1. “Address Before a Joint Session of the Congress on the State of the Union,” January 28, 2003, PPP: George W. Bush, 2003, Book 1, 90; “Remarks at the National Religious Broadcasters Convention in Nashville, Tennessee,” ibid., 147, 150.
2. “Hardening His Tone, Hussein Challenges Inspectors and Talks of War Readiness,” NYT, January 7, 2003; “Bin Laden’s Message to Muslims in Iraq: Fight the ‘Crusaders,’ ” NYT, February 15, 2003.
3. Though they are not all focused solely on connecting religion with foreign relations, for the broad overviews, see Tuveson, Redeemer Nation; Miscamble, “Catholics and American Foreign Policy”; Stephanson, Manifest Destiny; McDougall, Promised Land, Crusader State; and Phillips, Cousins’ Wars. More recently, see the insightful and incisive surveys in Mead, “God’s Country?”; and Mead, God and Gold.
4. Jacobs, “Our System Demands the Supreme Being”; a few years later, Jacobs included his important article in the 2004 book America’s Miracle Man. McAlister, Epic Encounters (the first edition was published in 2001). Rotter, “Christians, Muslims, and Hindus”; Rotter, Comrades at Odds, 220–248.
1. The works of Richard Hofstadter, who coined the phrase “paranoid style,” did much to demonize religion in the American historical profession. See especially his Anti-Intellectualism in American Life and Paranoid Style in American Politics. For the absence of religion in diplomatic history, see Preston, “Bridging the Gap” or Preston, “Reviving Religion.” For religion’s absence in other branches of American history, see Boyer, “In Search of the Fourth ‘R’ ”; Butler, “Jack-in-the-Box Faith”; Chappell, Stone of Hope; and Spickard, “Asian Americans, Religion, and Race.” On various theories and methods of diplomatic history, see the essays in Hogan and Paterson, eds., Explaining the History of American Foreign Relations. For a synthesis of the cultural turn, see Hixson, Myth of American Diplomacy. For the internationalization of American history, see Bender, Nation Among Nations. My list of diplomatic history overviews that ignore or marginalize religion despite their focus on ideas and values refers to, in order, Osgood, Ideals and Self-Interest in America’s Foreign Relations; Dallek, American Style of Foreign Policy; Hunt, Ideology and U.S. Foreign Policy; Smith, America’s Mission; Steigerwald, Wilsonian Idealism in America; Walker, National Security and Core Values in American History; and Brewer, Why America Fights. More broadly, however, the separation of religion from the rest of American history has recently shown signs of ending. For surveys that take religion seriously and effectively integrate it into a larger historical narrative, see McDougall, Freedom Just Around the Corner and Throes of Democracy; Howe, What Hath God Wrought; Kuklick, Political History of the USA; and Reynolds, America, Empire of Liberty.
2. This approach, of prioritizing the twentieth century, is not unusual for synthetic treatments of the history of American foreign relations. See, most recently, the structure of the superb one-volume account in Herring, From Colony to Superpower.
3. Iriye, “Culture and Power,” 116.
4. This is not necessarily to say that U.S. foreign policy has been progressive. I use the term “progressive” throughout the book mostly to identify Americans who believed their country should be an agent of progress in the world. I therefore use it to describe people’s intentions, not the results of their actions. That their universalistic visions of progress were in fact particularistic American visions is interesting, but not especially relevant for my purposes. Just as I do not intend to praise or condemn religion, I do not seek to evaluate the wisdom or morality of U.S. foreign policy; here, as with religion, I will pay readers the compliment of letting them decide for themselves.
5. On the development and impact of popular enfranchisement, see Wilentz, Rise of American Democracy. On its complications and limitations, see Keyssar, Right to Vote.
6. Tocqueville, Democracy in America, vol. 1, part 2, chap. 9, 279.
7. On free security, see Woodward, “Age of Reinterpretation.” For the best recent account, from which I have learned a great deal, see Craig and Logevall, America’s Cold War. This is not to say that free security was absolute or uncontroversial. As some historians have noted, through the nineteenth century and into the twentieth, Britain was one of America’s greatest competitors as well as its most natural partner. Moreover, it is also important to remember that the idea of free security emerged, for political purposes, in the era of the world wars when internationalists were trying to discredit isolationists. Though both of these points have merit and must be taken into account, however, as long as we acknowledge free security’s highly politicized origins the theory is still useful. At the very least, even when tensions between Britain and the United States were high, Americans still did not fear a British invasion and occupation of their country, let alone an invasion or attack by another country. And as historians now acknowledge, though Britain was often a rival, its statesmen found common ideological cause with their American counterparts much more often then not because they viewed the word largely from the same normative perspective. For the most persuasive and thoughtful critique of the free security concept, see Zakaria, “Myth of America’s ‘Free Security’ ”; and Zakaria, From Wealth to Power, 177–178. For the tacit partnership between British and American policymakers despite their frequent disagreements, see, most recently, Sexton, Monroe Doctrine.
8. See MacCulloch, Reformation, esp. xxii, 175–176, 390–391, 496, 533–545, 603–604, 700–701.
9. On the development of the American religious marketplace, see, among many others, Hatch, Democratization of American Christianity; Finke and Stark, Churching of America; Moore, Selling God; Stokes and Conway, eds., Market Revolution in America; Roof, Spiritual Marketplace; Noll, America’s God, esp. 223–224; Wuthnow, America and the Challenges of Religious Diversity; and Lambert, Religion in American Politics.
10. On religion as a source of nationalism, see Hastings, Construction of Nationhood; Haas, Nationalism, Liberalism, and Progress, vol. 1, 53–57, passim in subsequent case studies; Roshwald, Endurance of Nationalism, 48–51, 134–149, 167–225; Smith, Chosen Peoples; and, specifically in the American context, Furstenberg, In the Name of the Father. Significantly, and unusually, historians who link nationalism to religion often trace its rise well before the modern period. On religion as a source of American nationalism, see Vinz, Pulpit Politics; and Lieven, America Right or Wrong.
11. The very idea of a “civil religion” is, in American religious studies, complicated by the fact that it emerged at a certain time (the late 1960s) with a specific purpose (to rescue liberal religion from decline and use it to help solve the nation’s social and political crises). But we can use the term in a more neutral way, simply to mean the use of faith to sustain and promote political ideas and national identity. In this sense, and certainly in the way I perceive it, “civil religion” is nothing more than a blend of faith and patriotism with overwhelming political resonance. On politics and religion as ceremonial, I am obviously following along a well-worn path first blazed by Émile Durkheim; see his book Elementary Forms of the Religious Life, originally published in 1912. For an insightful, more recent analysis from which I have also drawn, see Kertzer, Ritual, Politics, and Power. For the early versions of “civil religion” in the United States, see esp. Bellah, “Civil Religion in America” and Bellah, Broken Covenant. I am grateful to Leigh Schmidt for his advice on this problematic concept.
12. Tocqueville, Democracy in America, vol. 1, part 2, chap. 9, 275.
1. Morgan, American Slavery, American Freedom, 98–99; Taylor, American Colonies, 134–135. On Virginia’s population, see McCusker and Menard, Economy of British America, 118–119.
2. Rountree, “Powhatan Priests”; Rountree and Turner, Before and After Jamestown, 165–166; Shea, Virginia Militia in the Seventeenth Century, 25. On Pocahontas, see Townsend, Pocahontas and the Powhatan Dilemma; and Rountree, Pocahontas. On Powhatan religion, see Rountree, Powhatan Indians of Virginia, 126–139. On religion being a greater distinction than race in the early modern world, see Kidd, Forging of Races, 54–55.
3. Gray quoted in Craven, “Indian Policy in Early Virginia,” 65; colonists quoted in Horn, Adapting to a New World, 412.
4. Morgan, American Slavery, American Freedom, 99–100; Vaughan, “Expulsion of the Salvages”; Kukla, “Order and Chaos,” 284. Colonist quoted in Rountree, “Powhatans and the English,” 191.
5. Horn, Adapting to a New World, 280; Rountree, “Powhatan Priests”; Billings, Sir William Berkeley, 96.
6. Games, Web of Empire, esp. 219–253. On the diversity of colonial American religion, see Pestana, “Religion”; and Butler, Wacker, and Balmer, Religion in American Life, 76–115. On the conflation of Catholicism with tyranny and Protestantism with liberty in early modern English political thought, and their impact on English imperialism, see Phillips, Cousins’ Wars, 3–32; Fatovic, “Anti-Catholic Roots”; and Pestana, Protestant Empire. On the “Protestant Cause,” see Milton, Catholic and Reformed, 503–515.
1. Kelsey, Sir Francis Drake, 9–10, 111, 393, 401–404; Drake quoted in Porter, Inconstant Savage, 186.
2. Taylor, American Colonies, 59–60; Bishop quoted in Porter, Inconstant Savage, 135.
3. This biographical portrait is based on Mancall, Hakluyt’s Promise, esp. 72, 109–110, 162–163. On the uncertainty of religion as the main driver of Hakluyt’s views, see Armitage, Ideological Origins of the British Empire, 71–81.
4. Hakluyt, Discourse of Western Planting (London, 1584), in Gaustad, Documentary History of Religion in America to the Civil War, 53. On the mercantilist imperative to overseas expansion, see McCusker and Menard, Economy of British North America, 35–38, 45. On religion complementing ideas of economic imperialism, see, albeit from different perspectives, Wright, Religion and Empire; Rabb, Enterprise and Empire, 86–89, 100; Lovejoy, Religious Enthusiasm, 11–13; Pagden, Lords of All the Worlds, 35–37, 88; and Mead, God and Gold.
5. Richard Hakluyt, preface to Divers Voyages (London, 1582), in Taylor, Original Writings and Correspondence of the Two Richard Hakluyts, 178. On the Black Legend, see Hillgarth, Mirror of Spain, esp. 3–68, 351–395; and Stevens, Poor Indians, 46–49.
6. Milton, Catholic and Reformed, 42–46; Maltby, Black Legend in England, 15–16; Wernham, Making of Elizabethan Foreign Policy, 45–48, 85–86; Guy, Tudor England, 343–345; Purkiss, English Civil War, 88–89. On the transnational waging of war on behalf of religion and ideology in the early modern world, see Owen, Clash of Ideas.
7. Gilbert to Elizabeth I, November 6, 1577, in Quinn, Voyages and Colonising Enterprises of Sir Humphrey Gilbert, 176–180.
8. Quoted in Armitage, Ideological Origins of the British Empire, 86.
9. Quoted in Jennings, Invasion of America, 81. On Purchas’s justifications for English claims to “vacant” land, see Miller, Errand Into the Wilderness, 115–118; and Armitage, Ideological Origins of the British Empire, 96–97.
10. Bremer, John Winthrop, 4–5, 7, 92, 148.
11. Hakluyt, preface to Divers Voyages, 178; Virginian quoted in Mancall, Hakluyt’s Promise, 164. On Roanoke, see Kupperman, Roanoke; and Stick, Roanoke Island.
12. Miller, Errand Into the Wilderness, 99–126; Governing Council quoted in Nash, “Image of the Indian,” 210. On Hakluyt and Purchas, see, respectively, Morgan, American Slavery, American Freedom, 44; and Jennings, Invasion of America, 78–79.
13. Johnson, “John Donne and the Virginia Company”; Stubbs, John Donne, 226–227, 392–394; Morgan, American Slavery, American Freedom, 46–47, 151; Butler, Awash in a Sea of Faith, 38; Horn, Adapting to a New World, 383–385; Donne quoted in Fischer, Albion’s Seed, 232.
14. Except for Smith, quotations from Porter, Inconstant Savage, 99, 104. For Smith, see A Map of Virginia. With a Description of the Countrey, the Commodities, People, Government and Religion (London, 1612), in Barbour, Complete Works of Captain John Smith, vol. I, 159.
15. Symonds, A Sermon Preached at White-Chappel, A3.
16. Hakluyt, “Epistle Dedicatory to the Council of Virginia,” April 15, 1609, in Taylor, Original Writings and Correspondence of the Two Richard Hakluyts, vol. II, 503.
17. Quoted in Cave, Pequot War, 56. On religion as the primary factor in triggering the Puritan migration, see Breen and Foster, “Moving to the New World,” esp. 201–205, 220–221; Anderson, New England’s Generation, 37–46; Fischer, Albion’s Seed, 18–24; and Moore, Pilgrims, 18–31. But it is also important to remember that in early modern England, and especially for the Puritans, religious and political motivations were inseparable. On this point, see Foster, Long Argument, 108–137. For a nuanced and balanced overview of Puritan motivations, see Cressy, Coming Over, 74–106, esp. 74–83 for religion.
18. Winthrop, “A Modell of Christian Charity,” in Miller and Johnson, Puritans, 197–199.
19. Knight, Orthodoxies in Massachusetts. For an extremely insightful analysis of Winthrop’s sermon, see Bremer, John Winthrop, 173–184; see also Moseley, John Winthrop’s World, 42–44.
20. Winthrop and Hooker quoted, respectively, in Zakai, Exile and Kingdom, 145, 64. On the initial unhappiness and homesickness of many Puritan migrants, see Fischer, Albion’s Seed, 55–57. On purification and a return to the early church, see Bozeman, To Live Ancient Lives.
21. Settler (Francis Higginson) quoted in Fischer, Albion’s Seed, 50. On the Book of Exodus, and of America as the Puritans’ promised land, see Zakai, Exile and Kingdom, 144–155.
22. Johnson, Wonder-Working Providence, in Miller and Johnson, Puritans; Cotton, God’s Promise, 3; Cotton to colleague quoted in Guyatt, Providence and the Invention of the United States, 27. For the importance of providential thinking in England, see Walsham, Providence in Early Modern England. For New England, see Winship, Seers of God, 9–28.
23. Axtell, Invasion Within, 218–241; Company charter quoted in Thomas, “Puritans, Indians, and the Concept of Race,” 5; Company seal quoted in Lepore, Name of War, xvii; Winthrop quoted in Bozeman, To Live Ancient Lives, 96. For the link to the Macedonians and Alexander the Great, see Richter, Facing East from Indian Country, 100.
24. Bercovitch, American Jeremiad; Butler, Awash in a Sea of Faith, 42; Horn, Adapting to a New World, 385; Bonomi, Under the Cope of Heaven, 16–17; Hambrick-Stowe, Practice of Piety, 246–256.
25. For Virginia, see Rountree and Turner, “On the Fringe,” 366; Bond, Damned Souls in a Tobacco Colony, 75–77, 196–197, 201; Jennings, Invasion of America, 53–54; and Perry, Formation of a Society on Virginia’s Eastern Shore, 38–39. For Harvard’s Indian College, see Lepore, Name of War, 33, 44. For Eliot, see Cogley, John Eliot’s Mission. For Martha’s Vineyard and its syncretism, see Silverman, Faith and Boundaries. Axtell, After Columbus, 47–57, 100–121, argues that European missionaries met mostly with success and that Indian conversions were mostly genuine. But for the larger, unsuccessful pattern of conversion in colonial America, see Richter, Ordeal of the Longhouse, 109.
26. Canny, “Ideology of English Colonization,” esp. 583–585, 588, 596; Nash, Wilderness and the American Mind, 34–35.
27. Lepore, Name of War, 79–89, 93; Lovejoy, “Satanizing the American Indian”; Axtell, Invasion Within, 167–178; Morgan, American Slavery, American Freedom, 44–70; Sheehan, Savagism and Civility; Simmons, “Cultural Bias.” For the “social mirror,” which also applied to Africans, see Wood, Origins of American Slavery, 21–22. On the overriding distinction of religion, see Kidd, Forging of Races, 54–55.
28. Hall, Worlds of Wonder, 90–92, 167; New England Confederation quoted in Carroll, Puritanism and the Wilderness, 78.
1. Steele, Warpaths, 96–98; Starkey, European and Native American Warfare, 61–63; Elliott, Empires of the Atlantic World, 190.
2. Breen, Character of the Good Ruler, 121; Cotton quoted in Hall, Faithful Shepherd, 131; Sibbes quoted in Walzer, Revolution of the Saints, 285. On militia membership, see Breen, “English Origins,” 83–84. On the simultaneity of radicalism and conservatism within Puritan thought, see Pocock, Machiavellian Moment, 336–337.
3. O’Brien, Conduct of Just and Limited War, 13–70; Walzer, Just and Unjust Wars, 21–47; Parker, “Early Modern Europe,” 42–51.
4. Johnson, Just War Tradition, 4–10, 150–165, 172–179; MacCulloch, Reformation, 69–70; Markus, “Saint Augustine’s Views on the ‘Just War,’ ” 1–13; Miller, Interpretations of Conflict, 18–27, 54–61; Hartle, Moral Issues in Military Decision Making, 94–95.
5. Donagan, “Did Ministers Matter?,” 129–135; Lepore, Name of War, 107.
6. Parker, “Early Modern Europe,” 40–58; Bobbitt, Shield of Achilles, 508–518; Tyerman, Fighting for Christendom, 95–124.
7. Leighton, Speculum Belli Sacri, 6–7, 48. See also Walzer, Revolution of the Saints, 268–270, 280–283; and George, “War and Peace in the Puritan Tradition,” 493–497. For the New England Puritans’ hostility toward other reformed Protestant denominations, especially the Quakers, see Emerson, Puritanism in America, 135–136; Ahlstrom, Religious History, 166–178; Bremer, Puritan Experiment, 115–124; and Foster, Long Argument, 189–190. It is important to recognize that the Puritans were not the only ones in Europe, or even in England, to argue for aggressive holy war during this era. Advocates of holy war could be found across the Christian spectrum. See Johnson, Ideology, Reason, and the Limitation of War, 10, 81–117.
8. Sutton, Good Fight of Faith, 7–8; Johnson, Ideology, Reason, and the Limitation of War, 117–129; Walzer, Revolution of the Saints, 277–278, 281. For anti-Catholic invocations, see Leighton, Speculum Belli Sacri, 40–41.
9. For the radicalization of Puritan military doctrine in the era of the English Civil War, see Donagan, War in England, 15–23, 128–129.
