TEXT [Commentary]

  L.   Advice about the Old, the Young, and Widows (5:1-16)

1 Never speak harshly to an older man,[*] but appeal to him respectfully as you would to your own father. Talk to younger men as you would to your own brothers. 2 Treat older women as you would your mother, and treat younger women with all purity as you would your own sisters.

3 Take care of[*] any widow who has no one else to care for her. 4 But if she has children or grandchildren, their first responsibility is to show godliness at home and repay their parents by taking care of them. This is something that pleases God.

5 Now a true widow, a woman who is truly alone in this world, has placed her hope in God. She prays night and day, asking God for his help. 6 But the widow who lives only for pleasure is spiritually dead even while she lives. 7 Give these instructions to the church so that no one will be open to criticism.

8 But those who won’t care for their relatives, especially those in their own household, have denied the true faith. Such people are worse than unbelievers.

9 A widow who is put on the list for support must be a woman who is at least sixty years old and was faithful to her husband.[*] 10 She must be well respected by everyone because of the good she has done. Has she brought up her children well? Has she been kind to strangers and served other believers humbly?[*] Has she helped those who are in trouble? Has she always been ready to do good?

11 The younger widows should not be on the list, because their physical desires will overpower their devotion to Christ and they will want to remarry. 12 Then they would be guilty of breaking their previous pledge. 13 And if they are on the list, they will learn to be lazy and will spend their time gossiping from house to house, meddling in other people’s business and talking about things they shouldn’t. 14 So I advise these younger widows to marry again, have children, and take care of their own homes. Then the enemy will not be able to say anything against them. 15 For I am afraid that some of them have already gone astray and now follow Satan.

16 If a woman who is a believer has relatives who are widows, she must take care of them and not put the responsibility on the church. Then the church can care for the widows who are truly alone.

NOTES

5:1 Never speak harshly. The Greek negative mē [TG3361, ZG3590] plus the aorist subjunctive is a command not to start an action: “Do not start speaking harshly to an older man.” The Greek verb epiplēssō [TG1969, ZG2159] literally means to physically strike someone. The metaphorical sense is to strike out verbally at someone. In this instance it would be a severe verbal reprimand (NLT, “harshly”).

older man. The Greek term presbuteros [TG4245, ZG4565] can mean “older” in age or “elder” in statesmanship. In antiquity, those who were older in age were looked to for civic and religious leadership.

appeal. The Greek word parakaleō [TG3870, ZG4151] can also mean “to exhort”—perhaps the better fit in this context.

5:2 Treat older women as you would your mother. The Fifth Commandment is to “honor your father and mother” (Exod 20:12, emphasis added). To treat someone as your mother is to treat that person with respect, dignity, and deference.

5:3 Take care of. The Greek tima [TG5091, ZG5506] in this context means to provide an honorarium or to pay (BAGD 817-818; cf. 1 Tim 5:17). Some see two groups of widows in these verses: (1) welfare recipients (5:3-8) and (2) church staff (5:9-16). Yet the passage is too brief and without clear definition to make this distinction. Also, the language of “truly a widow” in vv. 3, 5, and 16 unifies vv. 3-16. It may well be that the ranks of compensated widows swelled beyond those with legitimate need and that vv. 3-8 are corrective measures. Paul’s rebuke of neglectful children in v. 4 and of irresponsible widows in vv. 11-13 suggest as much.

any widow who has no one else to care for her. The first two words in Greek are “really widows.” In Paul’s day a woman brought a dowry with her into the marriage. On the death of her spouse, a woman stayed with her son (or son-in-law) or returned to her father’s house with her dowry. Expenses were paid by a father or son out of her dowry. If no dowry remained, she was really a widow.

5:4 But if she has children or grandchildren. The Greek construction ei [TG1487, ZG1623] plus the indicative denotes fact and can be translated “But since she has children.” The situation at Ephesus was that children were not repaying their mother by providing for her needs after the death of their father.

their first responsibility is to show godliness. Lit., “let them first learn to show godliness.” Paul is concerned that they learn that they have a religious duty to their own family.

at home. This is actually “their own household.” This broadens the venue. Households could include children, parents, grandparents, and elderly relatives.

their parents. The Greek word progonois [TG4269, ZG4591] includes grandparents and forebears.

pleases. Apodekton [TG587, ZG621] is a “welcome” or “acceptable return” and hence “pleasing” to the receiver.

