed, it is his judgment that a widow is happier if she does not remarry (1 Cor 7:40).
Did Paul change his mind over the course of a decade of ministry? Not at all. The broader context of the Pastorals shows that Paul’s advice was prompted by the situation at Ephesus. Significant inroads were being made by false teachers. These teachers, Paul stated, “work their way into people’s homes and win the confidence of vulnerable women who are burdened with the guilt of sin and controlled by various desires” (2 Tim 3:6). These women readily followed “new teachings, but they [were] never able to understand the truth” (2 Tim 3:7).
Young widows seem to have been particularly prone to faulty beliefs. They heeded the aberrant teaching—“it is wrong to [get] married” (1 Tim 4:3)—and pledged themselves to a full-time, celibate ministry. But “their physical desires . . . overpower[ed] their devotion to Christ,” and they broke their pledge (1 Tim 5:11). Some became eager evangelists, “going about from house to house. . . . saying things they ought not to” (1 Tim 5:13, NIV—versus the NLT, “gossiping from house to house”). Others went farther: “For I am afraid that some of them have already gone astray and now follow Satan” (1 Tim 5:15). Given this scenario, Paul’s counsel makes sense. It is far better for younger widows to remarry than to bring the gospel into disrepute through scandalous beliefs and behavior.
The false teachers’ greed led them to focus their primary attention on wealthy widows (1 Tim 6:10; Titus 1:11), who were encouraged to redirect support of an elderly relative into the false teachers’ collection plate (1 Tim 5:4, 16). In so doing they “denied the true faith” and became “worse than unbelievers” (1 Tim 5:8).
Are there other restrictive statements in the Pastorals? Many point to 1 Timothy 2:12 as the most gender-restrictive statement in the New Testament. This is only the case if one translates the text as the NLT does: “I do not let women . . . have authority over [men].” The NEB, on the other hand, has “I do not permit a woman to . . . domineer over man.” The former categorically prohibits women from leading men. The latter restricts how women lead, that is, it forbids leading in an overbearing way. (See commentary on 1 Tim 2:12 for further discussion.)
In reality, some of the most affirmative statements regarding women’s roles are found in the Pastorals. Paul affirms women deacons (“In the same way, the women deacons must be respected and must not speak evil of others. They must exercise self-control and be faithful in everything they do,” 1 Tim 3:11, my translation), ministering widows (“a widow who is put on the list for support must be a woman who is at least sixty years old and was faithful to her husband [lit., ‘the wife of one husband’]. . . well respected by everyone,” 1 Tim 5:9-10), and female prayer leaders (“[likewise] I want women [to pray who] behave with modesty,” 1 Tim 2:9-10, lit.; cf. NLT mg).
7. The false teaching reflected in the Pastorals has more in common with second-century heresies (such as Gnosticism) than with first-century errors. The false teaching reflected in the Pastorals actually has very little to do with the second-century heresy of Gnosticism and much to do with the first-century religious syncretism prevalent at Ephesus and among the Lycus Valley churches (Colossae, Laodicea, and Hierapolis). For example, it was two full years after the Ephesian church was planted that believers first confessed aberrant practices such as sorcery (Acts 19:17-19).
There really is nothing about the Ephesian heresy that requires a postapostolic date. The various elements fit quite well into a first-century religious milieu. At heart, the heresy was Jewish. Promoters came from the circumcision group (Titus 1:10), aimed to be teachers of the Mosaic law (1 Tim 1:7), and were devoted to Jewish legends (Titus 1:14), genealogies (1 Tim 1:4; Titus 3:9), and food taboos (1 Tim 4:3-4). The false teachers also borrowed different elements of Greek philosophy, including asceticism (to abstain from marriage, 1 Tim 4:3) and dualism (denial of a physical resurrection, 2 Tim 2:17-18). They also embraced certain tenets of the oriental cults such as the beliefs that knowledge saves (1 Tim 6:20) and that knowledge excludes (1 Tim 2:3-4). Disbelief in a material resurrection and a realized eschatology (2 Tim 2:18; see extensive note) were already present in Corinthian thinking a decade earlier (1 Cor 4:8; 15:12). Asceticism, Jewish ritualism, Greek dualism, and privileged knowledge were present in the Colossian church a couple of years earlier (Col 2:2-4, 16-18, 21-23).
The sum total of objections has led some to posit that the Pastorals are the work of a second-century (or later) follower, who used Paul’s name to encourage acceptance of these letters at a critical juncture for the Asian churches. The threat of heresy, the need for a more complex infrastructure, and misuse of the Old Testament drove this well-intentioned leader to take up Paul’s mantle in the name of orthodoxy and church order. Some go further and argue that “the opposing ideas (antithesis [TG477, ZG509]) of what is falsely called knowledge” in 1 Timothy 6:20 is specifically directed at the second-century heretic Marcion and his work Antitheses.
Some have sought a compromise by proposing the idea that a biographer of Paul was the author of the Pastoral Epistles. They are the work of a disciple(s) (such as Timothy, Titus, or Luke) who sought to preserve Paul’s unpublished works (personal memoranda, travelogues, intimate reflections, notes to colleagues, and the like) after his death—either for posterity’s sake or to effect change in the Asian churches. Yet, the idea of a biographer leaves much unexplained. How, for instance, would a colleague have come by such memorabilia, and how is it that these pieces were woven into three seamless letters? The presence of one letter might be plausible, but the presence of three letters—and lengthy ones too—is difficult to accept.
In conclusion, all the arguments against Paul’s authorship can be—and have been— countered. Paul wrote these three epistles to two different individuals, Timothy and Titus, in order to help them be exemplary leaders in their respective local churches. While filled with gems of practical advice, they are also full of spiritual insights pertinent to the first-century church and the twenty-first-century church.