10. Walzer, Just and Unjust Wars, 21; Donagan, “Atrocity, War Crime, and Treason,” 1137–1166. On Puritans and Machiavelli, see Mosse, “Assimilation of Machiavelli in English Thought”; George, “War and Peace in the Puritan Tradition,” 499; and Riebling, “Milton on Machiavelli.”
11. Cressy, England on Edge, 184–185, 217, 226–227; Donagan, “Did Ministers Matter?,” 124, 126; Bremer, John Winthrop, 332–333; Cotton, God’s Promise, 4. For Cotton on Charles I, see Bremer, “In Defense of Regicide.”
12. Quoted in Lepore, Name of War, 121.
13. For the best history of the conflict, see Cave, Pequot War. For more concise overviews, see Bourne, Red King’s Rebellion, 41–84; and Bourne, Gods of War, 51–67. On the secular causes of the war, see Cronon, Changes in the Land, 96–97; and Drinnon, Facing West, 35–45.
14. Cave, Pequot War, 109–110; Jennings, Invasion of America, 209–211; Winthrop quoted in Bremer, John Winthrop, 269.
15. Quoted in Cave, Pequot War, 124. On Williams’ diplomacy, see Bourne, Gods of War, 55–62.
16. Puritan minister quoted in Cave, Pequot War, 136. Hooker quoted in Karr, “Why Should You Be So Furious?” 904. Shuffelton, Thomas Hooker, 236–237. For a contemporary account, see also Vincent, True Relation of the Late Battell, esp. 11, 15, 20.
17. Quoted in Winship, Times and Trials of Anne Hutchinson, 83.
18. Delbanco, Puritan Ordeal, 106; Breen, Transgressing the Bounds, 64, 73–74; Underhill quoted in Karr, “Why Should You Be So Furious?,” 877. For “imps” and “lions,” see Hirsch, “Collision of Military Cultures,” 1206.
19. Cave, Pequot War, 85–86, 88, 99, 111, 124, 134, 136, 150, 161–163. On Hutchinson, see LaPlante, American Jezebel, 6–7; and Winship, Making Heretics, 139–140.
20. For an argument that the war did in fact amount to genocide, see Freeman, “Puritans and Pequots.” Arguing that it did not is Katz, “Pequot War Reconsidered”; and Katz, “Pequots and the Question of Genocide.”
21. Bremer, Puritan Crisis, 97–129, 328–349; Pestana, English Atlantic in an Age of Revolution, 38–42, 56–58, 65–66, 102–103, 115–117, 214–217; Bliss, Revolution and Empire, 73–102; Stout, New England Soul, 50–53; Braddick, God’s Fury, 222, 340–341; Horn, Adapting to a New World, 180, 390–392. On the centrality of religion in the Civil Wars, see Morrill, “Religious Context.”
22. Pestana, English Atlantic in an Age of Revolution, 58, 60; Lovejoy, Religious Enthusiasm, 90–91; Guyatt, Providence and the Invention of the United States, 30–34; Cressy, England on Edge, 184–185. On Peter’s travels, see Games, Migration and the Origins of the English Atlantic World, 166. On the outflow of people from New England, see Moore, Pilgrims, 54–73 (page 66 for Cromwell and Massachusetts).
23. Capp, Fifth Monarchy Men; Maclear, “New England and the Fifth Monarchy”; Lovejoy, Religious Enthusiasm, 100–110; Delbanco, Puritan Ordeal, 202–203.
24. Phillips, Cousins’ Wars, 55–63; Randolph quoted in Lovejoy, Religious Enthusiasm, 109.
25. On this interregnum between the Puritan-Indian wars, see Jennings, Invasion of America, 227.
26. The best overall account is Lepore, Name of War. But see also Bourne, Red King’s Rebellion; and Drake, King Philip’s War.
27. Slotkin, Regeneration Through Violence, 78–93; Bourne, Red King’s Rebellion, 144; “Backsliding” quoted in Lepore, Name of War, 102, 100; Massachusetts Council minutes, Boston, September 17, 1675, in Slotkin and Folsom, So Dreadfull a Judgment, 102–103; Increase Mather, An Earnest Exhortation to the Inhabitants of New-England (Boston, 1676), in ibid., 172.
28. For “Passions,” see Slotkin, Regeneration Through Violence, 88; “Gods marsi” quoted in Lepore, Name of War, 78; Mather, Earnest Exhortation and A Brief History of the Warr With the Indians in Newe England (Boston, 1676), in Slotkin and Folsom, So Dreadfull a Judgment, 191, 142.
29. Bourne, Red King’s Rebellion, 145–146, 151–160.
30. Mather, Earnest Exhortation and Brief History, in Slotkin and Folsom, So Dreadfull a Judgment, 171, 86; Rowlandson, The Soveraignty & Goodness of God (Cambridge, Mass., 1682), in Vaughan and Clark, Puritans Among the Indians, 34–35, 63–64. For faces, see Lepore, Name of War, 93; for torture of livestock, see ibid., 96; for taunts and disemboweling, see ibid., 104–105.
31. Lepore, Name of War, 102, 106–107, 119 (captain quoted on 104); Slotkin, Regeneration Through Violence, 79–80; Bourne, Red King’s Rebellion, 99–100, 104, 107–108; Pestana, Quakers and Baptists in Colonial Massachusetts, 147, 154–155; Cogley, John Eliot’s Mission, 200–206, 237–239.
32. For Indian population and battle deaths, see Cook, “Interracial Warfare and Population Decline,” 21. For Saltonstall’s estimate, see Lepore, Name of War, 71. For the population of New England in 1670—where the figure of “approximately 50,000” comes from, although it was surely higher by 1675–76—see McCusker and Menard, Economy of British America, 103; and Fischer, Albion’s Seed, 226n3.
33. Morone, Hellfire Nation, 100–101, 114–116; McKenna, Puritan Origins.
34. Lepore, Name of War, 173–240; and McWilliams, New England’s Crises and Cultural Memory, 106–133.
1. Richter, Facing East from Indian Country, 155; Richter, “Native Peoples of North America.”
2. Bremer, Puritan Experiment, 211; Chet, Conquering the American Wilderness, 74–75. On Protestant liberty as central to the British self-conception, see Colley, Britons, 18–54; and Greene, “Empire and Identity,” 213–215.
3. Butler, Awash in a Sea of Faith, 177; Butler, Huguenots in America, 73, 75, 162–165; Bosher, “Huguenot Merchants and the Protestant International.” Increase Mather quoted in Hall, Worlds of Wonder, 105.
4. Miller, Popery and Politics, 154–188; Greaves, Secrets of the Kingdom, 5–52, 332–333; and Marotti, Religious Ideology and Cultural Fantasy, 158–200.
5. “Declaration of the Gentlemen, Merchants, and Inhabitants of Boston,” April 18, 1689, quoted in Kidd, Protestant Interest, 5–6; Hall, Last American Puritan, 210–254.
6. The best single overview of the Glorious Revolution is Vallance, Glorious Revolution. Historian quoted is Lenman, “Providence, Liberty, and Prosperity,” 144; Mather quoted in Pole, Gift of Government, 52.
7. Breen, Character of the Good Ruler, 150–167; Lovejoy, Glorious Revolution in America, 235–293 (Boston bystander quoted on 243); Bliss, Revolution and Empire, 219–247. On Leisler, see Balmer, Perfect Babel of Confusion, 30–34; Voorhees, “fervent Zeale” (quotations from 469, 470); and Duncan, Citizens or Papists?, 6–11.
8. Leach, Northern Colonial Frontier, 109–117.
9. French misdeeds are from Peckham, Colonial Wars, 29, 32, 48, except for: assassination of minister, from Johnson, “Growth and Mastery,” 281; and Puritan captives, from Foster, Captors’ Narrative, 1–2, 37, 83, 100. English misdeeds are from Chet, Conquering the American Wilderness, 80, 83. Mather quoted in Slotkin, Regeneration Through Violence, 120. On colonial gender and captivity, see also Namias, White Captives, 21–112.
10. Lovejoy, “Between Hell and Plum Island,” 359–360; Kences, “Some Unexplored Relationships”; Godbeer, Devil’s Dominion, 182–204; Norton, In the Devil’s Snare, 82–111.
11. Peckham, Colonial Wars, 51–52; Steele, Warpaths, 146–147; Namias, White Captives, 29–30; Cotton Mather, “A Narrative of Hannah Dustan’s Notable Deliverance from Captivity,” in Vaughan and Clark, Puritans Among the Indians, 162–164.
12. Lenman, “Colonial Wars and Imperial Instability”; Simms, Three Victories, 49–76.
13. Marsden, Jonathan Edwards, 12–13; Peckham, Colonial Wars, 61, 67, 71; Foster, Captors’ Narrative, 70, 83, 100. Clough quoted in Kidd, Protestant Interest, 142–143.
14. Weber, Spanish Frontier, 142–145 (quotations from, respectively, 142, 144); Gold, “Departure of Spanish Catholicism from Florida,” 387–388.
15. Demos, Unredeemed Captive.
16. Bourne, Gods of War, 172; Vaughan and Clark, Puritans Among the Indians, 167.
17. Demos, Unredeemed Captive, 17–20; Peckham, Colonial Wars, 63–64.
18. Haefeli and Sweeney, Captors and Captives, 151–163, 177–181.
19. Slotkin, Regeneration Through Violence, 100–101; Demos, Unredeemed Captive, 51–52.
20. On the religious dimension to the Yamasee War, see Merrell, Indians’ New World, 66–80; Steele, Warpaths, 165–166; Bonomi, Under the Cope of Heaven, 58; Ramsey, “Something Cloudy in Their Looks”; Oatis, Colonial Complex, 91–95, 288; and Laing, “Heathens and Infidels,” 202. For the northern fighting, see Steele, Warpaths, 161–162; and Calloway, Western Abenakis of Vermont, 113–131. Confusingly, the northern conflict was also known to some colonists as Dummer’s War, after Massachusetts Lieutenant-Governor William Dummer. Rale’s name occurs in about a dozen different spellings; mine follows the most common English-language practice.
21. Leach, Northern Colonial Frontier, 131–132; Kidd, Protestant Interest, 91–114 (Mather quoted on 108); historian quoted is Clark, “Church at Nanrantsouak,” 229; Rale quoted in Slotkin, Regeneration Through Violence, 127.
22. Kidd, Protestant Interest. See also Marsden, Jonathan Edwards, 90; and, for an earlier period, Games, Web of Empire, 219–253.
23. Miller, Errand Into the Wilderness, 164–165; Noll, America’s God, 22–25 (Edwards quoted on 23); Marsden, Jonathan Edwards, 88–89, 134, 198, 219–224, 336–338, 415–416; Bremer, Puritan Experiment, 228. Contemporary (Benjamin Trumbull) quoted in Conforti, Jonathan Edwards, 19.
24. Sermon by Jonathan Edwards, “The Duties of Christians in a Time of War,” April 4, 1745, in Works of Jonathan Edwards, vol. 25, 134; sermon by Edwards, “God’s People Tried by a Battle Lost,” August 28, 1755, in ibid., 689; Marsden, Jonathan Edwards, 15–17, 415–416 (quotation from 196); McDermott, One Holy and Happy Society, 133, 144–151.
25. Stout, Divine Dramatist, 40–44, 79–81, 93–95, 151–154; Lambert, Inventing the “Great Awakening,” 97; Kidd, Great Awakening, 44, 48–49, 51.
26. On Whitefield’s anti-Catholicism, see Stout, Divine Dramatist, 57, 217–218; and Mahaffey, Preaching Politics, 147–183 (Whitefield quoted on 147).
27. O’Brien, “Transatlantic Community of Saints”; Lambert, Inventing the “Great Awakening.”
28. For overall accounts of the war, see Anderson, War of the Austrian Succession; and Simms, Three Victories, 274–354. For an excellent social history of the colonists’ wartime motivations and experiences, including religion, see Nash, Urban Crucible, 165–176.
29. Steele, Warpaths, 168–169; Bushnell, Situado and Sabana, 198; Berlin, Many Thousands Gone, 72–76; Thornton, “African Dimensions of the Stono Rebellion”; Laing, “Heathens and Infidels?”; Landers, “Traditions of African American Freedom,” 28. For the history of Portuguese Catholicism in Africa and among African slaves, see Frey and Wood, Come Shouting to Zion, 3–30.
30. Hatch, Sacred Cause of Liberty, 39–40; Selesky, War and Society in Colonial Connecticut, 78; Marsden, Jonathan Edwards, 196–197, 306.
31. On Stoddard, see Marcus, “Connecticut Valley,” 240; Demos, Unredeemed Captive, 113–119; and Marsden, Jonathan Edwards, 316, 343–345. On Pepperrell, see Marsden, Jonathan Edwards, 310.
32. For the scene, see Nash, Urban Crucible, 170–171; Stout, New England Soul, 233–235; Stout, Divine Dramatist, 195–196; and Mahaffey, Preaching Politics, 139. Whitefield and motto quoted in Kidd, Great Awakening, 172; historian quoted is Peckham, Colonial Wars, 100.
33. Hatch, Sacred Cause of Liberty, 6–8, 36–37, 40–41; Stout, New England Soul, 233–238. Tennent and Prince quoted respectively in Noll, America’s God, 78, 79; Chauncy quoted in Kidd, Great Awakening, 172.
34. Edwards quoted in Marsden, Jonathan Edwards, 313; Franklin, Benjamin Franklin’s Autobiography, 93; “A Proclamation for a General Fast,” December 9, 1747, Papers of Benjamin Franklin, vol. 3, 228–229; Coalter, Gilbert Tennent, 131; Morgan, Benjamin Franklin, 67–68. On the appeasement of the Quakers, see A Tradesman of Philadelphia [Benjamin Franklin], “Plain Truth,” November 17, 1747, Papers of Benjamin Franklin, vol. 3, 200–201. On the Whitefield-Franklin relationship, see Lambert, Inventing the “Great Awakening,” 120; and Lemay, Life of Benjamin Franklin, vol. 2, 420–451. On Franklin’s fears and support for the war and the opposition this generated among some Pennsylvanians, see Middlekauff, Benjamin Franklin and His Enemies, 37–39.
35. For Edwards, see Marsden, Jonathan Edwards, 318. For the addition of republicanism to Protestant liberty during King George’s War, see Noll, America’s God, 78–80.
36. The best overall account of the conflict is Anderson, Crucible of War. But for an excellent treatment of the war as it was fought in Europe and connected to America, see Simms, Three Victories, 387–498. For the war as it was fought in North America, see also Steele, Warpaths, 188–221.
37. Heimert, Religion and the American Mind, 323–324, 376; Hatch, Sacred Cause of Liberty, 5–8 and passim; Marietta, Reformation of American Quakerism, 150–186; Seeman, Pious Persuasions, 196–200; Steele, Warpaths, 176, 198. Anonymous [Benjamin Franklin], “A DIALOGUE between X, Y, and Z, concerning the present State of Affairs in Pennsylvania,” December 18, 1755, in Papers of Benjamin Franklin, vol. 6, 302. See also Franklin, Benjamin Franklin’s Autobiography, 123; Davidson, War Comes to Quaker Pennsylvania, 113–196; and Wood, Americanization of Benjamin Franklin, 78–81.
38. On the colonists’ strategic and cultural fears of encirclement, see Anderson, Crucible of War, 22–41; and Weeks, Building the Continental Empire, 5. Stiles quoted in Selesky, War and Society in Colonial Connecticut, 146. Burr quoted in Davidson, Logic of Millennial Thought, 197. On New York, see Duncan, Citizens or Papists?, 26; on Virginia, see Pilcher, Samuel Davies, 113.
39. Hatch, Sacred Cause of Liberty, 41; Davidson, Logic of Millennial Thought, 202–205; Guyatt, Providence and the Invention of the United States, 63–64, 82–83. Hobby quoted in Berens, Providence and Patriotism, 38.
40. Sermon by Joseph Parsons, ca. 1756, Parsons papers, RG30, Box 214, YDS; sermon by Joseph Lathrop, April 6, 1758, Lathrop papers, Box 1, Folder 2, AHTL; Coalter, Gilbert Tennent, 153–154. Edwards quoted in Marsden, Jonathan Edwards, 415. See also Berens, Providence and Patriotism, 41–44; and Davidson, Logic of Millennial Thought, 205–212.
41. Hatch, Sacred Cause of Liberty, 34–35; Bloch, Visionary Republic, 25–40; Anderson, People’s Army, 213–222; Anderson, Crucible of War, 373–376; McKenna, Puritan Origins of American Patriotism, 67; Stout, “Puritans and Edwards,” 155–156; Edwards, “God’s People Tried by a Battle Lost,” 694–697.
42. Mahaffey, Preaching Politics, 169–173; Heimert, Religion and the American Mind, 332–334.
43. Noll, America’s God, 80–81; Hatch, Sacred Cause of Liberty, 43–44.
44. Anderson, People’s Army, 155–157, 210–214; James Beebe, “An Address to the Soldiers,” May 7, 1758, Beebe papers, RG30, Box 212, YDS.
45. Griffiths, Contexts of Acadian History, 74–87; Plank, Unsettled Conquest, 6, 59–61, 80, 94–95, 120, 139, 142; Jennings, Empire of Fortune, 175–182; Bell, Foreign Protestants and the Settlement of Nova Scotia; Rawlyk, Nova Scotia’s Massachusetts, 201–202.
46. Steele, Warpaths, 224; Gold, “Departure of Spanish Catholicism from Florida.”
47. On the wartime fall and rise of Indian missions, see Davidson, Logic of Millennial Thought, 208; Marsden, Jonathan Edwards, 420–427; Guyatt, Providence and the Invention of the United States, 78; and Kidd, Great Awakening, 203, 206, 270. On the broad effects of the war upon colonial religion, see Hatch, Sacred Cause of Liberty, 5.
48. On ecumenical unity, see Butler, Awash in a Sea of Faith, 177. Sermon by Izrahiah Wetmore, ca. 1761, Wetmore papers, RG30, Box 215, YDS. Forbes quoted in Guyatt, Providence and the Invention of the United States, 83. Horrocks quoted in Berens, Providence and Patriotism, 47.