5:5 is truly alone . . . has placed her hope in God. The perfect tenses memonōmenē [TG3443, ZG3670] and ēlpiken [TG1679, ZG1827] denote ongoing action in the past that produces a current state of affairs. This then would be a woman who has been bereft of family for some time and has learned to rely on God for her needs.

prays. The Greek noun proseuchē [TG4335, ZG4666] is a general word for a prayer of request.

night and day. The Jewish day began at sunset. “Night and day” is idiomatic for “constantly.”

asking. The NLT “asking God for his help” is, lit., “perseveres with petitions” (prosmenei tais deēsesin).

5:6 lives only. The present tense denotes a habitual state of affairs, which in this case is a lifestyle of self-indulgence.

for pleasure. The Greek word spatalaō denotes an excessive self-indulgence of one’s appetites and desires. Some suppose that without a dowry or relatives, the only alternative for a widow would be prostitution. Yet the language here does not suggest desperate measures but rather a calculated lifestyle (“she who lives to indulge herself”).

is spiritually dead. Lit., “has died.” The perfect tense denotes a present state of spiritual deadness that resulted from ongoing past action (habitual self-indulgence).

5:7 Give these instructions. Lit., “command these things.” The verb parangellō [TG3853, ZG4133] is a military term that means to give strict orders. See Paul’s similar injunctions in 1 Tim 1:3; 4:11; 6:13, 17.

so that no one will be open to criticism. How believers behave needs to be in line with their profession of faith so that they are not open to the criticisms of unbelievers.

5:8 But those who won’t care for their relatives. Paul was not speaking hypothetically. The Greek is a condition of fact (ei [TG1487, ZG1623] + the indicative), meaning “since they won’t care for their relatives.”

Such people are worse than unbelievers. They are worse in that their behavior is lower than pagan social standards. Compare 1 Cor 5:1.

5:9 put on the list. The Greek katalegesthō is a technical term for official enrollment. It was commonly used of enlisted soldiers (Plato Laws 762e; 943a; Lysias Speeches 9.4; 30.8; Herodotus Histories 7.1; Demosthenes Speeches 39.8; Plutarch Pompey 13).

at least sixty years old. The age at which the human sex drive ceased to be a concern. By the late third century, the church reduced the age to 50 (see Didascalia 3.1).

faithful to her husband. Lit., “the wife of one husband.” Faithful to one’s spouse was a criterion for both overseer and deacon (3:2, 12). Paul is not referring to polygamy, since it was virtually unheard of in Greco-Roman circles. On the other hand, univera (“married only once”) was lauded in the popular culture.

5:10 She must be well respected by everyone. This translates the Greek word for “testify” (martureō [TG3140, ZG3455]). In the passive, it means to receive a good report or be well spoken of. See L & N.

because of the good she has done. Although the preposition en [TG1722, ZG1877] plus the dative can be causal (“because of”), the instrumental “through” or “by” is also a possibility. In this case respect is gained through her good works that speak volumes.

Has she brought up her children well? Lit., “she raised children.” The addition of the word “well” may be the result of harmonization to the qualifications for overseer and deacon in 3:4, 12. If widows were given the responsibility to care for orphans, then the relevant fact is that they raised children and not how it was done. Ministering widows flourished in the postapostolic period. Their duties included praying for the church, teaching the basics of the faith, hospitality, caring for the sick, and caring for the needs of destitute widows and orphans (Apostolic Constitutions 3.1). See the commentary.

Has she been kind to strangers. Housing for travelers was scarce in antiquity. The church became known early on for its ministry of hospitality. This was one of the duties of widows. See the commentary.

served other believers humbly? Lit., “washed the feet of the saints.” This was a common courtesy extended to guests traveling by foot on the dusty roads.

Has she helped those who are in trouble? The passive voice of the Greek word thlibō [TG2346A, ZG2567] is used in the NT letters of those who were persecuted for their faith (BAGD, 362). Compare 2 Cor 1:6; 4:8; 7:5; 1 Thess 3:4; 2 Thess 1:6, 7; and Heb 11:37.