DATE
Paul’s circumstances at the time of writing the Pastorals can be reconstructed from various statements in his previous letters. His plan had been to visit Rome and then engage in evangelistic work in western Europe (as far as Spain; Rom 15:23-24). But a two-year Roman imprisonment apparently led to a reevaluation. By the time Paul wrote Philippians, he anticipated a release from prison for further work in Greece (Phil 2:24). And when he wrote Philemon, he asked the Colossian church host to prepare a guest room for him (Phlm 1:22). It comes as no surprise, then, that on his release (about AD 62) Paul returned to Asia Minor and Greece and picked up where he left off in those regions. We find him visiting the old familiar places of Ephesus, Macedonia (1 Tim 1:3), Nicopolis (Titus 3:12), Troas (2 Tim 4:13), Corinth, and Miletus (2 Tim 4:20-21)—as well as beginning a new work on the island of Crete (Titus 1:5). By the time he wrote 2 Timothy, however, he was back in a Roman prison (2 Tim 1:8, 16) and facing a cold and lonely winter (2 Tim 1:4, 15-17; 4:12-13).
It is difficult to date the Pastoral Epistles with precision. Early church tradition places them between AD 62 and 67. First Timothy was written first, while Paul was in the province of Macedonia (1 Tim 1:3). Titus was penned second, while Paul was wintering in the western Greece port city of Nicopolis (Titus 3:12). Second Timothy was written last, while Paul was “in chains” in Rome for the second time and, according to church tradition, executed shortly thereafter (2 Tim 1:8, 16-17).
OCCASION OF WRITING
1 Timothy. Paul states that he left Timothy in charge of the Ephesian church and went on into Macedonia (1 Tim 1:3). Why Timothy had been left behind is spelled out in the opening verses of the letter. Timothy’s task at Ephesus was to command certain persons not to teach false doctrines any longer (1 Tim 1:3). Things apparently had not been going well, for Paul begins by urging Timothy to stay put in Ephesus and deal decisively with the false teachers (1 Tim 1:3-6). That this was Paul’s primary reason for writing is clear from the fact that he bypassed the normal letter-writing convention of a thanksgiving section and instead got right down to business. It is also evident from how often the topic of false teaching surfaces in the letter. It consumes roughly 35 percent of Paul’s direct attention and colors much of the rest.
Midway through the letter Paul spells out another related purpose for writing. Paul hoped to join Timothy soon (1 Tim 3:14). But in the event of a delay he wanted Timothy to know “how people must conduct themselves in the household of God” (1 Tim 3:14-15). Some have concluded from this that Paul’s aim in 1 Timothy was to provide his stand-in with a manual on church order. There is some truth to this. The reader does not have to go very far in the letter before running across leadership concerns (e.g., “I want men to pray with holy hands lifted up to God, free from anger and controversy,” 1 Tim 2:8).
Matters of church order, however, are secondary to Paul’s larger concern about false teaching. This is clear from Paul’s silence about the duties of various leadership positions. For example, we learn very little about what elders, overseers, or deacons do. Yet we find out quite a bit about how not to choose church leaders (1 Tim 5:21-22) and what to do with those who err (1 Tim 5:19-20). This makes sense, if we are dealing with a problematic situation at Ephesus. Paul’s directive that “those who [continue to] sin should be reprimanded in front of the whole church; this will serve as a strong warning to others” points us especially in this direction (1 Tim 5:20). We also see little interest in the professional qualifications of church leaders. Instead, we find a concern for character, family life, and commitment to sound teaching (1 Tim 3:1-13). This is perfectly understandable against a background of false teaching.
Titus. Though Paul may have sensed that he was in the final phase of his life’s work, there is no particular air of emergency in this letter beyond what we see in Paul’s earlier letters. Undaunted by the suffering he has undergone, he was tramping north along the eastern coast of the Adriatic Sea toward Nicopolis, looking back down the road and across the Mediterranean to the island of Crete, where he had just engaged in a burst of church planting (c. AD 62–64) and where he left his long-time apprentice and coworker Titus temporarily in charge, awaiting a replacement. Titus’s job included choosing and training church leaders (Titus 1:5-9), teaching God’s people what the Christian life and witness entails (Titus 2:1-10; 3:1-2, 14), and silencing false teaching (Titus 1:10-16; 3:9-11). Once Titus finished his work at the Cretan church, he was to join Paul in Nicopolis (Titus 3:12).
2 Timothy. Second Timothy is rather unique in that it recounts the last wishes and advice of a father to his spiritual son (2 Tim 1:2). In this respect it is intensely personal. Paul recalls memories (2 Tim 1:3-5; 3:10-11), gives reminders (2 Tim 1:6-7; 2:8-15), issues commands to be strong (2 Tim 1:8-9; 4:5), identifies false teachers (2 Tim 2:16-19), sounds warnings (2 Tim 3:1-9; 4:3-4), names deserters (2 Tim 1:15; 4:9-18), praises supporters (2 Tim 1:16-18), repeatedly charges Timothy to guard what has been entrusted (2 Tim 1:9-14; 2:1-7), urges him to come quickly (2 Tim 4:9), and requests a cloak and scrolls left behind at Troas (2 Tim 4:13).
AUDIENCE
The primary recipients of the Pastoral Epistles were two individuals, Timothy and Titus. The secondary recipients would have been the churches each of these men were leading. Timothy was leading the church in Ephesus, and Titus was leading churches in Crete.
Timothy and the Church in Ephesus. Timothy is a familiar figure in the pages of Acts and the Pauline letters. He came from the Galatian town of Lystra (Acts 16:1). The expression “my true son” (1 Tim 1:2) indicates that Paul had a hand in Timothy’s conversion. This probably occurred sometime during Paul’s first missionary excursion in that province (Acts 13–14). On revisiting the Galatian churches, Paul recognized Timothy’s potential and sought to add him to the ministry team. In his favor was the fact that the local churches spoke well of him (Acts 16:1-2) and prophetic words had confirmed his gifting and call (1 Tim 1:18; 4:14). Against him was the fact that he was an uncircumcised Jew. Luke records that Timothy’s mother was a Jewish believer, but his father was a Greek (Acts 16:1).