49. Varg, “Advent of Nationalism,” 169–171, 174–176; Bumsted, “Things in the Womb of Time,” 543–563; Kidd, British Identities Before Nationalism, 263–269.
1. Quotations from Randall, Benedict Arnold, 155–156.
2. Royster, Revolutionary People at War, 23–24; Lambert, “Pedlar in Divinity,” 214–215; Kidd, Great Awakening, 288; Spring quoted in Randall, Benedict Arnold, 156; “precious relic” quoted in Martin, Benedict Arnold, 119.
3. Quoted in Royster, Revolutionary People at War, 361.
4. Lambert, “Pedlar in Divinity,” 210–214, 217–218, 222; Mahaffey, Preaching Politics, 199–200, 201–204; Whitefield quoted in Kenney, “George Whitefield, Dissenter Priest,” 93.
5. On the strategic activism of revolutionary states, see Walt, Revolution and War. On the lack of difference between the foreign and the domestic, see Onuf, “Declaration of Independence,” 76.
6. On the American Revolution as a foundational episode in American foreign relations, see Herring, From Colony to Superpower, 14–34. On the importance of American diplomacy from the very onset of the war, see Kaplan, ed., American Revolution and “A Candid World”; Dull, Diplomatic History of the American Revolution; Horsman, Diplomacy of the New Republic; Brecher, Securing American Independence; and Tudda, “Messiah that Will Never Come.”
7. Isaac, Transformation of Virginia, 5. In navigating the sometimes treacherous historiographical waters of religion’s causal relationship with the Revolution, I have relied in particular on the following essays: Goff, “Revivals and Revolution”; Guelzo, “God’s Designs”; Gura, “Role of the ‘Black Regiment’ ”; Kloppenberg, Virtues of Liberalism, 21–37; Noll, “American Revolution and Protestant Evangelicalism”; Rodgers, “Republicanism,” 11–24; and Wood, “Religion and the American Revolution.”
8. Wood, “Religion and the American Revolution,” 180–181. On the Great Awakening’s subversive “enthusiasm,” and its applications to Whig ideology, see Lovejoy, Religious Enthusiasm in the New World, 195–214, 222–230. On the politically empowering effects of the Great Awakening, see McLoughlin, “Role of Religion in the Revolution,” 197–202; Nash, Urban Crucible, 198–232; Royster, Revolutionary People at War, 152–153; Stout and Onuf, “James Davenport”; Bonomi, Under the Cope of Heaven; Ferguson, American Enlightenment, 49–60; and Noll, “American Revolution and Protestant Evangelicalism,” 626–627. However, the causal linkages between the Awakening, and even religion more generally, and the Revolution are not uncontroversial. For incisive, at times compelling, critiques that complicate such linkages, see Butler, Awash in a Sea of Faith, 164–224; and Bailyn, Faces of Revolution, 104–149.
9. Morgan, Challenge of the American Revolution, 88–138; for another application, see Kramnick, Republicanism and Bourgeois Radicalism. Adams to Greene, March 18, 1780, Papers of John Adams, vol. 9, 62. On Calvinism and original sin, see Bailyn, Ideological Origins of the American Revolution, 60. On the covenant, see Stout, New England Soul, 7–8, 277–278, 296–299. On the blending of Locke and religion in American republicanism, see Pangle, Spirit of Modern Republicanism; and Zuckert, Natural Rights and the New Republicanism.
10. Noll, Christians in the American Revolution, 46–48. On Henry, see Isaac, Transformation of Virginia, 267–269.
11. Stout, “Religion, Communications, and the Ideological Origins of the American Revolution”; Weber, Rhetoric and History; Lambert, Inventing the “Great Awakening”; Stout, New England Soul, 6; Ferguson, American Enlightenment, 44.
1. White, Middle Ground, 269–314; Richter, Facing East from Indian Country, 191–201; Dowd, War Under Heaven, 94–105. On the influence of Indian spiritualism, see Dowd, Spirited Resistance, 27–37; and Steele, Warpaths, 234.
2. Richter, Facing East from Indian Country, 201–203, 206; Jennings, Empire of Fortune, 202; Clark, Language of Liberty, 258–260, 266–269; Silver, Our Savage Neighbors, 177–208; Marietta, Reformation of American Quakerism, 189–193; Kars, Breaking Loose Together, 126–128. Smith quoted in Kidd, Great Awakening, 279; Barton quoted in Griffin, American Leviathan, 67.
3. On the SPG controversy, see Fowler, Samuel Adams, 27–29; Bridenbaugh, Mitre and Sceptre, 178–183, 211–214, 263–265; Bailyn, Ideological Origins of the American Revolution, 95–97; Taylor, Divided Ground, 52, 59, 61, 65–68; and Griffin, American Leviathan, 36–37. On the Bishops Plot, see Bridenbaugh, Mitre and Sceptre, 144–166; Nash, Urban Crucible, 203–204; Curry, First Freedoms, 121–126; and Clark, Language of Liberty.
4. Stout, New England Soul, 259–264; Akers, Called Unto Liberty, 198–216; Bailyn, Ordeal of Thomas Hutchinson, 35–38; Heimert, Religion and the American Mind, 244–245; Akers, Divine Politician. Sons of Liberty quoted in Bloch, Visionary Republic, 54. On religious opposition beyond New England, see Bridenbaugh, Mitre and Sceptre, 257–258; and Morgan and Morgan, Stamp Act Crisis, 301–324.
5. Lambert, “Pedlar in Divinity,” 221–222; Alexander, Samuel Adams, 110; Mahaffey, Preaching Politics, 195–196; Nash, Urban Crucible, 361. Adams quoted in Hatch, Sacred Cause of Liberty, 74.
6. John Adams, A Dissertation on the Canon and Feudal Law (Boston, 1765), in Papers of John Adams, vol. I: 106, 108, 113–114, 115, 110, 126.
7. On the effective amalgam of classical republicanism, liberalism, virtue, and religion, see Kloppenberg, Virtues of Liberalism, 23–28. On colonial perceptions of official political and religious corruption, see Bonomi, Under the Cope of Heaven, 200–202, 208; and Butler, Becoming America, 120–123.
8. Chandler, Friendly Address to All Reasonable Americans, 5.
9. Quoted in Wood, Creation of the American Republic, 112.
10. Noll, Christians in the American Revolution, 103–114; Woolverton, Colonial Anglicanism in North America, 225–233; Potter, Liberty We Seek, 57–61, 144–149.
11. Isaac, Transformation of Virginia, 260–262; Noll, Christians in the American Revolution, 115–116, 146–147, 187; John Wesley, A Calm Address to Our American Colonies (London, 1775), in Sandoz, Political Sermons of the American Founding Era, vol. 1, 413–420; John Fletcher, The Bible and the Sword (London, 1776), in ibid., 563–578.
12. Brock, Pacifism in the United States, 183–284; Mekeel, Relation of the Quakers to the American Revolution; Marietta, Reformation of American Quakerism, 222–248. On the Quakers who supported the Revolution, and even fought in it, see Kashatus, Conflict of Conviction.
13. Engel, Religion and Profit; Brock, Pacifism in the United States, 303–321.
14. McLoughlin, New England Dissent, vol. 1, 547–587; Marini, Radical Sects of Revolutionary New England, 40–59; Noll, Christians in the American Revolution, 51–77; Clark, Language of Liberty, 335–381; Ferguson, American Enlightenment, 46–47; Cooper, Tenacious of Their Liberties.
15. Butler, Awash in a Sea of Faith, 203–206; Butler, Becoming America, 244; Noll, Christians in the American Revolution, 117–122.
16. Wilson, “Religion and Revolution,” 600–601; Royster, Revolutionary People at War, 19–21. On the Lutherans, see Butler, Awash in a Sea of Faith, 202–203.
17. Butler, Awash in a Sea of Faith, 205–206; Kidd, Great Awakening, 291–293; Ferling, Leap in the Dark, 216–235.
18. For “black regiment,” see Stout, New England Soul, 266. British officer and Ambrose Serle both quoted in Royster, Revolutionary People at War, 19. For Edwards Jr., see Weber, Rhetoric and History, 60–70; and Valeri, “New Divinity and the American Revolution,” 742. For Hopkins, see Conforti, Samuel Hopkins, 126–141.
19. Crane, “Religion and Rebellion,” 80–82. For Abigail Adams, see Keller, Patriotism and the Female Sex, 68–70. For early calls for independence, see Guyatt, Providence and the Invention of the United States, 86–88.
20. Royster, Revolutionary People at War, 16, 22, 27–28, 162–169; Jones, Defensive War in a Just Cause Sinless; George Washington, General Orders of May 2, 1778, Papers of George Washington: Revolutionary War Series, vol. 15, 13; Bolton, Private Soldier Under Washington, 159.
21. Jones quoted in Royster, Revolutionary People at War, 162. Corporal quoted in Bolton, Private Soldier Under Washington, 231.
22. Bloch, Visionary Republic, 75–76; see also 77–93. See also Hatch, Sacred Cause of Liberty, 55–96; Royster, Revolutionary People at War, 152–161; and Davis, “Religion and the American Revolution,” 722.
23. Royster, Revolutionary People at War, 157; see also 108, 119–120, 157–159, 176–177. Washington, General Orders of May 5, 1778, Papers of George Washington: Revolutionary War Series, vol. 15, 39. Preachers quoted in Ferguson, American Enlightenment, 49. On Revolutionary providentialism, see also Berens, Providence and Patriotism, 51–111; and Guyatt, Providence and the Invention of the United States, 84–104.
1. For insightful discussions of the Founders’ faiths, see Gaustad, Faith of Our Fathers; West, Politics of Revelation and Reason, 11–78; Lambert, Founding Fathers and the Place of Religion; Meacham, American Gospel, 64–113; and Muñoz, God and the Founders.
2. On Washington’s faith, see esp. Henriques, Realistic Visionary, 167–186; Smith, Faith and the Presidency, 21–52; Morrison, Political Philosophy of George Washington, esp. 135–172; and Thompson, “In the Hands of a Good Providence.” For Washington as a political and religious symbol, see Furstenberg, In the Name of the Father, esp. 50–64. Washington quoted in Gaustad, Faith of Our Fathers, 77.
3. Middlekauff, Glorious Cause, 48. The term “religious Enlightenment” was coined for Europe, but it applies equally well to early America: see Sorkin, Religious Enlightenment; and, for America, Ferguson, American Enlightenment, esp. 44–79. On the Bible and freedom, see Davis, Revolutions, 15–18.
4. Van Alstyne, Empire and Independence, 55–139.
5. Herring, From Colony to Superpower, 21; Perkins, Creation of a Republican Empire, 24–31; Franklin quoted in Davis, Revolutions, 41.
6. Cogliano, No King, No Popery; Lawson, Imperial Challenge; Herring, From Colony to Superpower, 21; diary entry, August 1, 1761, Diary and Autobiography of John Adams, vol. 1, 219–220; Adams to Louisa Catherine Adams, May 17, 1821, in Hutson, Founders on Religion, 41; Dickinson quoted in Hutson, John Adams, 27; Stahr, John Jay, 2–3, 8, 88.
7. Diary entry, March-April 1776, Diary and Autobiography of John Adams, vol. 2, 236. On the Model Treaty, see Gilbert, To the Farewell Address, 48–56; Hutson, John Adams, 26–31; and Stinchcombe, “John Adams and the Model Treaty.”
8. Butler, Awash in a Sea of Faith, 196.
9. Isaac, Transformation of Virginia, 246–247; Kloppenberg, Virtues of Liberalism, 23–28; Noll, Christians in the American Revolution, 53–54; Noll, America’s God, 53–92; Wood, Creation of the American Republic, 59–60. See also Kidd, “Civil Theology and Church Establishments,” 1010–1017.
10. For a discussion of the missing Christian dimension in the history and historiography of republicanism, see Black, “Christianity and Republicanism.” On Calvin’s injunction, see Skinner, Foundations of Modern Political Thought, vol. 2, 219–221, 230–233.
11. On the imperial sources of religious diversity in colonial America, see Pestana, “Religion.”
12. Cooper, Tenacious of Their Liberties; Bell, War of Religion. On the memory of the English Civil War during the era of the American Revolution, see Heimert, Religion and the American Mind, 275, 357–358; Bailyn, Ideological Origins of the American Revolution, 34–35, 45; and Stout, New England Soul, 260, 268. On New England during the English Civil War, see Bremer, Puritan Crisis; Pestana, English Atlantic in an Age of Revolution; and Bliss, Revolution and Empire, 73–102. On the controversy in the 1640s and ’50s over Paul’s message about deference to authority in Romans 13, see Skinner, Visions of Politics, vol. 3, 287–307.
13. Milton, Paradise Lost, Book V, lines 822–825; Milton, in a substantial revision and misrepresentation of Machiavelli, quoted in Brown, “Great Senates and Godly Education,” 43. On Milton’s political distinction between “liberty” and “slavery,” see Skinner, Visions of Politics, vol. 2, 297–307. On the centrality of Protestantism to Milton’s writings, see Gregerson, Reformation of the Subject. For opposition to Anglican bishops, see Milton, Of Reformation; Bonomi, Under the Cope of Heaven, 189–190; and Knight, Orthodoxies in Massachusetts, 189–191.
14. Bonomi, Under the Cope of Heaven, 189–199; Stout, New England Soul, 266–267, 277–278, 273. On the popularity of Milton in late colonial America, see Sensabaugh, Milton in Early America, 97–183; Schulman, Paradise Lost and the Rise of the American Republic; Phillips, Cousins’ Wars, 95; and Davies, “Borrowed Language,” 256–263. For the political philosophy of Paradise Lost, see Revard, War in Heaven, esp. 264–306; and Himy, “Paradise Lost.”
15. Federalist No. 2, October 31, 1787, in Hamilton, Madison, and Jay, The Federalist, 6; Washington quoted in Gaustad, Faith of Our Fathers, 77.
16. “Universal Peace,” January 3, 1792, Papers of James Madison, vol. 14, 206–209. See also Gilbert, To the Farewell Address, 54–75; and Stuart, War and American Thought. For Montesquieu, see his Spirit of the Laws (1741), Part 2, Book 9, 132–133; for Kant, see the excerpts from his Perpetual Peace (1795) in Brown, Nardin, and Rengger, International Relations in Political Thought, 436–438.
17. Rush quoted in Watts, Republic Reborn, 133; Abraham Keteltas, God Arising and Pleading His People’s Cause; Or the American War in Favor of Liberty, Against the Measure and Arms of Great Britain, Shewn to be the Cause of God (Newburyport, Mass., 1777), in Sandoz, Political Sermons of the American Founding Era, vol. 1, 595.
18. Robbins and poem quoted, respectively, in Royster, Revolutionary People at War, 99, 251.
19. Thomas Paine, Common Sense (1776), in Paine, Political Writings, 35–36; William Livingston, “A Plea for Liberty of Conscience,” 1778, in Vaughan, Chronicles of the American Revolution, 318–321; Washington to Benedict Arnold, September 14, 1775, Papers of George Washington: Revolutionary War Series, vol. 1, 456; Washington, “Address to the Inhabitants of Canada,” September 14, 1775, ibid., 461–462; Washington, “To the Hebrew Congregation in Newport, Rhode Island,” August 18, 1790, Papers of George Washington: Presidential Series, vol. 6, 285.
20. “Memorial and Remonstrance against Religious Assessments,” June 20, 1785, Papers of James Madison, vol. 8, 298–304, esp. 299–300; “The Virginia Statute for Religious Freedom,” October 1785, in Morison, Sources and Documents, 206–208. On Madison, see Rakove, James Madison, 13; Rakove, Original Meanings, 40–42, 310–313; Morrison, John Witherspoon, 37–42; Buckley, Church and State in Revolutionary Virginia, 15, 99; and Banning, Sacred Fire of Liberty, 84–96. In general, see Ragosta, Wellspring of Liberty.
21. Hatch, Democratization of American Christianity. On the Northwest Ordinance and religious diversity in the Ohio country, see Morgan, Birth of the Republic, 115; and Hinderaker, Elusive Empires, 259. In addition to Hatch, on the decline of religious authority and the rise of the evangelical upstarts, see McLoughlin, “Role of Religion in the Revolution,” 203–208; Wood, Radicalism of the American Revolution, 329–333; Marini, “Religion, Politics, and Ratification,” 193–195; and Noll, America’s God, 165–186. New Englander quoted in Kidd, Great Awakening, 317.
22. Isaac Backus to Simon Backus, February 13, 1806, Isaac Backus papers, Box 1, JHL. On Tennent, see McCrady, History of South Carolina in the Revolution, 206–207; and Levy, Establishment Clause, 5–6. On Parsons, see Heimert, Religion and the American Mind, 390. On the Baptists, see Isaac, Transformation of Virginia, 278–280; Lovejoy, Religious Enthusiasm in the New World, 216–220; and Ragosta, Wellspring of Liberty. In general, see also Curry, First Freedoms, 131–132, 149–150, 165–177.
23. On Henry, see Isaac, Transformation of Virginia, 278, 283–284; and Buckley, Church and State in Revolutionary Virginia, 73. For convincing arguments that the Founders had little intention to remove religion from public life in the First Amendment, see Curry, First Freedoms (Backus quoted on 169–170); and Hamburger, Separation of Church and State.
24. Quoted in Gaustad, Faith of Our Fathers, 78.
25. Hamilton, Federalist No. 1, October 27, 1787, in Hamilton, Madison, and Jay, The Federalist, 2; Madison, Federalist No. 51, February 6, 1788, ibid., 254. On the distinction between the states and the nation, see Wood, Creation of the American Republic, 427–428; and Kruman, Between Authority and Liberty, 45–49.
26. Calhoon, Loyalist Perception, 206–208. Marini, Radical Sects of Revolutionary New England, 116–171; Noll, “American Revolution and Protestant Evangelicalism,” 635; Isaac, Transformation of Virginia, 295; Howe, “Protestantism, Voluntarism, and Personal Identity”; Noll, America’s God, 182, 197–199; Bushman, Joseph Smith and the Beginnings of Mormonism; Bringhurst, Brigham Young, 1–49; Neem, “Elusive Common Good.”