5:11 The younger widows. These would be below the age of 60 (see note on 5:9).

should not be on the list. Lit., “reject” younger widows. To avoid any suggestion that younger widows were to be rejected from church membership, the NLT’s rendering “should not be on the list” is a helpful clarification.

their physical desires will overpower their devotion to Christ. The Greek word strēniaō [TG2691, ZG2952] means “to live a sensual, intemperate way.” The addition of kata appears only here in the NT. Kata [TG2596, ZG2848] plus the genitive generally denotes movement away from: “When their passions draw them away from Christ” (emphasis added; contra the NLT’s “overpower their devotion to Christ”).

5:12 they would be guilty of. The present-tense participle echousai [TG2192, ZG2400] denotes ongoing action. They would bear the ongoing condemnation of a guilty verdict.

breaking their previous pledge. Lit., “to set aside their first faith” or “first commitment.” There is much debate about the nature of their “pledge.” See the commentary for a fuller explanation of this issue.

5:13 will spend their time gossiping. Or this could be rendered “indulging in empty and foolish talk,” similar to that of the false teachers.

from house to house. The Greek perierchomenai [TG4022, ZG4320] means to travel the circuit. The implication is that enlisted widows were doing house-to-house visitation.

meddling in other people’s business. This could have to do with gossiping, but it may also refer to magic based on superstition, which fits the tenor of Ephesian culture (Acts 19:19).

5:14 I advise these younger widows to marry again. “Younger widows” would be those below the age of 60 (see note on 5:9). Paul’s advice elsewhere is that widows (regardless of their age) not remarry (1 Cor 7:39-40). Only if they can’t control their passions are they to do so (1 Cor 7:7-9).

have children, and take care of their own homes. These are qualifications for enlisted widows (cf. 5:9-10). The Greek term oikodespotein [TG3616, ZG3866] means “to be master of one’s own household.” The Greco-Roman household was of a size that required good administrative skills on the part of the mistress. Paul’s corrective to meddling in other households is for women to put that energy into running their own household.

the enemy. Lit., “the one who opposes.” This could refer to an unbeliever or to Satan.

say anything against. The Greek loidorias [TG3059, ZG3367] is verbal abuse intended to injure someone’s reputation.

5:15 Satan. This borrows from a Hebrew and Aramaic word that means “adversary.” Satan, a supernatural being, is the enemy of God and humanity (Matt 16:23; 1 Thess 2:18). On occasion, God permits Satan to play the role of a person’s adversary (Matt 4:1; Luke 22.31).

5:16 If a woman who is a believer has relatives who are widows. The Greek conditional ei [TG1487, ZG1623] plus the indicative denotes a condition of fact. “Since she has widows under her roof” speaks to the actual situation at Ephesus. This could be a church member who had opened her home to a number of widows and was receiving church funds to do so.

she must take care of them. The Greek eparkeō [TG1884, ZG2064] means to provide prolonged assistance by supplying someone’s needs.

the responsibility. The Greek (bareō [TG916, ZG976]) connotes an oppressive financial obligation or burden.

can care. Paul shifts to a Greek term (eparkeō) that means financial assistance but not the oppressive burden the Ephesian church had been undertaking.

COMMENTARY [Text]

Paul proceeds to provide Timothy with guidelines for administering correction. “Appeal to [an older man] . . . as you would to your own father. Talk to younger men as you would to your own brothers. Treat older women as you would your mother and treat younger women . . . as you would your own sisters” (5:1-2). The early church viewed itself as God’s family—the “household of God” (3:15). Church members were to be addressed as “brothers” and “sisters” (cf. 4:6) and the elderly as one’s own “father” and “mother” (5:1-2).

The ecclesiastical template throughout the New Testament is that of the Greco-Roman family, which included father, mother, brothers, and sisters. Plato was formative in teaching that young leaders should restrain themselves from ever laying a hand on a parent and should come to the aid of younger men as brothers and older men as fathers (Republic 5.465). That this kind of thinking filtered down to everyday life can be seen from burial inscriptions of that day, which praised those who treated older people as parents and people of their own age as brothers and sisters (see Dixon 1992:1-36).