Paul recalled how Timothy had been raised and nurtured in the faith by his mother, Eunice, and his grandmother Lois (2 Tim 1:5; 3:15). His father must have balked at the thought of circumcision, as any male Gentile would, and hence forbade it. This made Timothy something of a half-breed in the eyes of both Jews and Greeks. While Paul could have taken the easy way out and found someone with a “proper” upbringing, he sought instead to remove the obstacle by having Timothy circumcised. This allowed Timothy entree into Jewish circles and regularized his status in non-Jewish contexts. Timothy was then commissioned as a missionary and empowered through the laying on of the elders’ hands (1 Tim 4:14).
Timothy’s training was of the “hands-on” type. Right from the start Paul involved him in all aspects of the church-planting process (e.g., 1 Thess 2:1-16). His part was more than that of a subordinate player. Timothy was a coworker in the fullest sense (Rom 16:21; 1 Cor 16:10). He participated in planting churches in Philippi, Thessalonica (1 Thess 1:1; 2:2), Berea (Acts 17:13-15), Corinth (2 Cor 1:19), and Ephesus (cf. Acts 19:1, 22). He functioned as Paul’s stand-in at Corinth (1 Cor 16:10) and Ephesus (1 Tim 3:14-15). He was sent to Thessalonica to strengthen and encourage the believers in their faith (1 Thess 3:2), to Corinth to remind the church of what Paul had taught and modeled regarding the Christian life (1 Cor 4:16-17), to Macedonia (along with Erastus) to prepare the way for Paul’s arrival (Acts 19:22), and to Philippi to gather news for Paul and to encourage the church there (Phil 2:19-24).
Timothy was Paul’s constant companion during the 50s and 60s. Paul names him in the head of three of his letters (Philippians, Colossians, and Philemon) and identifies him as coauthor in three (2 Corinthians and 1 & 2 Thessalonians). Timothy accompanied Paul on his missionary endeavors in the provinces of Asia Minor and Greece, traveled with him to Jerusalem with the relief funds (Acts 20:4), and was with Paul during his first lengthy imprisonment (Phil 2:19-23).
One can judge from Paul’s comments that Timothy was a young man who was easily intimidated and readily discouraged (1 Tim 4:11-12; 5:23; 2 Tim 1:6-7; 2:22). The latter may explain Timothy’s abrupt disappearance from the Corinthian scene after delivering Paul’s lengthy missive, 1 Corinthians. Paul’s charge to the Corinthian believers that they give Timothy no reason to fear and that none of them should refuse to accept him suggests some anxiety regarding his reception (1 Cor 16:10-11).
Timothy is last mentioned in the letter to the Hebrews. The author informs his readers: “I want you to know that our brother Timothy has been released from jail. If he comes here soon, I will bring him with me to see you” (Heb 13:23). The historical circumstances prompting the remark are unfortunately lost to us.
Ephesus was a fruitful location for planting a church. The city was the urban hub and capital of the province of Asia (the western part of modern-day Turkey). It was a free city with a population numbering around 500,000 at its height. The Jewish population alone was sizable and, according to the Jewish historian Josephus, enjoyed special privileges under Roman rule—including military and Sabbath travel exemptions, the freedom to assemble, and the right of access to kosher foods (Antiquities 14.225-227, 233 [14.12, 25]).
Because of its location (strategically situated at the end of the Asiatic caravan route) and its fine harbor, it became the greatest commercial city in the province in the second century BC. However, by New Testament times, its commercial activities were in decline, and tourism became the primary source of municipal income. The famed temple of Artemis (the Anatolian goddess of fertility), one of the seven wonders of the ancient world, was situated there. The city was duly named the temple warden of the goddess (Acts 19:35). Ephesus was also a center of emperor worship with three official temples. This won the city the title of “temple warden” of the emperors.
Ephesus was the site of Paul’s longest missionary stay of which we know. The church at Ephesus was planted by Paul and Timothy around AD 53. The congregation was an ethnically and religiously diverse one right from the start. Paul’s first contact was with twelve cloistered disciples of John the Baptist, who lacked knowledge of the outpouring of the Spirit at Pentecost (Acts 19:1-7). Then Paul spent about three months preaching in the local synagogue and gathering a group of disciples (Acts 19:8-10). After the Jewish leadership removed the welcome mat, Paul moved on to the lecture hall of a local philosopher, where he preached “to Jews and Greeks” for two years (Acts 19:9-10).
At the time that 1 and 2 Timothy were penned, the Ephesian church was about 10 years old. Of the various challenges that it faced, the major one was that of false teaching. That false teaching would be making inroads at Ephesus is not at all surprising. The church from the start was syncretistic in its religious practices. Luke records that many believers confessed to practicing sorcery and then publicly burned their books (Acts 19:13-20).
The church did not lack for leaders. Priscilla and Aquila resided there during the mid-50s and early 60s (Acts 18:25-26; 2 Tim 4:19). By the time Paul said his farewells en route to Jerusalem in the late 50s, a well-established system of leadership was in place (Acts 20:17-38). The church was also mission-minded; the Colossian and Laodicean churches seem to have been the result of the Ephesian church’s outreach efforts.
One of the problems that the Ephesian church continually battled was the impact of the cult of Artemis on its rank and file. The religious and economic importance of the cult to Ephesus is evident in the two-hour-long chant “Great is Artemis of the Ephesians” recorded by Luke in Acts 19:28-41. Part of the city’s religious greatness came from its possession of what was believed to be the very image of Artemis, which supposedly fell from Jupiter (Acts 19:35). The tourism potential did not go unnoticed, nor did the commercialism surrounding it. (For more on Artemis, see Gritz 1991:31-41.)
The final glimpse we have of the Ephesian church in the New Testament is of a church in need of revival. It is described in the Apocalypse as a church that had lost its first love (Rev 2:1, 4). True to its syncretistic beginnings, it once again adulterated the faith—this time through an infusion of the pagan sexual practices of the Nicolaitans (Rev 2:6).