1. Adams, Memoirs of John Quincy Adams, vol. 12, 242.
2. “Proceedings for the House of Representatives,” February 9, 1846, Congressional Globe, vol. 15, 339–342; Adams, Memoirs of John Quincy Adams, vol. 12, 243–244. For other accounts of this extraordinary political drama, see Bemis, John Quincy Adams and the Union, 489–491; Merk, Oregon Question, 227–229; and Richards, Life and Times of Congressman John Quincy Adams, 182–186.
3. Nagel, John Quincy Adams, 124, 202–204, 230–231, 235, 260–262, 308, 314; Remini, John Quincy Adams, 3–4, 43, 128–129; Weeks, John Quincy Adams, 10–11, 189–190.
4. Adams to Richard C. Anderson (Bogota), May 27, 1823, in LaFeber, ed., John Quincy Adams, 124; “President Adams’ Message to the Senate of the United States,” December 26, 1825, ibid., 133; Adams, “The Opium War and the Sanctity of Commercial Reciprocity,” ibid., 49. On their religious views, see, for example, John Adams to John Quincy Adams, January 3, 1817, Selected Writings of John and John Quincy Adams, 291–292.
5. Nagel, John Quincy Adams, 231, 407. On the lingering influence of Puritanism within the Adams family, see Brookhiser, America’s First Dynasty, 13–15, 67, 209–210. Adams quoted, respectively, in LaFeber, ed., John Quincy Adams, 36–37; and Mayers, Dissenting Voices, 86.
6. Adams, Memoirs of John Quincy Adams, vol. 4, 274. See also Weeks, John Quincy Adams, 17–20.
7. On the partisan political dimension of Adams and expansion, see Weeks, John Quincy Adams, 35.
8. Neem, Creating a Nation of Joiners. On the two agendas of antebellum reform and progress, see Clark, Social Change in America.
9. On Adams and reform, see Howe, Political Culture of the American Whigs, 43–68 (“progressive improvement” quoted on 59). For the 1825 speeches, see “Inaugural Address,” March 4, 1825, Selected Writings of John and John Quincy Adams, 353–360, esp. 359; and “First Annual Message,” December 6, 1825, ibid., 360–367.
1. On the European situation, see Schroeder, Transformation of European Politics, 67–150. On its general diplomatic implications and challenges for the United States, see Herring, From Colony to Superpower, 56–73; and Perkins, Creation of a Republican Empire, 82–87.
2. Bloch, Visionary Republic, 150–163, 168–179; Davis, Revolutions, 40–46; Lathrop, Happiness of a Free Government, 14.
3. Nash, “American Clergy and the French Revolution”; Hunt, Ideology and U.S. Foreign Policy, 97–100; Davis, Revolutions, 46–47.
4. Though they draw different conclusions, see Buel, Securing the Revolution, 28–49; Elkins and McKitrick, Age of Federalism, 303–373, esp. 354–365; and Sharp, American Politics in the Early Republic, 69–91.
5. For extended discussions of the events in this radically compressed summary of Federalist diplomacy, see Horsman, Diplomacy of the New Republic, 42–78; and Perkins, Creation of a Republican Empire, 87–110. For the domestic political dimensions of the Jay Treaty, see Buel, Securing the Revolution, 54–71; Elkins and McKitrick, Age of Federalism, 415–431; and Sharp, American Politics in the Early Republic, 113–137.
6. Bloch, Visionary Republic, 202–231; Buel, Securing the Revolution, 138, 167, 170–172, 232–233. On the basis of American fears over the violence and radicalism in France, see Cleves, Reign of Terror in America, 13–14, 20–57. On Hamilton, see Stourzh, Alexander Hamilton, 122, 125.
7. Waldstreicher, In the Midst of Perpetual Fetes, 145–152; Hatch, Sacred Cause of Liberty, 13–14; Kerber, Federalists in Dissent, 208–212. For reactions against the revolutionary violence in France as the source of reform movements in antebellum America, see Cleves, Reign of Terror in America.
8. DeConde, Quasi War, 6; Hunt, Ideology and U.S. Foreign Policy, 92–94.
9. Stahr, John Jay, 300–301 (quoted on 88); Combs, Jay Treaty, 18–19; West, Politics of Revelation and Reason, 53–56.
10. Field, America and the Mediterranean World, 27–38; Lambert, Barbary Wars, 17–41.
11. “Treaty of Peace and Friendship,” signed November 4, 1796, and ratified June 10, 1797, Treaties and Other International Agreements of the United States of America, vol. 11, 1072; Eaton quoted in Oren, Power, Faith, and Fantasy, 65. On Jefferson, see Tucker and Hendrickson, Empire of Liberty, 294–299.
12. Grant, John Adams, 380–381; Hall, Worlds of Wonder, 87, 201; Bloch, Visionary Republic, 120, 122, 131, 145, 169; Oren, Power, Faith, and Fantasy, 27, 42–45, 59; Allison, Crescent Obscured, 35–59 (bestselling book and Eaton quoted, respectively, on 36, 53–54); Noah Webster, The Revolution in France (New York, 1794), in Sandoz, Political Sermons of the American Founding Era, vol. 2, 1263.
13. Lambert, Barbary Wars, 110; Peskin, Captives and Countrymen. On links between the Indian and Barbary captivity narratives, see also Baepler, “Barbary Captivity Narrative in Early America.”
14. Cotton Mather, The Glory of Goodness (Boston, 1703), in Baepler, White Slaves, African Masters, 61; Barnby, Prisoners of Algiers, 44–46, 94–95; Davis, Challenging the Boundaries of Slavery, 10–12; Hassan quoted in Oren, Power, Faith, and Fantasy, 22. On the history of Islamic enslavement of Christians along the Barbary coast, see Davis, Christian Slaves, Muslim Masters.
15. Horsman, Causes of the War of 1812; and Hickey, War of 1812, 5–28.
16. Almost all accounts of the War of 1812 stress the importance of honor to some degree, but for the recourse to war as a way to protect American republicanism, see Brown, Republic in Peril.
17. “To Congress,” June 1, 1812, Papers of James Madison: Presidential Series, vol. 4, 437; for the fast day message, see Gribbin, Churches Militant, 20–21. See also Moore, One Nation Under God, 83–84.
18. Watts, Republic Reborn, 131–160, 286–289 (Weems quoted on 151); Furstenberg, In the Name of the Father, 105–145.
19. Jones to Madison, September 15, 1812, and November 26, 1812, Jones papers, Box 1, ABHS. On Jones, see also Gribbin, Churches Militant, 81–82.
20. Isaac Backus to Simon Backus, January 31, 1814, Backus papers, Box 1, JHL; address to the General Assembly, October 1814, Smith papers, Supplement Box, CHS; “approbation” quoted in Stout, “Rhetoric and Reality,” 75; Massachusetts minister quoted in Waldstreicher, In the Midst of Perpetual Fetes, 257. On religious Federalists and antiwar opposition, see also Gribbin, Churches Militant, 40–60; and Sassi, Republic of Righteousness, 101–105. On Republican charges about religious liberty in New England, see Stagg, Mr. Madison’s War, 254–255. On the Baptists, see McLoughlin, New England Dissent, 831.
21. Porter, Sermon, Delivered in Boston, 13, 17; Cary, Sermon Preached, 3.
22. S. P. Robbins to Thomas Robbins, October 1, 1813, Robbins papers, Box 1, CHS. Both South Carolina Federalists quoted in Berens, Providence and Patriotism, 150. For the concept of a “greater New England,” see Fischer, Albion’s Seed, 812–898, esp. 847, 866, for its relevance to national divisions during the War of 1812.
23. Curti, American Peace Crusade, 3–41; Brock, Pacifism in the United States, 365–366, 449–481; Gribbin, Churches Militant, 124–125. For Jefferson and Madison on war, see Tucker and Hendrickson, Empire of Liberty, 16–17, 39–44.
24. Perkins, Creation of a Republican Empire, 141–146; Watts, Republic Reborn, 283–289 (quote on 283).
25. Berens, Providence and Patriotism, 149–166 (New Hampshire minister quoted in 159); Guyatt, Providence and the Invention of the United States, 161–168; Vermont newspaper quoted in Watts, Republic Reborn, 285; Methodist preacher quoted in Weeks, Building the Continental Empire, 31. On the war as a turning point for Indians, see Dippie, Vanishing American, 5–9.
1. Sellers, Market Revolution; Meyer, Roots of American Industrialization. On the “communications revolution,” see Howe, What Hath God Wrought, esp. 5–7, 44–50, 270–275, 525–569. On the healing of divisions in New England, see Sassi, Republic of Righteousness, 147–148.
2. The late nineteenth-century United States and post–World War II Japan are the classic examples of a prosperous economy failing to produce an activist foreign or military policy. Still, economics is important: no nation can be a great power for long without prosperity and financial stability. So too are state capabilities, especially a strong central government and bureaucracy. Given these complications, it is not surprising that the causal relationship between economics and geopolitics remains controversial. For an explanation of how military and diplomatic strength largely stem from economics, see Kennedy, Rise and Fall of the Great Powers. For the argument that while finance is vital, a nation’s military and diplomatic power stem mostly from political rather than economic factors, see Ferguson, Cash Nexus. For the importance of a strong, centralized state, using the late nineteenth-century United States as a case study, see LaFeber, American Search for Opportunity; and Zakaria, From Wealth to Power.
3. Carwardine, Evangelicals and Politics, 58–68, 97–132; Howe, Political Culture of the American Whigs, 150–180; Johnson, Redeeming America, 150–154; Holt, Rise and Fall of the American Whig Party, 30–31, 117, 742.
4. Butler, Awash in a Sea of Faith, 225–256; Noll, America’s God, 293–329. On American religion and the challenge of the market revolution, see Davenport, Friends of the Unrighteous Mammon. On religion and reform, see esp. Mintz, Moralists and Modernizers; Abzug, Cosmos Crumbling; and Matthews, Toward a New Society, 26–46. On the Second Great Awakening, see McLoughlin, Revivals, Awakenings, and Reform, 98–140. Historians had long argued that the religious reform movements were nothing more than a form of “social control,” a ruse by elites to maintain their position at the head of society. But for persuasive critiques of the social control thesis, see Banner, “Religious Benevolence as Social Control”; and Cleves, Reign of Terror in America.
5. On Hopkins and Beecher, see Noll, America’s God, 271–282, 290–297. On the New Haven Theology, see Kuklick, Churchmen and Philosophers, 94–111. On Finney, see Howe, What Hath God Wrought, 170–176. On both Taylor and Finney, see Noll, America’s God, 279–281, 297–299, 306–308, 313–316; and Holifield, Theology in America, 354–368 (Taylor quoted on 354).
6. Mintz, Moralists and Modernizers, 16–49; Abzug, Cosmos Crumbling; Howe, What Hath God Wrought, 285–327.
7. On the Unitarians, see Howe, Unitarian Conscience; Howe, Making the American Self, 130–135, 197–202; Hutchison, Modernist Impulse, 12–40; and Kuklick, Churchmen and Philosophers, 80–93. On the Universalists, see Bressler, Universalist Movement, 54–96.
8. Ralph Waldo Emerson to Lidian Emerson, January 18, 1843, Letters of Ralph Waldo Emerson, vol. 3, 118. On the religious context of the Transcendentalists, see Hutchison, Transcendentalist Ministers; Schmidt, Restless Souls; and Gura, American Transcendentalism. See also Conkin, American Originals, 71–72, 77–81. On reformism as a central aspect, see Rose, Transcendentalism as a Social Movement, 217–223.
9. Brock, Pacifism in the United States, 482–522, 559–615. On Rush, see Watts, Republic Reborn, 131.
10. Baptist is Neale, Fourth Annual Address of the Connecticut Peace Society, 5; Boston minister is Sharp, Obedience to Magistrates Inculcated, 18; Emerson, “We Must All Appear before the Judgment Seat of Christ,” preached fourteen times between November 1830 and March 1837, in Complete Sermons of Ralph Waldo Emerson, vol. 3, 37–38.
11. Kellogg, War Contrary to the Gospel; Channing, Sermon on War, 2, 8; Parker quoted in Chesebrough, Theodore Parker, 53. “Expenses of War,” Family Christian Almanack for the United States, 1844, 28; “Change After Death,” March 31, 1847, Montgomery sermons, Box 2, Folder 12, AHTL.
12. “Philanthropos,” Solemn Appeal to Christians of All Denominations, 34; Graves, Desire of All Nations. On the “Evangelical United Front,” see Foster, Errand of Mercy; and Howe, What Hath God Wrought, 192–195. For the Congress of Nations and League of Universal Brotherhood, see Curti, American Peace Crusade, 56, 143–165. More generally, see also Sexton, Monroe Doctrine, 115–116.
13. Examination of the Principles of Peace and War, 13, 18.
14. Field, America and the Mediterranean World, 120–122. On Winthrop, see Lovejoy, Religious Enthusiasm, 94; and Bremer, John Winthrop, 340–342.
15. Harvard professor and Brooklyn cross quoted in Mayers, Dissenting Voices, 57, 59; Dwight quoted in Field, America and the Mediterranean World, 129; Harrison quoted in Oren, Power, Faith, and Fantasy, 109.
16. “The Revolution in Greece,” January 19, 1824, Papers of Daniel Webster: Speeches and Formal Writings, vol. 1, 100–101, 111. On Webster’s religion, see Bartlett, Daniel Webster, 44. On religion as an important part of his rhetoric, see Remini, Daniel Webster, 54; and Smith, Daniel Webster, 66–67.
17. Field, America and the Mediterranean World, 126–128, 132–153; Sexton, Monroe Doctrine. For missionary opposition, see Finnie, Pioneers East, 192–194; Mayers, Dissenting Voices, 58; and Oren, Power, Faith, and Fantasy, 110.
18. The best single overview of Protestant American missions is Hutchison, Errand to the World. For the establishment and early career of the ABCFM, see Phillips, Protestant America and the Pagan World; Andrew, Rebuilding the Christian Commonwealth; and Kling, “New Divinity and the Origins of the American Board.” The story of missions is perhaps best told through case studies. For China, see Varg, Missionaries, Chinese, and Diplomats, 3–30; Fairbank, Missionary Enterprise in China and America; Iriye, Across the Pacific, 18–22; and Hunt, Making of a Special Relationship, 24–32. For the Middle East, see Tibawi, American Interests in Syria; Finnie, Pioneers East, 112–136; Field, America and the Mediterranean World, 176–206; Grabill, Protestant Diplomacy and the Near East, 4–24; Oren, Power, Faith, and Fantasy, 80–173; Makdisi, Artillery of Heaven; and Sharkey, American Evangelicals in Egypt, 18–36. For Hawaii, see Smith, Yankees in Paradise; and Tate, “Sandwich Islands Missionaries.” For Catholic missionaries, see Dolan, Catholic Revivalism.
19. Abeel, Missionary Fortified Against Trials, 6, 7, 9. For death rates and median age, see Finnie, Pioneers East, 119. For Niebuhr’s theory, see Moessner, “Missionary Motivation.”
20. Field, America and the Mediterranean World, 199–206; Oren, Power, Faith, and Fantasy, 95.
21. Webster to David Porter, February 2, 1842, Papers of Daniel Webster: Diplomatic Papers, vol. 1, 280–281; Repousis, “Devil’s Apostle.” On the antebellum missionary as hopeful imperialist, see Hunt, Making of a Special Relationship, 30–32; Oren, Power, Faith, and Fantasy, 129–132; and Greenberg, Manifest Manhood, 231–268. For a very perceptive discussion of the nature of American missions’ relationship to empire, see Makdisi, Artillery of Heaven, esp. 9–11. For “world is in arms,” see Andrew, Rebuilding the Christian Commonwealth, 151. For “reforming the world” and “God’s plan for this world’s recovery,” see, respectively, “Editor’s Address,” Christian Almanack, 1823; and Phelps, Christian Character, 3.
22. William Frederic Williams to Dwight W. Marsh, March 28, 1850, Williams papers, RG 30, Box 35, Folder 1, YDS; John T. Hargrave, “Missionary Sermon,” January 7, 1847, Sermons Folder, Box 2, Shepherdstown (West Virginia) records, UVA.
23. Hutchison, Errand to the World, 77–90 (quotations from, respectively, 85, 88, 89); Harris, Nothing but Christ, 96–132.
24. Cooke to Mary Keeler, November 28, 1837, July 27, 1838, and March 2, 1843; Cooke to Aaron Seeley, October 12, 1841: all in Cooke papers, Box 1, CHS.
25. Van Alstyne, Rising American Empire, 129–130; Cohen, America’s Response to China, 12; Bryson, American Diplomatic Relations with the Middle East, 21–22. Though she does not make this argument, see also Greenberg, Manifest Manhood, 259–261. French diplomat quoted in Finnie, Pioneers East, 129.
1. Stephanson, Manifest Destiny, 38–48 (quotations on 40, 42).
2. On the very long career of manifest destiny, particularly its religious foundations in the colonial period, see Tuveson, Redeemer Nation, 91–136; Stephanson, Manifest Destiny, 3–27; Nobles, American Frontiers; and Guyatt, Providence and the Invention of the United States. On the pressures created by the constant surging of Americans into land beyond their own—pressures that then led to official policy—see Kagan, Dangerous Nation.
3. Bailey, Shadow on the Church, 224–228; Rothman, Slave Country, 64–65, 208; Episcopal bishop quoted in Journal of the Proceedings of the Bishops, Clergy, and Laity of the Protestant Episcopal Church … 1847, 209.
4. Stringfellow, “A Brief Examination of Scripture Testimony on the Institution of Slavery,” Religious Herald, February 25, 1841, in Faust, Ideology of Slavery, 154, 165; Thornwell quoted in Noll, Civil War as a Theological Crisis, 2. On evangelicalism as the South’s social bond, see Mathews, Religion in the Old South; Boles, Great Revival; and Crowther, “Holy Honor.” For a thoughtful evaluation of the evolving proslavery argument, see O’Brien, Conjectures of Order, vol. 2, 938–992, and, for its religious bases, 1149–1157; see also Daly, When Slavery was Called Freedom. On the uneasy mix of race and religion in manifest destiny, see Horsman, Race and Manifest Destiny, 126, 139–140. On religion as a basis for ideas about racial equality, see Goodman, Of One Blood.