The focus of this section of 1 Timothy is on how and how not to administer correction. Pastoral leadership is challenging in the best of circumstances. But in the context of false teaching and discipline, there was a temptation for leaders to lash out verbally. “Never speak harshly,” says Paul (lit., “inflict with blows”; see note on 5:1). Instead, older men and women are to be corrected in a manner suitable to a father or mother. Similarly, younger men and women are to be approached as brothers and sisters (5:1-2). The one additional qualification with younger women is that they be treated “with all purity.” This is not at all surprising. Purity involves both the intentions of the heart as well as conformity to acceptable standards of sexual propriety. The word “all” carries the nuance of “each and every form of” purity. All the forms of propriety are to be observed when it comes to younger women. This is common sense. Even today it is a male pastor’s or leader’s relationship to the younger women of the church that is particularly prone to being misconstrued.

Paul now turns his attention to the widows of the Ephesian church. This is the most extensive treatment of the subject in Scripture. While discussion about supporting widows might simply sound like church benevolence, the verses that follow show that Paul was speaking about ministerial remuneration that goes beyond a financial need to recognize church service. The language is technical. Widows were to be “enlisted” (katalegesthō; NLT, “put on the list,” 5:9) for a particular job or task. Young men were enlisted for military service (Lysias Speeches 9.4). Property owners were enrolled for tax purposes (Demosthenes Speeches 39.8). Citizens registered to exercise their civic rights (Lysias Speeches 25.16). Soldiers in a unit were put on the muster-roll for a military expedition (Lysias Speeches 16.13). In each case, enlistment was based on meeting specific qualifications and regulations. So also, qualified widows were to be “enlisted” for church service at Ephesus. The Living Bible’s rendering “a widow who wants to become one of the special church workers” captures the idea. In exchange, the church is to “take care of” her—or better, to “compensate” or “put her on the payroll” as a sign of “the respect” (tima [TG5091, ZG5506]) due for her service (5:3). Paul said the same of elders. Elders who did their work well were to be respected and paid well. They were worthy of “double honor” (diplēs timēs [TG1362/5092, ZG1487/5507]; 5:17).

The lengthy corrective that follows indicates that Paul was not setting up a new ministry but introducing quality controls over an existing one. Paul’s first corrective was that the Ephesian church put on the church’s payroll only a widow who had “no one else to care for her” (lit., “truly a widow”; 5:3). The ranks of widows on the payroll had apparently swelled to include those with available support, putting an oppressive financial burden on the church (see note on 5:16). The need was to make support of widows a manageable load (see note on 5:16) by enlisting only those who were destitute of family members to provide for them (5:5).

Women in antiquity brought a dowry with them into the marriage. On the death of a woman’s spouse, she was to be supported by a son, son-in-law or even a grandson. Paul extended accountability to a daughter, granddaughter, niece, or other female relative: “If a woman who is a believer has relatives who are widows, she must take care of them” (5:4, 16). “This,” Paul states, “is something that pleases God” (5:4). The Scriptures make it clear that caring for widows, orphans, and foreigners is the responsibility of God’s people. God is “father to the fatherless, defender of widows” (Ps 68:5; cf. Deut 10:18). He ensures that the basic necessities of the marginalized are met. Mosaic law stipulated, “When you are harvesting your crops and forget to bring in a bundle of grain from your field, don’t go back to get it. Leave it for the foreigners, orphans, and widows” (Deut 24:19). “At the end of every third year, bring the entire tithe of that year’s harvest and store it in the nearest town. Give it to the Levites, who will receive no allotment of land among you, as well as to the foreigners living among you, the orphans, and the widows in your towns, so they can eat and be satisfied” (Deut 14:28-29; see also 26:12).

The Old Testament concern for widows continued into New Testament times. Jesus praised the widow who, although poor, had “given everything she had to live on” (Mark 12:43-44). He also castigated the teachers of the law who shamelessly cheated widows out of their property and then pretended to be pious by making long prayers in public. “Because of this, they will be more severely punished” (Mark 12:40). “Pure and genuine religion,” according to James, “means caring for orphans and widows in their distress” (James 1:27).