Titus and the Churches in Crete. We know less about Titus than Timothy. Luke doesn’t even mention him in the book of Acts. But what we do know is admirable. Unlike Timothy, Titus was Greek by birth (Gal 2:3). Like Timothy, though, Paul calls him “my true son in the faith” (Titus 1:4), pointing to Paul’s direct involvement in his conversion. Titus’s name first appears as Paul’s traveling companion to Jerusalem in the mid-40s with relief funds from the recently planted church in Antioch (Gal 2:1-3; cf. Acts 11:27-30). Titus was also in Antioch when the Judaizing wing of the Jerusalem church began to pressure the Gentile believers to be circumcised and so show themselves to be Mosaic law–abiding proselytes (Gal 2:3-5).
All the evidence points to Titus’s being a gifted pastor and administrator. His abilities are best seen in his handling of events subsequent to Paul’s painful Corinthian visit (c. AD 54). While in Corinth, Paul apparently had been publicly insulted and his authority challenged by someone in the congregation (2 Cor 2:5-11; 13:3). Titus’s job was to deliver and enforce the disciplinary measures that Paul outlined in what has come to be called the “severe letter” (2 Cor 2:1-4; 7:5-9). It speaks volumes that Titus was selected for such a delicate mission. The results show that Paul’s confidence in Titus was well-founded. Not only was Titus able to reinforce the dictates of the severe letter, but he was successful in reviving the church’s flagging Jerusalem relief efforts (2 Cor 8:6). On a subsequent visit, Titus was able to consolidate Paul’s authority (despite strong outside opposition) and bring the collection to completion (2 Cor 8:6, 16-24; 12:18; cf. Rom 15:26).
Titus’s travels with Paul included a visit to Crete in the early AD 60s (Titus 1:5). This was a new work that Titus’s pastoral gifts helped to solidify after Paul’s departure. The challenges of this work included choosing and training church leaders, instilling the basics of discipleship (Christian life and witness), and preventing the inroads of false teaching (see “Heresy” under Major Theological Themes).
After finishing his work with the Cretan church, Titus joined Paul in Nicopolis (Titus 3:12) and then went on to Dalmatia (2 Tim 4:10). The church historian, Eusebius, places him back in Crete, where he served as the churches’ first bishop until his death (Ecclesiastical History 3.4).
Not much is known about Crete during the first century. Geographically, it is the southernmost and largest of the islands off the coast of Greece. Topographically, it is a narrow, mainly mountainous 160-mile-wide stretch of land about half the size of New Jersey. Numerous caves exist in its mountains, one of the most important being the Dictaean Cave in Lasithi—the legendary birthplace of Zeus.
Jews from Crete were among those present for the outpouring of the Spirit at Pentecost about AD 30 (Acts 2). Apart from this, Acts is silent about Crete until Paul’s brief visit there as a prisoner on his way to Rome around AD 59–60 (Acts 27:7-17). This short stay may well have whetted Paul’s evangelistic appetite and encouraged his return on his release from prison in AD 62.
The opinion of Crete’s Greco-Roman peers is quoted by Paul in Titus 1:12: “The people of Crete are all liars, cruel animals, and lazy gluttons” (Epimenides de Oracules; see note on this verse). The principal Cretan “lie” was their claim to possess the birthplace and the tomb of Zeus on the island. The Cretans became so renowned for this falsehood that the verb “to cretize” became a slang word for lying.
We know virtually nothing about the Cretan church apart from what we can glean from the letter itself and archeological findings. The fact that Titus was left behind to “complete our work” and “appoint elders in each town” is suggestive of a newly planted church (Titus 1:5). It would appear that false teaching had already made some inroads (Titus 1:10-11, 14) and needed correction (Titus 1:11, 13). “There are many rebellious people,” Paul states, “who engage in useless talk and deceive others” (Titus 1:10). Titus’s job, like Timothy’s in Ephesus, was to silence such people and rebuke them sternly (Titus 1:11a, 13).
CANONICITY AND TEXTUAL HISTORY
Canonical support for the Pastorals is exceeded only by that of Romans and 1 Corinthians. The Pastorals were known and used at the turn of the century by Polycarp, bishop of Smyrna (c. AD 156), Justin Martyr (c. 165), and Heracleon (second century). Polycarp’s use of the two expressions “the beginning of every kind of difficulty is the love of money” and “we brought nothing into the world nor can we take anything out” can scarcely be anything else but a dependence on 1 Timothy 6:7, 10 (see The Letter of Polycarp to the Philippians 4.1; 9.2).
All the church canons except for Marcion’s contain the Pastorals. The Muratorian Canon (c. AD 150) is representative: “Paul wrote out of affection and love, one [letter] to Philemon, one to Titus, and two to Timothy, and these are held sacred in the esteem of the universal church for the regulation of ecclesiastical discipline” (lines 50-60, 62-63). The earliest extant manuscript of one of the Pastoral Epistles is 32, which is dated to the late second century and contains a portion of Titus.
The Pastorals are found among the 13 Pauline letters in the Canon of Cyril of Jerusalem (c. 350), the Cheltenham list (c. 360), the canon approved by the Synod of Laodiceans (363), Canon 85 of the Apostolic Constitutions (c. 380), the Canon of Gregory of Nazianzus (c. 380), and the Third Council of Carthage (397). A clear acknowledgment of our New Testament canon of 27 books appears in Athanasius’s Thirty-ninth Festal Letter (c. 367): “These are the springs of salvation, in order that those who are thirsty may fully refresh themselves with the words contained in them. In them alone is the doctrine of piety proclaimed. Let no one add anything to them or take anything away from them.”