5. Calhoun quoted in Noll, God and Race in American Politics, 35; Rice quoted in Noll, Civil War as a Theological Crisis, 5. On the Protestant schisms, see Goen, Broken Churches; Snay, Gospel of Disunion, 113–180; Crowther, “Religion Has Something”; and Genovese, “Religion in the Collapse of the American Union.” For “the foreign policy of slavery,” see Kagan, Dangerous Nation, 181–223; see also Crapol, “Foreign Policy of Antislavery.” On competing republicanism and territorial expansion as the central concerns, see Morrison, Slavery and the American West; and Fry, Dixie Looks Abroad, 40–74.
6. Elias Cornelius to Calhoun, July 10, 1818, Cornelius papers, Box 1, CHS; Mayers, Dissenting Voices, 86. For McCoy, see Schultz, Indian Canaan.
7. Jackson quoted, respectively, in Remini, Andrew Jackson and the Course of American Freedom, 218; and Remini, Andrew Jackson and the Course of American Democracy, 418. On Jackson’s religious views, see Remini, Andrew Jackson and the Course of American Empire, 7; Remini, Andrew Jackson and the Course of American Freedom, 10–11, 62–63, 331–333; and Remini, Andrew Jackson and the Course of American Democracy, 91, 226, 229, 251–252, 398–400, 443–447.
8. Phillips, Jedidiah Morse, 35–37, 129–160, 195–215; Snyder, “Foundations of Liberty”; Horsman, “Dimensions of an ‘Empire for Liberty,’ ” 6; Guyatt, Providence and the Invention of the United States, 174–180; American Geography quoted in Drinnon, Facing West, 402. On Morse’s religious orthodoxy, see Phillips, Jedidiah Morse.
9. On Samuel Morse, religion, and empire, see Mabee, American Leonardo; and Phillips, Jedidiah Morse, 220–222. On Romanticism and evangelicalism, see Goen, Broken Churches, 34, 153–164; and Gabriel, “Evangelical Religion and Popular Romanticism.”
10. Howe, What Hath God Wrought, 1–3, 692–698.
11. Stegner, Gathering of Zion; Arrington, Brigham Young; Shipps, Mormonism, 25–65. On relations with the Indians, see Farmer, On Zion’s Mount. On Mormon millennialism and expansionism, see Tuveson, Redeemer Nation, 175–186.
12. Brock, Pacifism in the United States, 523–558; Stewart, Holy Warriors, 32–43; and, for antislavery ideology’s roots and fundamentals, Davis, Problem of Slavery in Western Culture, 382–390. Canfield sermon on Ezekiel 20:44, 1844, Canfield papers, Box 1, Folder 72, JHL.
13. McKanan, Identifying the Image of God; Carwardine, Evangelicals and Politics, 134–139; Goodman, Of One Blood; Sermon, George Kaercher, February 16, 1845, Kaercher and Packer Family papers, Box 2, Cornell; Channing to Clay, August 1, 1837, Works of William E. Channing, 752–781; Clay to John P. Kennedy, May 16, 1839, Papers of Henry Clay, vol. 9, 314. On Garrison’s evangelicalism, see Abzug, Cosmos Crumbling, 129–162. On his pacifism, see Mayer, All on Fire, 120–122, 222–226, 237–238, 249–251, 360–361, 478–480. On women, see Walters, American Reformers, 101–121; and Jeffrey, Great Silent Army, 134–170.
14. Howe, What Hath God Wrought, 678; Crapol, “Foreign Policy of Antislavery”; Jordan, Evangelical Alliance. On the relationship between American and British evangelicals, see Carwardine, Trans-Atlantic Revivalism. On harmonious Anglo-American diplomacy, see Jones and Rakestraw, Prologue to Manifest Destiny.
15. Watson, Liberty and Power, 109–110; Wallace, Long, Bitter Trail, 46–47, 68–69; Mayers, Dissenting Voices, 87–89; Emerson to Van Buren, April 23, 1838, Emerson’s Antislavery Writings, 2–3.
16. Fredrickson, Black Liberation, 61–68. On free blacks and antislavery, see Blackett, Building an Antislavery Wall; Gosse, “As a Nation, the English Are Our Friends”; Johnson, Redeeming America, 134–139; and Noll, Civil War as a Theological Crisis, 64–72.
17. Genovese, Roll, Jordan, Roll, 161–284; Raboteau, Slave Religion; Frey and Wood, Come Shouting to Zion, 118–208.
18. Blassingame, Slave Community, 126–130; Oakes, Slavery and Freedom, 22–24, 143–144; Berlin, Generations of Captivity, 159–244, esp. 206–209, 217; Rothman, Slave Country, 188–203. For the centrality of Baptist evangelicalism to Turner’s radical protest and black dissent in general, see Scully, Religion and the Making of Nat Turner’s Virginia.
19. Blake address at the Boston Lyceum, n.d., Blake-Clapp-Arguimbau Family papers, Box 1, Folder 15, MHS; Fogel, Without Consent or Contract, 251–254; Carwardine, Evangelicals and Politics, 141–142; Conforti, Samuel Hopkins, 142–158; Guyatt, Providence and the Invention of the United States, 183–194. On Lincoln’s support for colonization, see Carwardine, Lincoln, 24–25, 30–31, 79, 199, 215; and Foner, Fiery Trial.
20. Beecher, Discourse Delivered at the Plymouth Church, 14–15. For Beecher’s antipathy to manifest destiny, see Clark, Henry Ward Beecher, 86. On Lyman Beecher and education, see Fraser, Pedagogue for God’s Kingdom.
21. Knowles, Perils and Safeguards, 9, 18; Cheever quoted in Guyatt, Providence and the Invention of the United States, 280; Bushnell quoted in Edwards, “My God and My Good Mother,” 117.
22. “The Young American,” Boston, February 7, 1844, Collected Works of Ralph Waldo Emerson, vol. 1, 226, 229, 230. On Emerson, see also Gougeon, Virtue’s Hero, 131–145; and Buell, Emerson, 250, 272–273. On Channing and Parker, see Stephanson, Manifest Destiny, 51–54.
23. Sampson, John L. O’Sullivan, 92, 194–207; Emerson quoted in Richardson, Emerson, 498.
24. McPherson, Battle Cry of Freedom, 3–5, 47–77; Anderson and Cayton, Dominion of War, 274–293. On the Mexican War as the essential causal event in the origins of the Civil War, see Kornblith, “Rethinking the Coming of the Civil War.”
25. For overviews of the war and its causes, see Weems, To Conquer a Peace; Howe, What Hath God Wrought, 658–791; and, for its military history, Bauer, Mexican War. For the Mexican perspective, see Henderson, Glorious Defeat. For the Texas controversy, see Silbey, Storm Over Texas, 1–145.
26. Dusinberre, Slavemaster President; Bergeron, Presidency of James K. Polk, 51–136; Haynes, James K. Polk and the Expansionist Impulse. On the causal linkages between Texas, Oregon, and Mexico, see Pletcher, Diplomacy of Annexation.
27. Polk quoted in Price, Origins of the War with Mexico, 10. On Polk’s religion, see Sellers, James K. Polk, 309; and Bergeron, Presidency of James K. Polk, 9–10, 137, 214, 239–241; and Sexton, Monroe Doctrine, 115.
28. Stewart quoted in Johannsen, To the Halls of the Montezumas, 49–50; Bellows quoted in Hixson, Myth of American Diplomacy, 68. For an overview of American religion and the war, see Ellsworth, “American Churches and the Mexican War.”
29. Fleek, History May Be Searched in Vain; Schroeder, Mr. Polk’s War, 108; Kirkham to his wife, June 1, 1847, and June 6, 1847, in Miller, ed., Mexican War Journal and Letters of Ralph W. Kirkham, 21, 27. On Mexican perceptions, see Brack, “Mexican Opinion,” 170–171.
30. Quoted in Greenberg, Manifest Manhood, 99.
31. West, Politics of Revelation; Pinheiro, “Religion without Restriction,” 69–70, 73–74; Noll, Civil War as a Theological Crisis, 130. On the emergence of nativism, see Wilentz, Chants Democratic, 266–270, 315–335; and Holt, Rise and Fall of the American Whig Party, 187–194, 203–207. On anti-Catholicism in antebellum culture and politics, see, respectively, Franchot, Roads to Rome; and Holt, Forging a Majority.
32. For Brownson, see Schroeder, Mr. Polk’s War, 109–110; soldier quoted in Stevens, Rogue’s March, xi; leaflet quoted in Miller, Shamrock and Sword, 162–163. See also Pinheiro, “Religion without Restriction.” On the maltreatment of Catholic soldiers, see Foos, Short, Offhand, Killing Affair, 25–29.
33. Foos, Short, Offhand, Killing Affair, 26 (Catholic Telegraph quoted on 47); Schroeder, Mr. Polk’s War, 107–108.
34. Thanksgiving sermon, 1847, Canfield papers, Box 1, JHL; Edward Warner Bentley’s college journal, Bentley papers, RG30, Box 213, YDS; Episcopalian is Pyne, Sermon Delivered on Thanksgiving Day, 13.
35. For Gallatin, see Guyatt, Providence and the Invention of the United States, 224. For Calhoun, see Lander, Reluctant Imperialists, 63–64; and Hunt, Ideology and U.S. Foreign Policy, 34.
36. Beecher quoted in Clark, Henry Ward Beecher, 87; “The Mexican War,” ca. 1848, Parker papers, Sermons: vol. XI, Box 11, AHTL; Grodzins, American Heretic, 172–174, 333–340, 471–475, 498.
37. For Thoreau’s tax resistance, see Howe, Making the American Self, 235–255, for the Christian context of his ideas and morals, 245–247.
38. Naval commander (Robert F. Stockton) quoted in Niles National Register, January 22, 1848, in Graebner, Manifest Destiny, 210; Kalloch, National Fast-Day Sermon, 6; Polk quoted in Price, Origins of the War with Mexico, 11.
39. “Speech at a Meeting to Aid John Brown’s Family,” November 18, 1859, in Emerson’s Antislavery Writings, 118; Garrison quoted in Mayer, All on Fire, 502–503; Child quoted in Brock, Pacifism in the United States, 682. For Parker, see Albrecht, Theodore Parker, 133–134. For “violent messiahs,” see McKanan, Identifying the Image of God, 174–217. For a balanced examination of the Christian faith at the heart of Brown’s revolt and the rejection of pacifism, see McGlone, John Brown’s War Against Slavery.
1. Quoted in Olcott, Life of William McKinley, vol. 2, 109–111.
2. Iriye, “Imperialism and Sincerity,” 119. Similarly, not all historians accept the authenticity of the quotation itself. See Gould, Spanish-American War, 109; and Smith, “A Question from Which We Could Not Escape,” 364. For an exception to Iriye’s verdict, see Miller, “Benevolent Assimilation,” 24.
3. McKinley quoted in Olcott, Life of William McKinley, vol. 2, 368; verse from Micah quoted in Leech, In the Days of McKinley, 132.
4. Leech, In the Days of McKinley, 4–8, 11–13; Morgan, William McKinley, 17–18, 24–26, 31–32, 45–46, 50–52, 67–68; McSeveney, Politics of Depression, 164; Kelly, “Election of 1896,” 190–191.
5. On McKinley’s domestic policies, see Gould, Presidency of William McKinley, 21–32, 40–48, 153–177. For his about-face silence on Jim Crow as a way to placate the South, see Williamson, Crucible of Race, 342–345; Perman, Struggle for Mastery, 116–123; and Blight, Race and Reunion, 350–352. For his new conservatism on matters economic and industrial, see McSeveney, Politics of Depression, 163–221.
6. On McKinley in control of foreign policy, see Beisner, From the Old Diplomacy to the New, 120–144.
1. Much has been written on America’s Civil War diplomacy, but see esp. Jones, Blue & Gray Diplomacy; for a briefer overview, see Herring, From Colony to Superpower, 224–250. On the Union’s foreign policy, see Mahin, One War at a Time; and on the Confederacy’s, Fry, Dixie Looks Abroad, 75–105. See also Jones, Union in Peril; and McPherson, “No Peace without Victory.” On the Civil War as an episode in world history, see Bender, Nation Among Nations, 116–181; and Bayly, Birth of the Modern World, 161–165.
2. Paludan, People’s Contest, 339–340; Noll, Civil War as a Theological Crisis, 11–14 (figures on 12–13).
3. Surprisingly, there is relatively little scholarship on religion and the Civil War. For an excellent overview, see the various essays in Miller, Stout, and Wilson, eds., Religion and the American Civil War. On the lack of theological innovation, see Noll, Civil War as a Theological Crisis. On the sectional church schisms, see Snay, Gospel of Disunion. On the clergy’s role in advocating total war, see Stout, Upon the Altar. On the Christian Commission, see Moorhead, American Apocalypse, 65–70; and Paludan, People’s Contest, 351–354. On the soldiers’ faith, see McPherson, For Cause and Comrades, 62–76; Woodworth, While God is Marching On; and Manning, What This Cruel War Was Over, 113–145.
4. Quoted in Paludan, People’s Contest, 371; see also Niebuhr, Children of Light and the Children of Darkness, 181; and Niebuhr, Irony of American History, 171–173. Because of the importance of his presidency and the ambiguity of his religious beliefs, Lincoln’s faith—indeed, whether he even had any faith—is historically controversial. My own account draws especially heavily upon Carwardine, Lincoln, 32–44, 56–58, 123–124, 146–147, 221–229, 233–235, 274–282, 313–314. But, from a wide range of perspectives, see also Wolf, Almost Chosen People; Guelzo, Abraham Lincoln; Noll, America’s God, 425–435; Miller, Lincoln’s Virtues, 42–43, 49–50, 83–90, 294–296, 365; Jacoby, Freethinkers, 104–123; and Smith, Faith and the Presidency, 91–127.
5. This is a radically compressed treatment of a complex subject. For recent, more thorough discussions, see Gates, ed., Lincoln on Race and Slavery; and Foner, Fiery Trial.
6. Lincoln to Gillespie quoted in Carwardine, Lincoln, 43; Lincoln to Hodges, April 4, 1864, Collected Works of Abraham Lincoln, vol. 7, 281. Lincoln’s belief that “If slavery is not wrong, nothing is wrong” likely owed much to the writings of the Reverend Leonard Bacon, a Congregationalist from New Haven, Conn., who had condemned slavery in similar terms in the 1840s and whose writings Lincoln had read. See Carwardine, Lincoln, 32–33. On Lincoln’s long-standing belief that slavery itself was immoral and unjust, see Miller, Lincoln’s Virtues; and McPherson, “Who Freed the Slaves?”
7. Quoted in Carwardine, Lincoln, 231.
8. On the egalitarian core of evangelical abolitionism, see Goodman, Of One Blood. On Catholics, see Curran, “Rome, the American Church, and Slavery”; McGreevey, Catholicism and American Freedom, 49–66; and Noll, Civil War as a Theological Crisis, 125–132. On Jews, see Korn, American Jewry and the Civil War, 15–31; and Sarna, American Judaism, 112–113.
9. Howard, Religion and the Radical Republican Moment; Tyng and Read both quoted in Tuveson, Redeemer Nation, 192–193; soldier is from Rankin, ed., Diary of a Christian Soldier, 110.
10. Payne quoted in Noll, Civil War as a Theological Crisis, 6; Christian Recorder quoted in Stout, Upon the Altar, 179. On the Civil War as an African American war of liberation, see Tuck, We Ain’t What We Ought To Be, 11–36. On emancipation as a slave rebellion, see Hahn, Political Worlds of Slavery and Freedom, 55–114. For black soldiers, see Manning, What This Cruel War Was Over, 125–131.
11. Tuveson, Redeemer Nation, 190–191; Wilson, Patriotic Gore, 3–58. On Stowe’s religious background and beliefs, see Hedrick, Harriet Beecher Stowe, 40–42, 143–157, 215.
12. “Battle Hymn” quoted in Tuveson, Redeemer Nation, 198; on “John Brown’s Body,” see Paludan, People’s Contest, 350–351. See also Wilson, Patriotic Gore, 91–98; and Stout, Upon the Altar, 115–116.
13. Paludan, People’s Contest, 342–347; Fredrickson, “Coming of the Lord,” 114–119; Stout, Upon the Altar, 140–141, 167–190 (Carden quoted on 248); Manning, What This Cruel War Was Over, 115–116, 118–119, 121–125.
14. McPherson, Battle Cry of Freedom, 490–510, 538–544, 557–567; Donald, Lincoln, 362–376; diary entry, September 22, 1862, Diary of Gideon Welles, vol. 1, 143.
15. Annual Message to Congress, December 1, 1862, Collected Works of Abraham Lincoln, vol. 5, 537; Lincoln to Speed quoted in Donald, Lincoln, 377; Pittsburgh preacher quoted in Moorhead, American Apocalypse, 103.
16. Lincoln after Gettysburg quoted in Stout, Upon the Altar, 241; Lincoln to Gurney quoted in White, “Lincoln’s Sermon,” 219. On the relationship between emancipation and Lincoln’s growing faith, see Stampp, “Lincoln’s History,” 29–30; and Carwardine, Lincoln, 228, 233–234. On Lincoln and the Thirteenth Amendment, see Vorenberg, Final Freedom, 123–127, 176–182, 198–199, 208–210, 223–227.
17. Douglass quoted in, respectively, Oakes, Radical and the Republican, 242, and White, “Lincoln’s Sermon,” 223; Noll, America’s God, 426 (Schaff quoted on 6–7); White, “Lincoln’s Sermon.”
18. Lincoln, Second Inaugural Address, March 4, 1865, Collected Works of Abraham Lincoln, vol. 8, 332–333.
19. Seward quoted in Guyatt, Providence and the Invention of the United States, 259. On the new strain of American nationalism produced by the Civil War, particularly in the North, see also Foner, Reconstruction, 24, 29–30.
20. On the important role of preachers, see Fredrickson, “Coming of the Lord”; and Stout, Upon the Altar. On the clergy and Northern nationalism before 1861, see Grant, North Over South. For after 1861, see Kirby, “Matthew Simpson and the Mission of America.”