Where widows had close relatives, it was their relatives’ responsibility and not the church’s to provide financial support. This was the case at Ephesus since most widows had children or grandchildren there (see note on 5:4). The believer’s “first responsibility is to show godliness at home” (5:4). “Godliness” is putting one’s religion into practice. There was no higher obligation in Jewish or Greco-Roman society than to family. For believers to fail to provide for their own was to fail to present an authentic Christian witness. It was tantamount to denying the true faith (5:8). It was something the false teachers did (1:5-6, 19; 4:1; 6:21). To fail to support a widowed family member was to exhibit a morality lower than that found in society as a whole. Roman law provided for widows and local laws protected them. This made such believers “worse than unbelievers” and left the believers “open to criticism” (5:7-8). Paul was concerned throughout his letters that a believer’s words and behaviors be above the reproach of unbelievers (cf. 1 Cor 5:1). The primary concern is not believers criticizing other believers but believers acting or speaking in such a fashion before unbelievers that the name of Christ is defamed in the process. The same concern is behind Paul’s command to Titus that he teach in such a way that the gospel would be free of criticism (Titus 2:8). The rich are likewise expected to be above reproach in how they use their money (6:14).

Because the authenticity of the gospel was at stake, Timothy’s role should be that of a military commander: “Order” them to support their mothers and grandmothers (parangelle; “give instructions to,” 5:7, NLT). Military language is found throughout 1 Timothy. Timothy is to order those to cease whose teaching is contrary to the truth (parangeiles, 1:3; parangellion, 1:18). He is to order the rich not to be haughty (parangelle, 6:17) and the church to stop wasting time arguing over godless ideas and old wives’ tales (parangelle, 4:7-11). Timothy himself is ordered in the presence of the living God to obey Paul’s command without wavering (parangello, 6:13-14).

Paul’s usual approach was to urge rather than to command. Only the most egregious conduct elicited a departure (cf. 1 Cor 5:13: “expel the man”; 2 Thess 3:6: “We command you to keep away from the brother”). The church’s first task was to set limitations. Only widows 60 years and older were to be enlisted (5:9). Sixty was the age when sexual attraction was considered to no longer be a distraction and the pressure to marry diminished. Younger widows were instructed to get married (5:14). Because the birth rate of Roman males had decreased significantly by AD 50, the Emperor decreed that women between the ages of 25 and 50 be married. This included widows (Corpus Iuris Civilis: Marriage Laws; see Dixon 1992:79-82).

Sexual temptation for the younger widows was a reality at Ephesus. Some were living “only for pleasure” (5:6). Their lifestyle was one of self-indulgence (cf. Jas 5:5). Self-indulgence may make a person feel physically alive, but it leaves one dead to spiritual things. The end result for the widow is to be “spiritually dead even while she lives” (5:6). By contrast, the widow to be enlisted is the one who is God-indulgent—who “prays night and day, asking God for his help” (5:5). There are a number of female prayer warriors in Scripture. Hannah prayed, pouring out her heart to the Lord (1 Sam 1:15). Anna “never left the Temple but stayed there day and night, worshiping God with fasting and prayer” (Luke 2:37). For the “true widow,” prayer becomes a vocation, engaging in it to a degree that others do not (5:5). “A woman who is no longer married or has never been married can be devoted to the Lord and holy in body and in spirit” (1 Cor 7:34).

The church’s second task was to establish enlistment criteria. Paul’s criteria for widows parallel those for overseers and deacons. Family requirements include being “faithful to her husband” (5:9) and “having brought up her children well” (5:10). So, too, overseers and deacons must be faithful and manage their families well (3:2, 4-5, 12). As noted earlier, it is difficult to determine what exactly Paul means by “faithful.” Literally, it is “the wife of one husband.” Polygamy was not an accepted practice among the Greeks and Romans to whom Paul ministered—except perhaps for some elite males who could write their own social ticket. “Not divorced” is a better fit. Divorce was as rampant in Paul’s day as in ours. Yet Paul counseled believing women to let their unbelieving spouse go if they wanted to leave (1 Cor 7:12-16). He also counseled those previously married to remain unmarried for full-time service to the Lord. “Married only once” fits the Greco- Roman ideal of univera or “once married.” The inscription was a common one on tombstones (see Belleville 2000:92-94).

Another expectation was that an enlisted widow “brought up her children well” (5:10). In Paul’s culture this involved raising a child from birth to maturity. Raising children does not come naturally. For this reason, the older Cretan women were called to “train the younger women to love their husbands and their children, to live wisely and be pure, [and] to work in their homes” (Titus 2:4-5). Such training may well be the work Paul envisioned for enlisted widows.