LITERARY STYLE AND FORM
First and Second Timothy and Titus follow the standard letter form of Paul’s day, which includes the following (see Belleville 1989):
I. Letter Opening: Sender A to Recipient(s) B; Greetings: “Paul . . . to Timothy/Titus, . . . grace, (mercy,) and peace” (1 Tim 1:1-2; 2 Tim 1:1-2; Titus 1:1-4)
II. Thanksgiving: “I thank God for you. . . . Night and day I constantly remember you in my prayers. . . . I know that same faith continues strong in you” (2 Tim 1:3-5)
III. Body of the Letter
A. Opening: “When I left for Macedonia, I urged you to stay there in Ephesus” (1 Tim 1:3); “I remind you to fan into flames the spiritual gift God gave you” (2 Tim 1:6); “I left you on the island of Crete so you could complete our work there” (Titus 1:5)
B. Middle
C. Closing
1. Reason for writing /expressions urging responsibility
2. Expressions of confidence
3. Travel plans: “Please come as soon as you can. Demas has deserted me. . . . I sent Tychicus to Ephesus” (2 Tim 4:9-19); “I am planning to send either Artemas or Tychicus to you. As soon as one of them arrives, do your best to meet me at Nicopolis” (Titus 3:12-14)
IV. Letter Closing
A. Greetings: “Eubulus sends you greetings, and so do Pudens, Linus, Claudia, and all the brothers and sisters” (2 Tim 4:21); “Everybody here sends greetings” (Titus 3:15); “Please give my greetings to the believers—all who love us” (Titus 3:15)
B. Wish for Good Health/Goodbye: “May God’s grace be with you all” (1 Tim 6:21); “May the Lord be with your spirit. And may his grace be with all of you” (2 Tim 4:21-22); “May God’s grace be with you all” (Titus 3:15)
Paul does depart from the standard letter form at a number of points, and these differences highlight the various emphases and concerns of each letter. In 1 Timothy and Titus, the standard thanksgiving section is missing. The health of the relationship usually can be gauged by the presence or absence of expressions of thanks, remembrance, faith, and prayer. Second Timothy has all four. This is understandable in a letter where Paul is passing on the torch to his trusted associate while in prison awaiting sentencing. The absence of thanks in the other two letters is also understandable. The urgent need for his associates to correct false teaching at Ephesus and Crete causes Paul to bypass the standard thanksgiving section and get right down to the business of expressing urgent matters.
Both 2 Timothy and Titus include detailed travel plans and closing greetings, but 1 Timothy is striking for its lack of both. Greetings find their way into Paul’s letters even if of the most general sort (e.g., “Greet all the saints”). This—combined with the lack of the standard thanksgiving and the opening urgency regarding false teaching—signals a troubling and pervasive state of affairs at Ephesus. That 1 Timothy is not solely a private letter is clear from the final benediction addressed to the entire church: “May God’s grace be with you all” (1 Tim 6:21).
MAJOR THEOLOGICAL THEMES
There are several significant theological themes in the Pastoral Epistles. Some of these would not be new to the readers of Paul’s other epistles; others are new in the sense that they are spoken of in fresh contexts and with distinctive terms. This applies with respect to the following: God, Christ, the Holy Spirit, salvation, righteousness, piety and wholesome teaching, and heresy.
God. The Pastorals have attracted theological interest, in part, because of the unparalleled frequency of the expression “God our Savior” in these documents (six times in the Pastorals, but elsewhere only in Luke 1:47 and Jude 1:25; see below). In addition to the title “Savior” (1 Tim 1:1; 2:3; 4:10; Titus 1:3; 2:10; 3:4), God in the Pastorals is also said to be “the Father” (2 Tim 1:2; Titus 1:4), “King of all kings,” and “Lord of all lords” (1 Tim 6:15).
There is more of a focus on God’s attributes in the Pastorals than in the other Pauline letters. In the language of Jewish doxology, God is “blessed” (1 Tim 1:11), “eternal” (1 Tim 1:17), “the one (and only) God” (1 Tim 2:5), and “the living God” (1 Tim 4:10). Along more Hellenistic lines, God alone “lives in light so brilliant that no human can approach him” (1 Tim 6:16, lit.) and is “immortal” and “unseen” (1 Tim 1:17; 6:16, lit.).
The God of the Pastorals is a God deserving of all honor, glory, and worship (1 Tim 1:17). He is a God whom we should strive to please (1 Tim 2:3; 5:4), in whom we should set our hope (1 Tim 4:10; 5:5; 6:17), and from whom we can seek help (1 Tim 5:5). He is merciful (1 Tim 1:13, 16; 2 Tim 1:16, 18; Titus 3:5), loving, and kind (Titus 3:4). He stands by his promises and does not lie (Titus 1:2).
The work of God highlighted in the Pastorals is that of creator, savior, and enabler. Everything God created is good and to be received with thanksgiving (1 Tim 4:3-5). This includes food and shelter, which God richly provides for us to enjoy and to share with those in need (1 Tim 4:3; 6:8, 17). God “wants everyone to be saved and to understand the truth” (1 Tim 2:4; 2 Tim 2:10). He saves people through the regenerative, life-giving power of the Spirit, whom he generously pours out on believers through Jesus Christ our Savior (Titus 3:6). God also gifts us to do his work (2 Tim 1:6) and enables us by his power (2 Tim 1:7, 8) and his Word (2 Tim 2:8). “All Scripture is inspired by God and is useful to teach us what is true”; it is God’s way of preparing us in every way, fully equipped for every good thing God wants us to do (2 Tim 3:16-17).
Christ. The Christ of the Pastorals is called our “Savior” (2 Tim 1:10; Titus 1:4; 2:13; 3:6), “Lord” (1 Tim 1:12; 6:3; 2 Tim 1:2), the one “who gives us hope” (1 Tim 1:1), and “righteous Judge” (2 Tim 4:8). Each of these titles sums up a theological emphasis of the Pastorals. As Savior, Jesus came to rescue sinners (1 Tim 1:15) and to purchase freedom for everyone (1 Tim 2:5). He gave himself on our behalf to redeem us from every kind of lawlessness and to purify a people for himself (Titus 2:14). Unique to the Pastorals is the presentation of Jesus as an example of one who made a good confession when he testified before Pontius Pilate (1 Tim 6:13). As “our hope” he came to break the power of death and to show us the way to everlasting life (2 Tim 1:10). Those who believe in him will receive eternal life (1 Tim 1:16; cf. 2 Tim 3:15). The essence of the Christian hope is found in Paul’s command: “Always remember that Jesus Christ, a descendant of King David, was raised from the dead” (2 Tim 2:8).