21. Pennsylvania soldier quoted in McPherson, For Cause and Comrades, 71; Bushnell quoted in Noll, America’s God, 432; Payne quoted in Noll, Civil War as a Theological Crisis, 78.
22. Miller, “Catholic Religion, Irish Ethnicity, and the Civil War”; Noll, Civil War as a Theological Crisis, 125–132; Dolan, Immigrant Church, 162; Samito, Becoming American Under Fire. On Catholicism’s role in the draft riots, see Bernstein, New York City Draft Riots.
23. Korn, American Jewry and the Civil War, 122–155, 217–219; Stout, Upon the Altar, 199–200, 208; Lincoln quoted in Sarna, American Judaism, 121.
24. On the wartime upsurge in providential thinking, see Guyatt, Providence and the Invention of the United States, 259–298. On its crisis, see Noll, Civil War as a Theological Crisis, 75–94. On Jackson, see Stowell, “Stonewall Jackson.”
25. Carwardine, Lincoln, 39–40, 225–228, 233–235, 246–247, 278–279; Guelzo, Lincoln’s Emancipation Proclamation, 6–7, 149–151; Noll, America’s God, 430–432. On Lincoln’s “fatalism” as opposed to providentialism, see Donald, Lincoln, 14–15.
26. For “angels,” see Paludan, People’s Contest, 351. On patriotism, civil religion, and the idea of “martyrdom,” see Stout, Upon the Altar, xvii-xxii, 28–29, 82–94, 248–251 (Schaff quoted on 250; Beecher quoted on 90). On death as divine sacrifice for a noble cause, see Faust, This Republic of Suffering, esp. 7–9, 23–26. On the Christian imagery of the Gettysburg Address, see Wolf, Almost Chosen People, 169–172; Wills, Lincoln at Gettysburg, 88; and Guelzo, Abraham Lincoln, 372–373.
27. Lincoln, Gettysburg Address (George Bancroft copy), November 19, 1863, Collected Works of Abraham Lincoln, vol. 7, 22.
1. LaFeber, American Search for Opportunity; Zakaria, From Wealth to Power.
2. Kennedy, Rise and Fall of the Great Powers, 242–249 (quotation from 243).
3. On the emergence of American internationalism in this era, see Ninkovich, Global Dawn; and Tyrrell, Reforming the World. On the link between material goods and empire, see Rosenberg, Spreading the American Dream, 3–62; and Hoganson, Consumers’ Imperium. On the inadequacy of economic factors alone in explaining America’s rise to global power, see May, Imperial Democracy.
4. On the stagnation and resumption of missions, see Rabe, Home Base of American China Missions. Figures from Hutchison, Errand to the World, 91, 93; and Young, Rhetoric of Empire, 76–77, 142.
5. Hutchison, Modernist Impulse, 44–47, 87–94; Varg, Missionaries, Chinese, and Diplomats, 68–76, 86–98; Hutchison, Errand to the World, 103–111. On Protestants and Darwin, see Roberts, Darwinism and the Divine; and Moore, Post-Darwinian Controversies.
6. LaFeber, New Empire, 72–80; Curtis, “Son of Man and God the Father”; Edwards, “Forging an Ideology.” On Catholic missionaries, see Donovan, Pagoda and the Cross; Breslin, China, American Catholicism, and the Missionary; and Dries, Missionary Movement in American Catholic History, 22–61.
7. Fishburn, “Social Gospel as Missionary Ideology”; Xing, Baptized in the Fire of Revolution; Hutchison, Errand to the World, 104; Mead, Special Providence, 132–162; missionary quoted in Varg, Missionaries, Chinese, and Diplomats, 64. The classic account of the Social Gospel is May, Protestant Churches and Industrial America; but for more recent overviews, see White and Hopkins, Social Gospel; Gorrell, Age of Social Responsibility; and, especially, Curtis, Consuming Faith. On the shared crusading spirit of both secular and religious Progressives, see Crunden, Ministers of Reform.
8. L. W. Munhall, “The Coming of the Lord and World-Wide Evangelization,” in Dayton, ed., Prophecy Conference Movement, vol. 3, 111; Hutchison, Modernist Impulse, 155, 258–261; Marsden, Fundamentalism and American Culture, 68–70, 97–98; Hutchison, Errand to the World, 112–118 (missionary quoted on 116). On the initial support for reform among both modernists and conservatives, see Wacker, “Holy Spirit and the Spirit of the Age.”
9. Hill, World Their Household, 3 and passim; Robert, American Women in Mission, 130–137, 188; Beaver, American Protestant Women in World Mission, 87–143; Hunter, Gospel of Gentility.
10. Speer, “Foreign Missions or World-Wide Evangelism,” in The Fundamentals, 70; Parliament organizer quoted in Rosenberg, Spreading the American Dream, 8. On missionaries and late nineteenth-century U.S. empire, see May, Imperial Democracy, 25–29; Schlesinger, “Missionary Enterprise and Theories of Imperialism”; and, in Japan, Henning, Outposts of Civilization. See Reed, Missionary Mind, for its continuation into the twentieth.
11. Newspaper quoted in Young, Rhetoric of Empire, 155; booklet, “Quarter Centennial Union Missionary Training Institute, 1885–1910,” Francis Brown papers, Series 3, Box 1, Folder 10, UTS; Bachman, Triumph of Foreign Missions, 3.
12. On Turner’s frontier thesis and expansionism, see LaFeber, New Empire, 63–72.
13. For the inherently international outlook of Catholics and Jews, see Jacobson, Special Sorrows; and D’Agostino, Rome in America.
14. Walls, “World Christianity”; Hawaiian missionary is Egbert C. Smyth, “Report of Committee on Missions in the Pacific Islands,” Missionary Herald, November 1892, 501; Clarke quoted in Hutchison, Errand to the World, 105.
15. Beardsley, Sermon Preached in St. Thomas’s Church, 13; Andover professor quoted in Walls, “World Christianity,” 150; Speer, “Foreign Missions or World-Wide Evangelism,” in The Fundamentals, 64.
16. On postbellum secularization among intellectuals, see Fredrickson, Inner Civil War, 199–216; Turner, Without God, 171–261; and Meyer, “American Intellectuals and the Victorian Crisis of Faith.” On Holmes, see Menand, Metaphysical Club, 36–37. For the Nation, see Grabill, Protestant Diplomacy, 31. On Twain and the missionaries, see Young, Rhetoric of Empire, 193–195; and Hunt, Making of a Special Relationship, 287–288. Du Bois quoted in Gaines, “Black Americans’ Racial Uplift Ideology,” 436. For an excellent analysis of race and Du Bois’s anti-imperialism, see Kaplan, Anarchy of Empire, 171–212.
17. Collins Denny, “Around the World,” Episcopal Methodist, March 16, 1887. For the racial tolerance of home missions, see Richardson, Christian Reconstruction; and Robertson, Christian Sisterhood, 11–44. On the Exclusion Acts, see McKee, Chinese Exclusion, 113–115.
18. B. C. Atterbury, “Lay Missionaries in China,” Missionary Review of the World, June 1889, 438; Brent to John Wood, September 20, 1902, RG76, Records of the Domestic and Foreign Missionary Society: Philippine Mission Records, Box 2, Folder 10, NAEC. On Chinese dress, see Hunter, Gospel of Gentility, 138–140.
19. Brent to Wood, September 20, 1902, RG76, Box 2, Folder 10, NAEC; Episcopal missionary is Walter Clapp, private newsletter to friends, November 20, 1901, RG76, Box 5, Folder 27, NAEC.
20. Quoted in Grabill, Protestant Diplomacy, 24. On Korea, see Davies, “Building a City on a Hill in Korea”; and Manela, Wilsonian Moment, 124–129.
21. Quoted in Muller, “Josiah Strong,” 495.
22. Mott quoted in Hopkins, John R. Mott, 83, 329; pamphlet, “Recent comments on Mr. John R. Mott and his work,” March 1914, Francis Brown papers, Series 1, Box 2, Folder 27, UTS.
23. Cavert, “Missionary Enterprise as the Moral Equivalent of War.” For “moral equivalent for imperialism,” see Hutchison, Errand to the World, 92. For “converting colonialism,” see Robert, “Introduction,” 4. On Strong, see Muller, “Josiah Strong.” On missionaries themselves changing, see Knox, “What Modifications in Western Christianity May Be Expected”; and Lian, Conversion of Missionaries. On both, see Dunch, “Beyond Cultural Imperialism.” My interpretation of American missions has been influenced by a similar argument regarding the ambivalent relationship between British missions and the British Empire: see Stanley, Bible and the Flag; Porter, Religion Versus Empire?; and Etherington, ed., Missions and Empire. For a similar reading of missionaries and the American Empire, see Tyrrell, Reforming the World. Similarly, for Catholic missionaries and the French Empire, see Ramsay, Mandarins and Martyrs.
24. Morgenthau quoted in Oren, Power, Faith, and Fantasy, 333; Charles Denby to Jason Shackleford, March 20, 1886, reprinted as “A Noble Testimony to American Missionaries: Letter from the American Minister to China,” Missionary Review of the World, February 1888, 117. On the empowering appropriation of Christianity by indigenous populations, see Sanneh, “World Christianity and the New Historiography.”
25. Minutes of the Synod of Atlantic, Rock Hill, S.C. (Report by the Synod’s Committee on Foreign Missions), 1904, RG395, African American Presbyteries and Synods Collection, Box 1, Folder 4, PHS. On African American missions to Africa, see Williams, Black Americans and the Evangelization of Africa; Adeleke, UnAfrican Americans, esp. 70–110, 114–115, 132–135; Little, Disciples of Liberty, 62–83; Killingray, “Black Atlantic Missionary Movement and Africa”; and, esp. for the antebellum period, Sanneh, Abolitionists Abroad.
26. Campbell, Songs of Zion; Gaines, “Black Americans’ Racial Uplift Ideology,” 444–447; hymn quoted in Williams, Black Americans and the Evangelization of Africa, 180.
27. “Girls in China,” Missionary Herald, December 1881, 519–522 (quoted on 522).
28. Quoted in Sharkey, American Evangelicals in Egypt, 5.
29. J. Lamb Doty (French Tahiti) to Edwin F. Uhl (State Department, Washington), May 11, 1895, FRUS, 1898, 349. On the Mormon missionaries, see also Uhl to Doty, June 25, 1895, ibid., 352; John Sherman to U.S. Legation in Turkey, January 11, 1898, ibid., 1112; Laurits S. Swenson (Copenhagen) to Hay, March 29, 1900, FRUS, 1900, 413–414; David J. Hill (Berlin) to Elihu Root, September 22, 1908, FRUS, 1908, 366; Hill to Root, December 1, 1908, ibid., 370; Hill to the German Foreign Office, November 30, 1908, ibid., 370–371; Royal Legation of the Netherlands to State Department, September 30, 1908, ibid., 659; Alvey A. Adee to the Netherlands Embassy, October 10, 1908, ibid., 659–660; and Glad, Mission of Mormonism in Norway.
30. Hay to U.S. legation in La Paz, September 1, 1899, FRUS, 1899, 112; Harrison quoted in “Religious Liberty: Methodist Ministers Are Working for Changes in South America,” Daily Northwestern (Oshkosh, Wis.), March 21, 1898. For the dispute, see “Marriage Laws in South America,” Chicago Daily Tribune, May 29, 1896; “Church Folk on a Trip,” Chicago Daily Tribune, July 13, 1897; “South American Marriage Laws,” Nebraska State Journal, May 15, 1900. On the changing of the Bolivian constitution to widen protections of religious freedom, see William B. Sorsby (La Paz) to Elihu Root, September 12, 1906, FRUS, 1906, part 1, 107. For continuing protection, see Huntington Wilson (State Department) to Fox (Quito), June 19, 1909, FRUS, 1909, 245–246.
31. Dennis, “The American Missionary in the Orient,” Missionary Review of the World, November 1889, 809. See also Dennis, Islam and Christian Missions.
32. Quoted in Rabe, Home Base of American China Missions, 63.
33. Warnshuis interview, 9, OHRO; Eddy to H. C. Price, December 5, 1934, Eddy papers, Box 2, Folder 33, YDS.
34. Varg, Missionaries, Chinese, and Diplomats, 31–41 (leaflet and motto quoted on 38, 124); Hunt, Making of a Special Relationship, 154–162, 285–286. See also Wehrle, Britain, China, and the Antimissionary Riots. On this pattern more generally, see Plesur, America’s Outward Thrust, 74–86. On its emergence in China, see Cohen, China and Christianity.
35. Reid and Rockhill quoted in Young, Rhetoric of Empire, 187, 214. For the estimate, see Beisner, From the Old Diplomacy to the New, 60.
36. Conger to Tsung-li Yamen, August 25, 1898, FRUS, 1898, 215. On passport renewal, see John Hay to E. H. Conger (U.S. Consul, Beijing), January 18, 1900, FRUS, 1900, 393–394; and, on a more general level, Scully, Bargaining with the State, 56–59. On missionaries and military force, see Miller, “Ends and Means.” For “righteous vengeance,” see Frederick C. Copper (Shanghai) to John Wood, July 13, 1900, RG64, Records of the Domestic and Foreign Missionary Society: China Mission Records, Box 4, Folder 19, NAEC.
37. Reed, Missionary Mind, passim; Varg, Missionaries, Chinese, and Diplomats, 114–116; Hunt, Making of a Special Relationship, 160, 166.
38. Dunch, Fuzhou Protestants and the Making of a Modern China; Lian, Redeemed by Fire; Lutz, China and the Christian Colleges; Iriye, Pacific Estrangement, 123; Cohen, “Littoral and Hinterland,” 218–220; Garrett, Social Reformers in Urban China; Rankin, “Social and Political Change in Nineteenth-Century China,” 50, 56. On Taiping, see Spence, God’s Chinese Son; and O’Brien, Intellectual Life and the American South, 46–47. For the missionary influence on Sun Yat-sen, see Schiffrin, Sun Yat-sen and the Origins of the Chinese Revolution, 14–18, 89–90; and Bergère, Sun Yat-sen, 26–28, 31–32. On Wellington Koo, see Manela, Wilsonian Moment, 113.
39. Merguerian, “Missions in Eden”; Fleischmann, “Evangelization or Education”; Grabill, Protestant Diplomacy, 24–34, 40–57; Sharkey, American Evangelicals in Egypt, 48–95.
40. Notes, “The Armenian Question,” July 25, 1896, Denny papers, Box 66, UVA. See also Grabill, Protestant Diplomacy, 40–57.
41. J. Williams to Joseph Cheshire, with anonymous enclosure, January 16, 1896, and “Confidential: Attacks on Christianity in Turkey,” January 23, 1896, both in Cheshire papers, Box 1, Folder 11, SHC-UNC. On the ABCFM’s role, see Reed, “American Foreign Policy,” 230–245.
42. Alexander Stevenson Twombly to his children, February 2, 1894; Twombly to “Ned,” February 5, 1894, both in RG30, Twombly papers, Box 109, YDS.
1. Sarna, American Judaism, 151–159; Raphael, Judaism in America, 50–56.
2. Jacobson, Special Sorrows, 43–53; Sarna, American Judaism, 135–138.
3. Brooks Adams to Henry Adams, February 14, 1898 (letter 96) and May 22, 1898 (letter 101), Brooks Adams letters, Box 1, HL; Henry Adams to Brooks Adams, June 12, 1899, in Carter, Henry Adams and His Friends, 467. Historian quoted is Dinnerstein, Antisemitism in America, 35–57 (quoted on 35). On the anti-Semitism of Brooks and Henry Adams, see Brookhiser, America’s First Dynasty, 165–166, 195.
4. Hale to Henry Cabot Lodge, December 16, 1901, Lodge papers, Box 6/Reel 16, MHS.
5. Diary entry, September 4, 1920, 54, Castle diary, Volume 2, HL.
6. W. H. Cooke to Gustav Gottheil, December 15, 1876, Gottheil papers, Box 1, JTS; “The Dreyfus Case,” in Kilgo, Chapel Talks, 139.
7. Vogel, To See a Promised Land; Obenzinger, American Palestine, esp. 39–58, from which “Peaceful Crusade” and “sacred geography” are quoted; Oren, Power, Faith, and Fantasy, 161–166, 238–244, 280–283.
8. William G. Moorehead address at the International Prophetic Conference, “The Conversion of the World After the Conversion of the Jews,” December 10–15, 1901, in Dayton, ed., Prophecy Conference Movement, vol. 3, 45. On the emergence and theology of Christian Zionism, see Ariel, On Behalf of Israel, 11–54; and Merkley, Politics of Christian Zionism, 54–58.
9. Plesur, America’s Outward Thrust, 70–73; Oren, Power, Faith, and Fantasy, 219, 276–280; Ariel, On Behalf of Israel, 55–96; Robert, Occupy Until I Come, 276–277; Goldman, God’s Sacred Tongue, 235–252.
10. Gaddis, Russia, the Soviet Union, and the United States, 28–29; Jelavich, Russia and the Formation of the Romanian National State, 285, 289; Oren, Power, Faith, and Fantasy, 279; Diner, Jews of the United States, 96. On anti-Semitism in Romania and its causes during this period, see Iancu, Jews in Romania, 90–153; and Butnaru, Silent Holocaust, 16–26. In Russia, see Klier, Imperial Russia’s Jewish Question, 285–449; and Nathans, Beyond the Pale, 186–198, 257–307.
11. Hay to McCormick, August 11, 1902, FRUS, 1902, 43–45.
12. Hay to McCormick, July 1, 1904, FRUS, 1904, 790; Foglesong, American Mission and the “Evil Empire,” 23–25. On the meeting and the petition, see Clymer, John Hay, 79–80; and Gaddis, Russia, the Soviet Union, and the United States, 42–43.