Paul additionally required that enlisted widows be hospitable (NLT, “been kind to strangers,” 5:10). It included accommodations similar to our bed and breakfast establishments today. Hospitality was a recognized spiritual gift (Rom 12:13; 1 Pet 4:9). It was one that the church cultivated early on to distinguish it from the rugged individualism and popular Stoic philosophy of the surrounding culture. The shortage of housing for travelers (which Mary and Joseph experienced firsthand) served to distinguish the believers, who excelled in this gifting. This is why hospitality surfaces in the list of qualifications for overseers in the 10-year-old Ephesian church (3:2) and in the newly planted Cretan church (Titus 1:8). Donors’ records show that wealthy women were on the increase in the early centuries. Households were large and diverse back then. Women consequently ended up acting as managers and patrons.

Enlisted widows also needed to be those who “served other believers humbly” (5:10). As the NLT mg notes, this phrase is, literally, “washed the feet of the saints.” Foot washing was a common courtesy extended to guests attending a meal or staying at one’s home. It was a universally recognized custom in the ancient Near East for guests to remove their sandals and have the dust washed off their feet (1 Sam 25:41; John 13:14).

It was further considered necessary that enlisted widows have a track record in helping “those who are in trouble.” The Greek word thlibō is used in the New Testament of those who were persecuted for their faith (see note on 5:10). What form this help took is difficult to determine. It could have involved visiting and caring for those in prison, providing shelter for those fleeing persecution, or meeting the basic needs of those who had lost family and jobs because of their commitment to Christ. “Always been ready to do good” (5:10) is the final qualification. Dorcas is spoken of in a similar way. She was known for “doing kind things for others and helping the poor” (Acts 9:36). Mourners for her included widows who were weeping and showing the coats and other clothes Dorcas had made for them (Acts 9:39).

Overall, Paul could well be referring to a select number of widows who served the needs of the broader community. It is commonly thought that verses 9-11 provide a general overview of the roles this select group played in the early church: Food and shelter for the traveler, caring for orphans, and providing for those in prison or fleeing persecution were challenges that the church faced early on (5:10; cf. Shepherd of Hermas, Mandate 8; Apostolic Constitutions 3.3).

“Younger widows,” by contrast, “learn to be idle, going from house to house” and “talking about things they shouldn’t” (lit., 5:13). The NLT makes it sound as if women with too much time on their hands will inevitably become meddlesome busybodies: “They will learn to be lazy and will spend their time gossiping from house to house, meddling in other people’s business.” However, Paul’s very next statement that “some [widows] have already gone astray and now follow Satan” points to a much more serious course of events (5:15). Ties to the false teachers provide a ready explanation. Paul handed Alexander and Hymaneus over to Satan as chastisement for their association with the false teachers (1:20). Younger widows were an easy target for those who wormed their way into homes and gained control over them (2 Tim 3:6). They, in turn, became eager itinerant evangelists, going house to house, “talking without understanding” (phluareō, L&N; NLT, “gossiping”) and intruding where they do not belong (periergeō, L&N; cf. Acts 19:19, “practicing sorcery”; see note on 5:13).

In the process, some widows were neglecting their household duties (argai; cf. Plato Laws 806a, 835d, contra NLT, “lazy”). One of their duties was to teach newly married women about being a good wife, mother, and household manager (Titus 2:3-4). The difficulty is that the false teachers were saying that marriage was wrong (1 Tim 4:3). Widows over 60 were deemed mature enough to handle remaining unmarried, but the physical desires of younger widows “overpower their devotion to Christ” and they “want to remarry”(thelousin gamein, 5:11). The terms Paul uses are strong ones: “When they experience strong physical desires of a sexual nature” (“passion,” “lust”; L&N), they want to marry and thereby “incur judgment” (echousai krima; 5:12). In part Paul is simply being realistic about sexual desires in a promiscuous culture. He said to the unmarried at Corinth that “it’s better to stay unmarried [for full-time ministry]. . . . But if they can’t control themselves, they should go ahead and marry” (1 Cor 7:8-9), since marriage is the proper sphere for sexual intimacy.