As our Lord, Christ provides us with sound instruction (1 Tim 6:3), stands by our side, gives us strength, delivers us from every evil attack (2 Tim 4:17), and brings us safely into his heavenly Kingdom (2 Tim 4:18). When he appears again, it will be as the “righteous Judge” of the living and the dead (2 Tim 4:1, 8). He will repay us in accordance with our deeds (2 Tim 4:14). Those who disown him, he will also disown (2 Tim 2:12b). But for those who remain faithful, there is the promise of enjoying life with Christ forever and of reigning with him in his Kingdom (2 Tim 2:12a, 13; 4:1). If we are faithless, he will remain faithful (2 Tim 2:13). His patience is perfect (1 Tim 1:16), and his grace ever present (2 Tim 2:1). This makes the Christ of the Pastorals someone in whom we can fully trust (1 Tim 1:16; 3:13; 2 Tim 3:15), to whom we can dedicate ourselves (1 Tim 5:11), for whom we can endure hardship (like a “good soldier,” 2 Tim 2:3), and whom we can serve well (1 Tim 4:6). His return is something we should long for (2 Tim 4:8).
Christ’s first and second comings are distinctively called “epiphanies” or “appearances” (epiphaneia [TG2015, ZG2211]) in the Pastorals. The Greek word would have been a familiar one to Greco-Roman readers such as the Ephesians. It signaled something’s or someone’s “appearance” or “coming into view.” Polybius used it of daybreak (Histories 3.94.3) as well as the sudden appearance of an enemy (Histories 1.54.2). Deities “appeared” to worshippers (Plutarch Themistocles 30.3) and “manifested” divine power (2 Macc 15:27). It is used only of Christ in the New Testament. His first “appearance” on the stage of world history was “in the flesh” (1 Tim 3:16) as “Christ Jesus, our Savior,” who “broke the power of death and illuminated the way to life and immortality” (2 Tim 1:10). Christ’s second appearance will be a day of judgment, when “the Lord Jesus will kill [the man of lawlessness] with the breath of his mouth and destroy him by the splendor of his coming” (lit., “his appearing,” 2 Thess 2:8). To signal the “appearing” of that great and glorious day of the Lord, “the sun will become dark, and the moon will turn blood red” (Acts 2:20). Christ’s “appearing” will also be a day of vindication—“that wonderful day when the glory of our great God and Savior, Jesus Christ, will be revealed” (lit., “will appear,” Titus 2:13) and those who “fought the good fight” will receive their “prize”—a “crown of righteousness” (2 Tim 4:8). It is a day, therefore, that the faithful look forward to “eagerly” (2 Tim 4:8) and with “hope” (Titus 2:13). Until then, it is both Timothy’s responsibility and ours to “fight the good fight” (1 Tim 6:12) and to live in such a fashion that “no one will find fault with [us] from now until our Lord Jesus Christ comes again” (lit., “appears”; 1 Tim 6:14).
The Holy Spirit. References in the Pastorals to the person and work of the Spirit reveal Paul’s full-orbed Trinitarian understanding. The Spirit’s power in raising Christ from the dead and so declaring him to be the Son of God is memorialized in the hymnic strophe,
Christ was revealed in a human body
and vindicated by the Spirit. (1 Tim 3:16)
Through Jesus Christ our Savior, God richly pours out this same Spirit on us so that, declared righteous by his grace, we take up the privileged position as an heir of eternal life (Titus 3:7). To this end the Spirit regenerates us with an inward cleansing that produces new birth and new life (Titus 3:4-5) and then takes up residence within each of us (2 Tim 1:14). It is through his sanctifying power at work in us that we are able to hold fast to the pattern of life and teaching that we have in Christ Jesus (2 Tim 1:13). By the Spirit we are able to guard the precious truth of the gospel that has been entrusted to us (2 Tim 1:14).
The Spirit empowers and directs our corporate life and witness. He gifts each believer to contribute to the church’s growth and maturity. It then becomes our responsibility to either exercise our gifts or quench the Spirit’s gifting (1 Thess 5:19). It is for this reason that Paul charges Timothy to fan into flames the spiritual gift God gave him (2 Tim 1:6). We can also grieve the Spirit (Eph 4:30) and abandon the faith (2 Tim 4:10). The Spirit himself warns that in these last times before Christ’s return some will turn away from the true faith (1 Tim 4:1-2). They will disavow their confession regarding Christ’s incarnation, death, resurrection, vindication, good news of salvation, kingdom expansion, and glorification to the status of “Lord and Messiah” (1 Tim 3:16; cf. Acts 2:22-36). They will turn their backs on him (apostatize) and follow deceptive spirits and teachings that come from demons (1 Tim 4:1). Indeed, Paul feared that in his own time some had already gone astray and were following Satan (1 Tim 5:15).
The Spirit also empowers the believers to withstand Satan’s attacks and to boldly proclaim the gospel through word and action. God does not give us a spirit of cowardice, but rather a spirit of power and of love and of self-discipline (2 Tim 1:7). The Spirit enables us to face suffering for the sake of the gospel and to live a holy life (1:9).
Salvation. Salvation is a major theme in the Pastorals. Twenty times in the space of 13 chapters the following Greek words are found: sōtēr [TG4990, ZG5400] (Savior); along with its cognate forms sōtēria [TG4991, ZG5401] (salvation), sōtērios [TG4992A, ZG5402] (bringing salvation), and sōzō [TG4982, ZG5392] (to save).
These 20 uses (in sum) cover the theological landscape of the topic quite thoroughly. “God our Savior” (1 Tim 1:1; 2:3; Titus 1:3; 2:10; 3:4) desires that all people be saved and come to a knowledge of the truth (1 Tim 2:4; 4:10; 2 Tim 2:10). Salvation is an expression of God’s grace (Titus 2:11) and is found in Christ Jesus and him alone (2 Tim 2:10). Jesus’ mission was to save sinners; that is why he came into the world (1 Tim 1:15). It is as Savior (2 Tim 1:10; Titus 1:4; 2:13; 3:6) that Christ destroyed death and brought life and immortality to light (2 Tim 1:10). Paul’s knowledge of salvation was not theoretical. As the worst of sinners (1 Tim 1:15), he had experienced God’s saving grace firsthand (1 Tim 1:16).