13. Hay to Charles L. Wilson, July 17, 1902, FRUS, 1902, 911; “Annual Message to Congress,” December 6, 1904, NYT, December 7, 1904, 3. For the congressional resolution, see Hay to McCormick, July 1, 1904, FRUS, 1904, 790; “Russia’s Exclusion of Jews,” NYT, April 22, 1904, 1; and “Our Request to Russia,” NYT, August 22, 1904, 2. Diplomat quoted in “President’s Criticism May Offend Russia,” NYT, December 7, 1904, 1. For the abrogation of the 1832 treaty, see Laserson, American Impact on Russia, 353–371.
14. Root to G. v. L. Meyer (St. Petersburg), November 22, 1905, FRUS, 1905, 831; Foglesong, American Mission and the “Evil Empire,” 28; Fink, Defending the Rights of Others, 51–57.
15. Hay to McCormick, August 11, 1902, FRUS, 1902, 43–45. On Hay’s attitudes toward American Jews, see Clymer, John Hay, 75–81. For examples of State Department antipathy to European Jews, see John B. Jackson (Athens) to Hay, March 21, 1903, FRUS, 1903, 702–703; and Wilson to Hay, November 15, 1903, ibid., 706–707.
16. Memorial quoted in Clymer, John Hay, 81.
1. For muscular Christianity, see Putney, Muscular Christianity; Kimmel, Manhood in America, 175–181; and Prothero, American Jesus, 87–97 (Episcopal priest quoted on 89). For the revival of Puritan ideas, see Matarese, American Foreign Policy and the Utopian Imagination, 20–22 (Denver writer quoted on 21); and McKenna, Puritan Origins, 176–180. For Anglo-Saxonism, see Anderson, Race and Rapprochement; Hunt, Ideology and U.S. Foreign Policy, 77–81; Perkins, Great Rapprochement, 76–84; and, in deeper historical perspective, Horsman, Race and Manifest Destiny.
2. Jessup, Elihu Root, vol. 1, 39–40, 57–60 (quoted on 58); Zimmermann, First Great Triumph, 123–148. On the burned-over district, see Barkun, Crucible of the Millennium; and Wellman, Grass Roots Reform.
3. On Mahan’s theory of sea power from a variety of perspectives, see Livezey, Mahan on Sea Power; Kennedy, Rise and Fall of British Naval Mastery, 1–9; Seager, Alfred Thayer Mahan, 191–218; Sumida, Inventing Grand Strategy and Teaching Command; and Zimmermann, First Great Triumph, 85–122.
4. Mahan to Silas McBee, September 1899, Letters and Papers of Alfred Thayer Mahan, vol. 2, 661. For Mahan’s integration of religion and history, see Seager, Alfred Thayer Mahan, 64–80, 574–581; Livezey, Mahan on Sea Power; Sumida, Inventing Grand Strategy and Teaching Command, 76–79.
5. Mahan to the Editor of the New York Times, August 14, 1914, Letters and Papers of Alfred Thayer Mahan, vol. 3, 539; Mahan to Ellen Evans Mahan, January 28, 1894, ibid., vol. 2, 218. On the mission school, see Taylor, Life of Admiral Mahan, 264.
6. Marks, “Morality as a Drive Wheel,” 44, 47; Smith, Faith and the Presidency, 130–138 (quoted on 134); Hawley, Theodore Roosevelt, 13–18, 73.
7. “A Confession of Faith,” Chicago, August 6, 1912, in Roosevelt, Progressive Principles, 173. On Roosevelt’s domestic Progressivism as president and candidate in 1912, see Cooper, Warrior and the Priest, 76–86, 189–191, 216–218.
8. Marks, “Morality as a Drive Wheel”; Ninkovich, “Theodore Roosevelt”; “We cannot help playing” quoted in Cooper, Warrior and the Priest, 112; Roosevelt to Mott, October 12, 1908, Mott papers, Box 76, Folder 1383, YDS.
9. For a succinct overview, see Herring, From Colony to Superpower, 309–319. On the history and historiography of the war, see Pérez, War of 1898. Especially good on the psychological and ideological causes of the U.S. decision to go to war is Ninkovich, United States and Imperialism, 9–30. On international progressivism as a form of imperialism, see also Pérez, Cuba in the American Imagination.
10. Clebsch, “Christian Interpretations.”
11. On the role of religious newspapers, see Pratt, Expansionists of 1898, 279–316. Congregationalist quoted in Healy, US Expansionism, 134; California Christian Advocate quoted in MacKenzie, Robe and the Sword, 72; Methodist Review quoted in Varg, Missionaries, Chinese, and Diplomats, 82; Evangelist quoted in Handy, Undermined Establishment, 78.
12. Dorn, Washington Gladden, 407–409 (quoted on 408, 409). For the WCTU and CRTU, see Tyrrell, Woman’s World/Woman’s Empire, 176, 183; and Hoganson, Fighting for American Manhood, 18–19, 33–34, 58, 60, 125. For Allen, see McDowell, Social Gospel in the South, 73. For Rauschenbusch, see Evans, Kingdom Is Always but Coming, 139.
13. Brown, Lyman Abbott, 161–169 (quoted on 168).
14. Kazin, Godly Hero, 7–8, 86–89, 123–127.
15. Ahlstrom, Religious History of the American People, 878.
16. On the evolution of Methodism, see Norwood, Story of American Methodism, 239–354. For its role in the origins of Pentecostalism, see Blumhofer, Restoring the Faith, 26–29; and Wacker, Heaven Below, 2–6.
17. MacKenzie, Robe and the Sword; Shankman, “Southern Methodist Newspapers.” For a good discussion of the initial ambivalence of some clergy, see Hudson, “Protestant Clergy Debate,” 110–113.
18. “The President’s Message,” NYT, April 12, 1898, 1. For congressional fury, see “An Angry Congress,” ibid.
19. For Catholics on the Maine, see Handy, Undermined Establishment, 78–79.
20. Cross, Emergence of Liberal Catholicism; Gillis, Roman Catholicism in America, 65–67.
21. For the peace mission and Ireland’s views on the war, see Offner, “Washington Mission”; Moynihan, Life of Archbishop John Ireland, 162–176; and O’Connell, John Ireland, 444–454. Ireland and Knights of Columbus quoted in Marty, Modern American Religion, vol. 1, 307; Fitzgerald quoted in Hoganson, Fighting for American Manhood, 81. On immigrants, see Jacobson, Special Sorrows, 141–176.
22. Quinn, “Mormon Church and the Spanish-American War”; Arrington and Bitton, Mormon Experience, 251.
23. Casualty figures from Ninkovich, United States and Imperialism, 27.
24. On the war, see esp. Welch, Response to Imperialism, 24–42; and Linn, Philippine War.
25. On arbitration, see May, Imperial Democracy, 62–65.
26. Woolsey, Peaceful Mission of America, 6, 7–8. On the WCTU, see Tyrrell, Woman’s World/Woman’s Empire, 184–186; and Hoganson, Fighting for American Manhood, 177–178, 190.
27. Little, Disciples of Liberty, 113–134; Gatewood, Black Americans and the White Man’s Burden, 162, 200, 235–236; Litwack, Trouble in Mind, 463–470.
28. Simmons, History of Our Philippine Relations, 10–11. For a balanced discussion of mainline anti-imperialism and its critics, see Welch, Response to Imperialism, 94–100.
29. Jacobson, Special Sorrows, 177–216; Dries, Missionary Movement in American Catholic History, 63–64. Spalding quoted in Marty, Modern American Religion, vol. 1, 187.
30. Atkinson, Criminal Aggression, 13; Hoar, Speech of Hon. George F. Hoar, 16; Hoar, “nature’s God,” quoted in Beisner, Twelve Against Empire, 161. On Hoar’s faith as an influence on his politics, see Welch, George Frisbie Hoar, 313–315.
31. Tillman quoted in Fairclough, Better Day Coming, 13. For Hoar’s lament, see Hoar, Autobiography of Seventy Years, 305. On imperialism as a facilitator of segregation, see Woodward, Strange Career of Jim Crow, 72–74.
32. Quoted in Hoganson, Fighting for American Manhood, 184. On the racism of anti-imperialism, see Love, Race Over Empire.
33. Coletta, William Jennings Bryan, vol. 1, 233–237; Kazin, Godley Hero, 89–108. On the politics of imperialism, see Miller, “Benevolent Assimilation,” 13–30, 129–149; and Brands, Bound to Empire, 20–35.
34. “Mr. Bryan’s Speech of Acceptance,” NYT, August 9, 1900, 1. For McKinley’s resentment, see Kazin, Godley Hero, 104.
35. Brands, Bound to Empire, 60–84.
36. Miller, “Benevolent Assimilation,” 17–19. For the poll, see Young, Rhetoric of Empire, 142–143. Broadside quoted in Tompkins, Anti-Imperialism in the United States, 11.
37. Clymer, Protestant Missionaries in the Philippines, 93–113, 153–173; Williams, “United States Indian Policy”; YMCA newsletter, “First Impressions of the Philippines,” April 10, 1911, Eddy papers, Box 3, Folder 59, YDS.
38. Parker, Kingdom of Character, 114–115; Hopkins, John R. Mott, 309–310, 320; Strong, Expansion Under New-World Conditions, 301; Varg, Missionaries, Chinese, and Diplomats, 83.
39. Dorn, Washington Gladden, 412–415; Minus, Walter Rauschenbusch, 107–109; Evans, Kingdom Is Always but Coming, 139. Gladden quoted in Hudson, “Protestant Clergy Debate,” 116; Abbott quoted in Brown, Lyman Abbott, 172. On the WCTU, see Bordin, Woman and Temperance, 155; Tyrrell, Woman’s World/Woman’s Empire, 213–217; and Foster, Moral Reconstruction, 146–147.
40. Anti-imperialist quoted in Tompkins, Anti-Imperialism in the United States, 12; Strong, Expansion Under New-World Conditions, 287, 292; Lawrence, “Sermon Preached at the Old South Church,” 379; “Proceedings of the Church Club of New York in the Matter of the Establishment of an Episcopate in the Philippine Islands,” March 27, 1901, RG76, Records of the Domestic and Foreign Missionary Society: Philippine Mission Records, Box 32, Folder 2, NAEC.
41. Quoted in Healy, US Expansionism, 131. On Platt’s religion, see Coolidge, Old-Fashioned Senator, 591.
42. Quoted in Miller, “Benevolent Assimilation,” 27.
43. Strong, Expansion Under New-World Conditions, 288–289, 297; Gladden quoted in Dorn, Washington Gladden, 412.
44. Hoganson, Fighting for American Manhood, 192–193; Roosevelt quoted in Ninkovich, United States and Imperialism, 52.
45. Kramer, Blood of Government, 161–162, 192, 208–214; Clymer, “Humanitarian Imperialism.” On the “hierarchy of race,” see Hunt, Ideology and U.S. Foreign Policy, 46–91.
46. Quoted in Ninkovich, United States and Imperialism, 57. The best detailed examination of these issues is found in Reuter, Catholic Influence on American Colonial Policies.
47. Quoted in Smith, Faith and the Presidency, 143. On Roosevelt and American Catholics, see Reuter, Catholic Influence on American Colonial Policies, 106–136; and Miller, “Benevolent Assimilation,” 136–140.
48. Alvarez, “Purely a Business Matter”; Ninkovich, United States and Imperialism, 62–64; Handy, Undermined Establishment, 86–88; Kramer, Blood of Government, 357–360; Reuter, “William Howard Taft” (Vatican quoted on 117); Stanley, Nation in the Making, 82, 185–187. On Taft in the Philippines, see also Anderson, William Howard Taft, 66–78. On Filipino religion, see Gowing, “Disentanglement of Church and State”; Clifford, “Iglesia Filipina Independiente,” 224–248; and Deats, Nationalism and Christianity in the Philippines.
49. Dewey quoted in Hixson, Myth of American Diplomacy, 97; Tribune quoted in Hoganson, Fighting for American Manhood, 175; Taft quoted in Varg, Missionaries, Chinese, and Diplomats, 80.
50. For “doubtful,” see Mahan to Henry Cabot Lodge, July 27, 1898, Letters and Papers of Alfred Thayer Mahan, vol. 2, 569; for “calling of God,” see Mahan to McBee, September 1899, ibid., 662; for “Personal Will,” see Livezey, Mahan on Sea Power, 26; for “Deus vult,” see Mahan to George Sydenham Clarke, August 17, 1898, Letters and Papers of Alfred Thayer Mahan, vol. 2, 580.
51. Braeman, Albert J. Beveridge, 6–13 (quoted on 9).
52. Beveridge quoted, respectively, in Braeman, Albert J. Beveridge, 23; and Brewer, Why America Fights, 14.
53. First McKinley quote and newspaper quote are from, respectively, Miller, “Benevolent Assimilation,” ii, 17; other two McKinley quotes are from Ninkovich, United States and Imperialism, 38.
1. “Clergymen Call for World Peace,” NYT, December 28, 1914, 1, 3; Coffin, Preparedness of a Christian Nation, 2, 12. Background details from Hutchison, Modernist Impulse, 234–236. Reverend William Sloane Coffin’s protest against Vietnam is examined in a later chapter, but see also Goldstein, William Sloane Coffin, Jr. However, it does not seem that William was much influenced or guided by his uncle’s pre-1917 antiwar dissent.
2. Sermon, January 7, 1917, and sermon, “The Cross as a Disclosure,” March 25, 1917, both in Coffin papers, Box 7, Folder 117, UTS.
3. Easter Day sermon, April 8, 1917, ibid.
4. “General War-Time Commission of the Churches,” War-Time Agencies of the Churches, 150; Abrams, Preachers Present Arms, 172; sermon, November 10, 1918, and sermon, November 17, 1918, both in Coffin papers, Box 7, Folder 120, UTS.
5. “Nations Catholics Unite in Peace Plea,” NYT, March 22, 1915, 5; “See Happier World in Year to Come,” NYT, December 31, 1916, 7; “Mgr. Lavelle Blesses Service Flag,” NYT, November 17, 1917, 13; “Lavelle Says Back Wilson,” NYT, May 7, 1918, 12. For Farley, see Abrams, Preachers Present Arms, 23, 73, 129.
6. Wise to Wilson, November 12, 1915, in Voss, Stephen S. Wise, 68; “served the interests” quoted in Abrams, Preachers Present Arms, 180; Urofsky, Voice That Spoke for Justice, 134–151; Shapiro, Reform Rabbi in the Progressive Era, 326–357.
7. There are only a handful of good studies that focus exclusively on the role of American religion during World War I. See especially Piper, American Churches in World War I; McKeown, War and Welfare; Schweitzer, Cross and the Trenches; Gamble, War for Righteousness; and Ebel, Faith in the Fight. On the role of religion in wartime Europe, see Becker, War and Faith; and Hoover, God, Germany and Britain in the Great War. In Canada, see Vance, Death So Noble, esp. 35–72. The “Protestant-Catholic-Jew” formula for examining “the American Creed” was first set forth in Herberg, Protestant, Catholic, Jew.
1. Gamble, War for Righteousness, 25–67, esp. 30–31; Chatfield, For Peace and Justice, 15–41 (esp. 30–31); Marchand, American Peace Movement, esp. 323–342. On Carnegie’s humanism and radical ecumenism, see Wall, Carnegie, 367–369, 971, 1009–1011. On the secular peace movement before 1914, see Patterson, Toward a Warless World.
2. Chatfield, For Peace and Justice, 19–21, 32–33; Marchand, American Peace Movement, 350–359, 364, 370–376; Early, World Without War, 14.
3. Chatfield, For Peace and Justice, 17, 35, 43–49, 62–63; Hentoff, Peace Agitator, 42–46; Robinson, Abraham Went Out, 19–31.
4. Thomas oral history, 22–23, OHRO; Swanberg, Norman Thomas, 10–15, 23–28, 43–75. On the mood at Union, see Handy, History of Union Theological Seminary, 139–144.
5. Farrell, Beloved Lady, 29–31, 34–35, 40 –42, 45–47, 60–70, 141, 199–200; Elshtain, Jane Addams, 72–76; Brown, Education of Jane Addams, 271–274; Chatfield, For Peace and Justice, 38–39.
6. Hopkins, John R. Mott, 439–446, 469–470 (quotations from 446).
7. Sermon, “Memorabilia for Year 1916,” Stocker sermons and manuscripts, Box 1, UVA.
8. Gladden, Recollections, 385; Dorn, Washington Gladden, 419–429; Hutchison, Modernist Impulse, 238–239.
9. “Extension of Remarks of Hon. Warren Worth Bailey,” including address by Martin Hardin, “Civilization at the Cross-Roads,” February 26, 1916, CR, vol. 53, 408–416.
10. Quoted in Wacker, Heaven Below, 238.
11. Niebuhr, “The Failure of German-Americanism,” Atlantic Monthly, July 1916, 13–18; Capozzola, Uncle Sam Wants You, 192–195; Conley, “Priest, Chaplain, Soldier.”
12. Rauschenbusch to Hall, November 10, 1914, Rauschenbusch papers, Box 1, UTS; Wendte to Rauschenbusch, September 25, 1915, Rauschenbusch papers, Box 29, ABHS. On Rauschenbusch’s anguish during the war, see Minus, Walter Rauschenbusch, 177–189; and Evans, Kingdom Is Always but Coming, 263–311. For Hall’s dismissal, see Hutchison, Modernist Impulse, 238–239; and Handy, History of Union Theological Seminary, 140–142.
13. Miller, Emigrants and Exiles, 533–535, 542–543; Jacobson, Special Sorrows, 223–226; McKeown, War and Welfare, 36–40 (Gibbons quoted on 38).
14. Thompson, Woodrow Wilson, 107–122.
15. “An Address in Philadelphia to Newly Naturalized Citizens,” May 10, 1915, PWW, vol. 33, 149.
16. Marsden, Fundamentalism and American Culture, 132–135; Kazin, Godly Hero, 215–242. On the Peace Treaties, see Coletta, William Jennings Bryan, vol. 2, 239–249. For “missionary isolationism,” see Clements, William Jennings Bryan, esp. 57–58 for a definition.
17. Medford and Parkhurst sermons quoted in Sixty American Opinions on the War, 118–121; Walton to Rauschenbusch, September 9, 1915, Rauschenbusch papers, Box 29, ABHS; Stimson, While the War Rages, 12–13.