Self-control is difficult for men and women alike. Jesus told his disciples, “not everyone can accept” an unmarried state, “only those whom God helps” with self-control (Matt 19:10-11). Paul elsewhere called self-control a “gift from God” (1 Cor 7:7-9). He was not saying that physical desire is wrong. Desire for intimacy is part and parcel of what it means to be human (Gen 2:24). But what he is saying is that any activity outside of the divinely ordained institution of marriage is inappropriate. Promiscuous behavior damages both the gospel and the credibility of a person’s confession of faith.

Yet, Paul is concerned about more than promiscuity, for he goes on to say that by marrying, younger widows “bring judgment on themselves (NLT, “guilty”) because they have broken their first pledge” (5:12, NIV). There is much debate about the nature of this “pledge.” Opinions include a pledge not to marry an unbeliever, a pledge to be Christ’s bride, a pledge of full-time service to Christ, a pledge of celibacy, and a pledge to remain “the wife of one husband.” A pledge not to marry an unbeliever is hardly unique to widows. Paul elsewhere prohibits all believers (male and female alike) from being unequally yoked with unbelievers (2 Cor 6:14). A pledge to be Christ’s bride is also unlikely. Christ is said to be the spiritual bridegroom of the Church and not a groom of widows (2 Cor 11:2; Eph 5:21-24). The language of a broken first pledge is key. “First” makes the most sense if the widow had been married only once and pledged not to remarry. Even so, a commitment not to marry again makes little sense apart from a corresponding commitment to a full-time ministry. Elsewhere Paul tells widows that they are free to remarry after the death of their spouse (Rom 7:1-3; 1 Cor 7:39). The only condition is that “he loves the Lord” (1 Cor 7:39). A pledge of celibacy would also be part of the picture. A pledge to serve Christ fully means little if one lacks the self-control necessary to resist sexual temptation.

Younger widows were therefore instructed “to marry again, have children, and take care of their own homes” (5:14). The instruction is peculiar to 1 Timothy. Elsewhere Paul counseled widows not to remarry (1 Cor 7:8-9, 39-40). Paul’s command should therefore be understood against the backdrop of Ephesian widows who were bringing disrepute on the gospel through their disdain of marriage (4:3) and their inappropriate activities (5:13-14). Being mistress of one’s own household (oikodespotein [TG3616, ZG3866]) is the antidote to “meddling in other people’s” households (5:13). The Greco-Roman household was of a size that required good administrative skills on the part of the mistress. If a woman took good care of her household, the enemy would not be able to say anything against them. Paul feared, however, that “some of them had already gone astray and now follow Satan” (5:15). “Satan” is the Aramaic word for “adversary.” Satan is the constant enemy of God and humanity (Matt 16:23; 1 Thess 2:18), a supernatural evil being who prowls around like a roaring lion, looking for someone to devour (1 Pet 5:8). Believers can be outwitted by Satan (2 Cor 2:11) because he can disguise himself as an angel of light (2 Cor 11:14) and mimic Christ though miracles, signs, and wonders (2 Thess 2:9).

The early church was not unique in recognizing the ministry potential of elderly women. Anna, a widow who fasted and prayed night and day in the Temple, is commonly taken to be the prototype for this kind of ministry (Luke 2:36-38). Dorcas may well provide the first glimpse of a ministerial order of widows outside of Jerusalem. Elderly women (and men) took up leadership roles in the Essene communities. One liturgical scroll, in particular, speaks of the protocols by which women “take a place in the council of the elder men and women” (4Q502).

Ministering widows also flourished in the postapostolic period. Polycarp called them “God’s altar” (To the Philippians 4:3) and Clement of Alexandria ranked them after elders, bishops, and deacons (Christ the Educator 3.12.97; Homily 9.36.2). Augustine states that they are “dedicated to be handmaids of Christ by a holy vow” (Letter 211.14). Their duties were wide ranging, including praying for the church, teaching the basics of the faith, hospitality, caring for the sick, fasting, prophecy, and caring for the needs of destitute widows and orphans (Apostolic Constitutions 3). There were some limitations. For example, widows were discouraged from teaching more than basic Christianity and from taking initiative without a deacon’s permission (see Apostolic Constitutions 3; a rite of ordination for widows is found in the Apostolic Tradition of Hippolytus [Appendix 6]).