Salvation is something that we can obtain (2 Tim 2:10), but not by means of anything that we do (2 Tim 1:9). It is obtained solely on the basis of God’s mercy (Titus 3:5) and through faith in Christ Jesus (2 Tim 3:15), the washing of regeneration, and the renewing work of the Holy Spirit (Titus 3:5). Yet, the Scriptures can give us wisdom that leads to salvation (2 Tim 3:15). And keeping a close watch over one’s life and teaching will move us along on the road to salvation (1 Tim 4:16). The attainment of full salvation awaits Christ’s return (Titus 2:13). While we have been justified by God’s grace, our status is that of heirs who have the hope of eternal life (Titus 3:7). For this reason, perseverance until the end is necessary (2 Tim 2:10). “If we endure,” Paul states, “we will reign with him” (2 Tim 2:11-12).
Righteousness. Righteousness is a major theme in Paul and in the Pastorals. It has the legal meaning “to declare not guilty” and the ethical meaning of being upright in character and doing what is virtuous in behavior. It is predominantly used of a legal declaration of being “not guilty”—both now through faith in Christ and at the final judgment. We are not saved because of the righteous things we have done “but because of his mercy” (Titus 3:5). It is the work of God who “generously poured out the Spirit upon us” and “made us right in his sight” (Titus 3:6-7). Paul also used “righteousness” to speak of the godly character from which flows virtuous behavior. Because God is righteous, believers are to “pursue righteous living” (2 Tim 2:22) and live righteous lives (Titus 2:12). If they do so, a crown of righteousness awaits them—a crown to which Paul himself looks forward (2 Tim 4:8).
Piety and Wholesome Teaching. One of the theological distinctives of the Pastorals lies in its pietistic language and creedal emphasis. The Greek word eusebeia [TG2150, ZG2354] (and its various forms), commonly translated “godliness” or “religious,” is found 13 times in the Pastorals. “Wholesome teaching” (lit., “healthy teaching”) occurs six times, and “the faith” appears 13 times.
Godliness is not just an inward disposition but an outward demeanor that is central to all aspects of Christian life and ministry. Knowledge of the truth leads to it (Titus 1:1). Yet godliness is something that requires training (1 Tim 4:7), teaching (1 Tim 6:3), and vigorous pursuit (1 Tim 6:11). The Christian’s witness to outsiders depends on it (1 Tim 1–3). Godliness is not an easy pursuit. Those who want to live a godly life will be persecuted (2 Tim 3:12). Yet it is this very godliness that holds promise for both the present life and the life to come (1 Tim 4:8). Godliness with contentment gives one great gain (1 Tim 6:6) and power (2 Tim 3:5).
Godliness is something that must be put into practice (1 Tim 5:4). It is doing “good deeds” such as looking after orphans (1 Tim 5:10, lit., “brought up children”), caring for a widowed parent or grandparent (1 Tim 5:4), showing hospitality (1 Tim 3:2; 5:10; Titus 1:8), washing the feet of the saints (1 Tim 5:10, NLT mg), a generous and willing sharing of resources (1 Tim 6:18), and helping those in trouble (1 Tim 5:10).
Godliness is related to wholesome teaching (Titus 2:1). In fact, wholesome teaching is the same as “godly teaching” (tē kat’ eusebeian didaskalia [TG2150/1319, ZG2354/1436], 1 Tim 6:3, NIV). The touchstones for wholesome teaching are “the wholesome teachings of the Lord Jesus Christ” (1 Tim 6:3) and “the glorious Good News” of “our blessed God” (1 Tim 1:11). The epitome of godliness is the life and ministry of Christ (1 Tim 3:16). Godless or “impious” (asebeia [TG763, ZG813]) teaching is just chatter that “leads to more godless behavior” (2 Tim 2:16). Such chatter includes teaching that the resurrection has already taken place (2 Tim 2:18).
Proper conduct in God’s household is of utmost importance (1 Tim 3:15). The demeanor of men is to be characterized by “holiness” (hosios [TG3741, ZG4008], 1 Tim 2:8). The demeanor of women is to be modest (aidōs [TG127, ZG133]) and sensible (sōphrosunē [TG4997, ZG5408]) as is proper (prepō [TG4241/A, ZG4560]) for those who profess faith in God (1 Tim 2:9-10). Children are to be respectful and well behaved (1 Tim 3:4). Widows are to be cared for by their children “so that no one will be open to criticism” (1 Tim 5:7). Elders must be blameless (Titus 1:7), and overseers and deacons must be respected (1 Tim 3:2, 8). Leaders of God’s household are to be respected because they carry out a “noble task” (1 Tim 3:1, ESV).
Paul’s concern for godliness is with a view to preserving the witness of the church. That “they will not bring shame on the word of God” is the bottom line for Paul (Titus 2:5). One qualification for an overseer is to have a good reputation with outsiders (1 Tim 3:7). Younger widows are to live in such a way as to give the enemy no opportunity for slander (1 Tim 5:14). Slaves are to respect their masters so that God’s name and the church’s teaching may not be slandered (1 Tim 6:1).
Heresy. The false teaching that Timothy and Titus were urged to address was syncretistic in character. It combined various elements of current religious and philosophical thinking. Like the Eastern cults of the day, it emphasized esoteric knowledge. Some, Paul says, “oppose you with their so-called knowledge” and “have wandered from the faith” (1 Tim 6:20-21). They engage in “myths” and “spiritual pedigrees,” which cause “meaningless speculations” (1 Tim 1:4) and “meaningless discussions” (1 Tim 1:6).
The false teaching had an ascetic bent. It advised to abstain from certain foods and to refrain from marriage (1 Tim 4:3-4). A belief that the resurrection had already happened (i.e., that we are wholly spiritual beings) may have motivated such restrictions (see extensive commentary on 2 Tim 2:17-18).
A dualistic worldview was in the background. The spiritual was good and the physical was flawed—and, in some cases, even evil (contrast 1 Tim 4:3-4, which says that “everything God created is good” [italics mine]). Withdrawal from the world was therefore considered to be in order. Fasting and sexual abstinence served to keep in check the physical impulses. Philosophical dualism of this sort made contact between a material creation and a spiritual God problematic. The posited solution was contact through “mediators.” Christ was held up as one such mediator, but he was only one of many efforts on God’s part to bridge the gap. Hence came Paul’s corrective: “There is one God and one Mediator [not many] who can reconcile God and humanity—the man Christ Jesus” (1 Tim 2:5).
The false teaching had a distinctly Jewish character to it. Those who sought to advance it were primarily from the circumcision group (Titus 1:10). Their aim was to be teachers of Mosaic law (1 Tim 1:7; Titus 3:9). They devoted themselves to Jewish legends (Titus 1:14) and genealogies (1 Tim 1:4; Titus 3:9). And they forbade certain foods (probably in line with Mosaic restrictions; 1 Tim 4:3-4).
How influential this heretical teaching was can be judged from its impact on the leadership of the church. It certainly reached to the highest level. Two leaders were expelled for promoting it (Alexander and Hymenaeus, 1 Tim 1:20). Some of the church leaders needed to be rebuked publicly for it (1 Tim 5:20). Its impact on the congregation was devastating. It left ruined households (Titus 1:11), jealousy and fighting, and slander and evil suspicions (1 Tim 6:4) in its wake.
Women seem to have been particularly attracted to this aberrant teaching. The false teachers, Paul states, “work their way into people’s homes and win the confidence of vulnerable women” (2 Tim 3:6). Younger widows especially seem to have been eager evangelists, going “from house to house” and “talking about things they shouldn’t” (1 Tim 5:13). That something more than nosiness or gossiping was involved is clear from Paul’s evaluation that they “have already gone astray and now follow Satan” (1 Tim 5:15).
Another thing to note is that it is only here in Paul’s letters that we find him telling women to marry and raise a family (1 Tim 5:14). He even went so far as to say that “women will be saved [or perhaps “kept safe”] through childbearing” (1 Tim 2:15). Taken alongside 1 Corinthians 7, where both men and women are counseled not to marry, Paul comes across as terribly inconsistent. But if women were heeding the false teachers’ prohibition of marriage (because sexual contact was thought to be polluting), then the Pauline corrective is perfectly understandable. This fits with Paul’s statement in 1 Timothy 4:3-4 that “everything God created is good.”
Some think that wealthy widows were the primary target of the heresy. This fits with the greedy motives of the false teachers (1 Tim 6:10; Titus 1:11). It also accounts for the amount of attention that Paul gives to widows in 1 Timothy (17 of 113 verses or 15 percent) and for Paul’s seemingly harsh remarks toward those who do not provide for their elderly relatives (such people “have denied the true faith” and “are worse than unbelievers,” 1 Tim 5:8). It is possible that younger widows were being encouraged by false teachers to redirect support of an elderly mother or grandmother into the false teachers’ coffers (1 Tim 5:4, 16).
OUTLINE OF 1 TIMOTHY
I. Opening Greeting (1:1-2)
II. Instructions concerning Various Pastoral Responsibilities (1:3–6:21)
A. Dealing with False Teaching (1:3-11)
B. Paul Recounts His Call to Ministry (1:12-17)
C. Timothy’s Responsibility (1:18-20)
D. Public Prayers in Worship Corrected (2:1-7)
E. Public Demeanor in Worship Corrected (2:8-10)
F. Women Learners and Teachers (2:11–3:1a)
G. Leadership Credentials for Overseers (3:1b-7)
H. Leadership Credentials for Deacons (3:8-13)
I. The Truths of Our Faith (3:14-16)
J. Warnings against False Teachers (4:1-5)
K. A Good Servant of Christ Jesus (4:6-16)
L. Advice about the Old, the Young, and Widows (5:1-16)
M. The Selection and Discipline of Elders (5:17-25)
N. Advice to Slaves (6:1-2a)
O. Advice on False Teaching and True Riches (6:2b-10)
P. Paul’s Final Instructions (6:11-21)
OUTLINE OF 2 TIMOTHY (COMMENTARY BEGINS HERE)
I. Opening Greetings (1:1-2)
II. Paul’s Charge Based on Timothy’s Conversion and Commission (1:3-18)
A. Heritage, Empowerment, the Gospel, and the Apostle’s Example (1:3-14)
B. Examples, Bad and Good (1:15-18)
III. Call for Strength and Endurance in Suffering (2:1-13)
IV. Dealing with the Opponents (2:14-26)
V. Paul’s Charge Based on the Character of the Last Days (3:1–4:8)
A. Understanding the Times (3:1-9)
B. Roots and Resources (3:10-17)
C. Knowing What to Do (4:1-8)
VI. Appeal for Timothy to Come and Related Comments (4:9-18)
VII. Final Greetings and Blessing (4:19-22)
OUTLINE OF TITUS (COMMENTARY BEGINS HERE)
I. Opening Greetings (1:1-4)
II. Leadership (1:5-16)
A. Criteria of Appointment (1:5-9)
B. Reason: The False Teachers (1:10-13a)
C. Charge: Reprove! (1:13b-16)
III. Sound Teaching concerning Internal Relations (2:1-15)
A. Conduct Appropriate to Household Roles (2:1-10)
B. Reason: The Instruction of God’s Grace (2:11-14)
C. Charge: Speak, Exhort, Reprove. Let No One Disregard You! (2:15)
IV. Sound Teaching concerning External Relations (3:1-11)
A. Conduct Appropriate in Society (3:1-2)
B. Reason: The Exemplary Mercy of God (3:3-8a)
C. Charge: Insist, Avoid, Reject! (3:8b-11)
V. Closing Directions, Greetings, Blessing (3:12-15)
A. Mission Arrangements and Final Instructions (3:12-14)
B. Final Greetings and Blessing (3:15)