18. Roosevelt, Fear God and Take Your Own Part, 15, 17, 28, 21, 26, 57.
19. Cooper, Woodrow Wilson, 4; Gamble, War for Righteousness; Abbott, Twentieth Century Crusade. Most historians forget that Wilson was not immune to the constraints of politics. For an insightful reminder, see Thompson, Woodrow Wilson.
20. Strong, Our Country, 13–15; Fosdick, Challenge of the Present Crisis, 10. On the effects of interconnectedness, see Ninkovich, Modernity and Power, xi-xviii, 1–68; and, in terms of religion and foreign policy, Preston, “Religion and World Order at the Dawn of the American Century.”
21. “International Friendship in the Church: Program and Methods,” October 1–4, 1917, 8–9, FCC Records, RG18, Box 44, Folder 11, PHS.
22. Wiebe, Search for Order; speech notes, “Interdenominational,” ca. 1907, Barbour papers, Box 1, ABHS. On ecumenism and the founding of the FCC, see Hutchison, We Are Not Divided; Lee, Social Sources of Church Unity; Smith, “Ecclesiastical Politics”; Marchand, American Peace Movement, 342–347; and Schneider, “Voice of Many Waters.”
23. Rauschenbusch, Dare We Be Christians?, 17, 43; Rauschenbusch, Theology for the Social Gospel, 4–5, 64–66, 255–256.
24. Eddy, Suffering and the War, 85; Brown, “Devotional Meeting, Part IV: Intercession for Those for Whom We Are Working,” William Adams Brown papers, Series 3, Box 3, Folder 12, UTS. On the pre-1917 cult of sacrifice and suffering among the mainline clergy, see Marchand, American Peace Movement, 362–363.
1. “An Address to a Joint Session of Congress,” April 2, 1917, PWW, vol. 41, 520, 525, 527.
2. “Remarks to Confederate Veterans in Washington,” June 5, 1917, PWW, vol. 42, 452–453.
3. “Preface” in Batten, Moral Meaning of the War. For Wilson’s call to the clergy, see “An Appeal to the American People,” April 15, 1917, PWW, vol. 42, 75.
4. Marsden, Fundamentalism and American Culture, 141–153; Wacker, Heaven Below, 240–250.
5. Both quotations from Ruotsila, Origins of Christian Anti-Internationalism, 36, 61.
6. Quoted in Abrams, Preachers Present Arms, 79, 106. My portrait of Sunday is based on Dorsett, Billy Sunday, esp. 17–32, 70 –74.
7. Sermon, “Is God on the Side of Autocracy or Democracy in this War?” ca. 1917, John Roach Straton papers, Box 10, ABHS.
8. Straton, letter to the editor of the New York Times, ca. 1918, John Roach Straton papers, Box 10, ABHS; Torrey, What the War Teaches, 8, 9, 11.
9. Torrey, What the War Teaches, 2–8. On premillennialist wartime excitement, see also Sandeen, Roots of Fundamentalism, 233–234; Weber, Living in the Shadow of the Second Coming, 105–117; Marsden, Fundamentalism and American Culture, 143–144, 150–152; and Boyer, When Time Shall Be No More, 93, 100–104.
10. Merkley, Politics of Christian Zionism, 75–94 (Brandeis to Blackstone quoted on 89); Ariel, On Behalf of Israel, 46–48, 85–93; Oren, Power, Faith, and Fantasy, 359.
11. Weber, Living in the Shadow of the Second Coming, 117–122; Marsden, Fundamentalism and American Culture, 141–153; Carpenter, Revive Us Again, 41, 102.
12. Chatfield, For Peace and Justice, 25–30, 43–49, 62–63; Marchand, American Peace Movement, 376–380; Dunham, “The Narrative of a Conscientious Objector” (1921), in Brock, ed., “These Strange Criminals,” 128–148; Norman Thomas, “The Religion of Free Men,” New Republic, May 26, 1917, 109–111. On Wilson and the church service, see diary entry, June 3, 1917, in Cronon, ed., Cabinet Diaries of Josephus Daniels, 161.
13. Chambers, To Raise an Army, 205–222; Chatfield, For Peace and Justice, 50–55; Capozzola, Uncle Sam Wants You, 56–64, 71 (figures from 56); Early, World Without War, 93, 216n7; Forbes, Quaker Star under Seven Flags. On Mennonites, see Homan, American Mennonites and the Great War; and Bush, Two Kingdoms, Two Loyalties, 27–32. On the shared Quaker activism of Hoover and the AFSC, see Burner, “Quaker Faith of Herbert Hoover,” 60; and Fausold, Presidency of Herbert C. Hoover, 11.
14. Chatfield, For Peace and Justice, 40; Bacon, Non-Resistance: Christian or Pagan?, 5, 28.
15. Fosdick, Challenge of the Present Crisis, 26; Coffin, In a Day of Social Rebuilding, 14; Mathews, Patriotism and Religion, 99; Mathews, “Religion and War”; Mathews to Page quoted in Chatfield, For Peace and Justice, 46.
16. Hardin to Julia Hardin, March 17, 1918, Hardin papers, Box 1, Folder 1, Cornell; Eddy, Right to Fight, 4; Hopkins, John R. Mott, 470–471, 528–530; Lynch, President Wilson and the Moral Aims of the War; Dorn, Washington Gladden, 429–436. On Bryan, see Levine, Defender of the Faith, 90–94; and Kazin, Godly Hero, 254–255.
17. Sermon by John D. Reid, “The Defence of Our Heritage,” Unity Church, St. Paul, Minnesota, in Soul of America in Time of War, 54; Speer, Christian Man, the Church, and the War, 15. On Southern Methodists, see McDowell, Social Gospel in the South, 73–77.
18. Sermon, February 18, 1917, Hussey papers, Box 10, Folder 3, AHTL.
19. Quoted in Abrams, Preachers Present Arms, 110. For the Speer incident, see Piper American Churches in World War I, 49–61.
20. Mathews, Patriotism and Religion, 4, 70, 124.
21. Magee, What the World Should Be, 73–74.
22. “A Brief Historical Statement of the Enlistments and Activities of the Second Presbyterian Church, Richmond, Virginia, in the World War of 1917–8,” December 21, 1920, Cecil papers, Box 1, UVA.
23. Estimates of FCC membership from Noll, History of Christianity in the United States and Canada, 307; and Handy, Undermined Establishment, 166–167.
24. Marchand, American Peace Movement, 339–355; Meyer, Protestant Search for Political Realism, 46–48. On ecumenism as an expression of the Social Gospel, see Carter, Decline and Revival of the Social Gospel; Curtis, Consuming Faith; Dorrien, Making of American Liberal Theology; and Rossinow, “Radicalization of the Social Gospel,” 64, 69–73.
25. “Peace Prayers Sent to 130,000 Churches,” NYT, September 20, 1914, 15; Shailer Mathews, et al., to Wilson, August 18, 1914, PWW, vol. 30, 396–398; Macfarland, Across the Years, 101–112. Generally on FCC activities, see Gamble, War for Righteousness, 55–63, 84–94, 127–132.
26. Newton Diehl Baker to Wilson, March 7, 1917, and enclosed telegram, Worth M. Tippy to Wilson, March 7, 1917, PWW, vol. 41, 353; Piper, American Churches in World War I, 35–48, 179–186.
27. Marchand, American Peace Movement, 351–354, 366–370; Early, World Without War, 19; Gamble, War for Righteousness, 192–193; Lynch, President Wilson and the Moral Aims of the War, 7.
28. Bryan to Mott, May 3, 1915, Box 12, Folder 220, Mott papers, YDS; Lansing to Mott, November 8, 1917, Mott papers, Box 48, Folder 900, YDS; “Somewhere in France,” ca. 1917, Eddy papers, Box 3, Folder 64, YDS. See also Eddy, With Our Soldiers in France. On Bolshevism, see Frank L. Polk to Paris, December 24, 1918, FRUS: Paris Peace Conference, vol. II, 477–478. For Mott, the Y, and Wilson, see Hopkins, John R. Mott, 450–452, 474–475, 522–528, 532–535; General Order No. 57 quoted in Piper, American Churches in World War I, 19.
29. Mott to E. C. Carter, August 13, 1914, Mott papers, Box 14, Folder 259, YDS; Murray, Call of a World Task in War Time, ix; Christian Students and World Problems, iii. On the decline of the SVM, see Showalter, End of a Crusade; and Parker, Kingdom of Character.
30. Marchand, American Peace Movement, 355–357; Piper, American Churches in World War I, 43, 77–83; Hopkins, John R. Mott, 535–544.
31. All quoted in Piper, American Churches in World War I, 21–22.
32. Ibid., 23–30. On the diversity and tensions within American Catholicism, see Greeley, American Catholic, 33–34; Orsi, Madonna of 115th Street, 16–17, 56–57; Dolan, In Search of an American Catholicism, 71–126; and O’Toole, Faithful, 94–144.
33. Miller, Emigrants and Exiles, 370–371, 569–571; McKeown, War and Welfare, 35, 40–45.
34. Quoted in McKeown, War and Welfare, 49. On Ireland, see O’Connell, John Ireland, 517; and Moynihan, Life of Archbishop John Ireland, 267–272.
35. Piper, American Churches in World War I, 88–106 (Burke quoted on 96); McKeown, War and Welfare, 45–53; “Day of Celebration in Churches Here,” NYT, October 29, 1917, 13.
36. Piper, American Churches in World War I, 100–103, 178; Pollard, Unknown Pope; D’Agostino, Rome in America, 111–120.
37. Piper, American Churches in World War I, 5–6, 69–87; McKeown, War and Welfare, 71–126.
38. Urofsky, American Zionism from Herzl to the Holocaust, 5–116; Raider, Emergence of American Zionism.
39. Marchand, American Peace Movement, 298–303; Sterba, Good Americans, 155–163.
40. Wise to Maurice Leon, November 18, 1914, in Voss, Stephen S. Wise, 62; Adler to Schechter, March 4, 1915, Cyrus Adler: Selected Letters, vol. 1, 265.
41. Oren, Power, Faith, and Fantasy, 363; Schlossberg quoted in Sterba, Good Americans, 165; “Jewish Welfare Board, United States Army and Navy,” War-Time Agencies of the Churches, 50–52; Adler, I Have Considered the Days, 300.
42. Sterba, Good Americans, 169–172.
43. Wise to Israel Zangwill, April 29, 1917, in Voss, Stephen S. Wise, 78; Marx to Harry Friedenwald, November 8, 1918, Friedenwald papers, Box 2, Vol. I, JTS.
1. “An Address to a Joint Session of Congress,” January 8, 1918, PWW, vol. 45, 534–539; Clemenceau quoted in Magee, What the World Should Be, 98.
2. Mott quoted in Hopkins, John R. Mott, 531; Mathews, Spiritual Interpretation of History, vii; Fosdick, Challenge of the Present Crisis, 20–22; Mathews on nonresistance quoted in Gamble, War for Righteousness, 75; FCC quoted in Marchand, American Peace Movement, 368. Mathews linked the purposes of the Great War to emancipation in the Civil War in his Patriotism and Religion, 75.
3. Curti, American Peace Crusade, 56, 143–165; Lynch quoted in Gamble, War for Righteousness, 77; “With New Year’s Greetings from Andrew Carnegie: War Abolished—Peace Enthroned,” January 1915, Mott papers, Box 14, Folder 255, YDS.
4. Lyon, Christian Equivalent of War, 34–36, 50–51; “The Church and Permanent Peace,” 1916, FCC Records, RG18, Box 44, Folder 11, PHS.
5. Ainslie, Towards Christian Unity, 92; Gladden, Ruling Ideas of the Present Age, 71; Rauschenbusch, Theology for the Social Gospel, 111; One Hundred Fifteenth Annual Report of the Board of Home Missions of the Presbyterian Church, 5–6; Journal of the General Convention of the Protestant Episcopal Church in the United States of America, 1916, 55; Floyd L. Carr, “The World-Task” (Boston, ca. 1918), Pamphlet Collection, Box 77, ABHS. For the Jim Crow clergy, see Harrington, “Unification and the Negro.” However, among nonecumenists, even Social Gospelers, Southern ministers’ views on desegregation were generally mixed, and often hostile. For an overview, see Harvey, Freedom’s Coming, 47–106.
6. “Kingdom of God on earth” quoted in Marty, Modern American Religion, vol. 2, 230; “The Heroism of Faith,” September 15, 1918, Denison papers, RG30, Box 195, YDS.
7. Gamble, War of Righteousness, 89–95.
8. Gordon to Sidney L. Gulick, April 1, 1919, FCC Records, RG18, Box 44, Folder 10, PHS; Marchand, American Peace Movement, 180, 361–370; Gamble, War of Righteousness, 231, 239–243.
9. “Movements of Promise Within Organized Christianity,” ca. 1918, William Adams Brown papers, Series 3, Box 3, Folder 12, UTS; Ashworth, “Christian Union After the War”; Speer, War and the Religious Outlook, 26–27; Hopkins, “Federated Church the Next Great Forward Movement.” On Korea, see Lee, “A Political Factor in the Rise of Protestantism in Korea”; and Manela, Wilsonian Moment, 197–199, 211.
10. “United Churches of the World,” quoted in Marchand, American Peace Movement, 355; Rockefeller speech to the Civic and Commercial Club of Denver, “Brotherhood of Men and Nations,” June 13, 1918, Mott Papers, Box 76, Folder 1380, YDS; William G. Shepherd, “An Outside View of the Interchurch,” Christian Herald, May 22, 1920, 613; Curtis Lee Laws, “Baptists and the Interchurch Movement,” Christian Index, June 24, 1920, 20; “Rockefeller Drops Baptist Gifts in Favor of Non-Sectarian Aid,” NYT, November 15, 1935. On the Interchurch Movement, see also Marty, Modern American Religion, vol. 1, 278–281; and Harvey, “John D. Rockefeller, Jr.”
11. Notes of a meeting, and appendix 1, May 1, 1919, FRUS: Paris Peace Conference, vol. V, 393–399; notes of a meeting, May 17, 1919, ibid., 679–680; notes of a meeting, June 6, 1919, FRUS: Paris Peace Conference, vol. VI, 221–222; Edward M. House to Wilson, May 22, 1919, FRUS: Paris Peace Conference, vol. XI, 586. For the final treaty, see Treaty of Versailles, FRUS: Paris Peace Conference, vol. XIII, 230; and Treaty with Poland, ibid., 798–801. On Wilson and religious liberty at Paris, see also Knock, To End All Wars, 206.
12. Hopkins, John R. Mott, 561; “War Council of the Home Mission Board of the Southern Baptist Convention,” War-Time Agencies of the Churches, 18–19; FCC Administrative Committee resolution of February 13, 1919, in Macfarland to Alfred Williams Anthony, March 10, 1919, FCC Records, RG18, Box 18, Folder 15, PHS; Taft, “The League of Nations and Religious Liberty,” December 17, 1918, and “Religious and Racial Freedom,” April 24, 1919, both in Collected Works of William Howard Taft, vol. 7, 154–156, 283–284. On the internationalism of Southern Baptists in the World War I era, see Queen, In the South the Baptists Are the Center of Gravity, 59–60; and Flynt, Alabama Baptists, 298–302. Yet it is important to remember that there was a large discrepancy of opinion between the clergy and the much more conservative laity. See Harvey, Redeeming the South, 222.
13. Baker to Wilson, January 15, 1924, PWW, vol. 68, 531; “Wilson Thanks Churches,” NYT, February 25, 1919, 3; Joseph P. Tumulty to Wilson, October 6, 1920, PWW, vol. 66, 201–204. For similar but nonetheless distinct outlines of the argument that Wilson’s religious faith and background offer a blueprint for understanding his diplomacy, see Link, Higher Realism, 3–20; Mulder, Woodrow Wilson, esp. 269–277; Mulder, “Gospel of Order”; Crunden, Ministers of Reform, 225–273; Gamble, War for Righteousness, 224–231; Magee, What the World Should Be; and Benbow, Leading Them to the Promised Land. This is not to say, of course, that religion was the sole or even predominant influence on Wilson’s diplomatic thought. For other, mostly secular influences, see Thompson, Reformers and War, 177–258; Knock, To End All Wars; and Kennedy, Will to Believe.
14. “There is a spirit that rules us” in “A Campaign Address in Jersey City, New Jersey,” May 25, 1912, PWW, vol. 24, 443; “If I were not a Christian” quoted in Grayson, Woodrow Wilson, 106; “I believe that God” in “A Campaign Address in Jersey City,” May 25, 1912, PWW, vol. 24, 443.
15. The most thorough discussions of Wilson and covenant theology are found throughout Mulder, Woodrow Wilson, esp. 7–8, 18–19, 34–37, 56–58, 80, 99, 103–107, 124–125, 139, 160–161, 191, 269–277; Magee, What the World Should Be, esp. 14–15, 17–19, 29–30, 33, 74, 100, 105–106, 110; and Benbow, Leading Them to the Promised Land.
16. Except for Houston, Keynes, and Clemenceau, all quotes are from Crunden, Ministers of Reform, 229, 229, 251, 252. For the others, see Houston, Eight Years with Wilson’s Cabinet, vol. 2, 159; Keynes, Economic Consequences of the Peace, 38, 46; and Clemenceau quoted in Magee, What the World Should Be, 98.
17. Diary entry, July 9, 1918, in Cronon, ed., Cabinet Diaries of Josephus Daniels, 318; biographer is Mulder, Woodrow Wilson, 180; “A Fourth of July Address,” Philadelphia, July 4, 1914, PWW, vol. 30, 254.
18. “Each man a magistracy” and student are from Mulder, Woodrow Wilson, 104, 124.
19. Wilson in 1900 quoted in Mulder, Woodrow Wilson, 151; Wilson to Mott, May 1, 1908, Mott papers, Box 100, Folder 1760, YDS; “A Religious Address at McCormick Theological Seminary,” Chicago, November 2, 1909, PWW, vol. 19, 472. On Wilson’s support for missions, see Varg, Missionaries, Chinese, and Diplomats, 80–81; and Smith, Faith and the Presidency, 167–168. More generally on Wilson’s religion and progressivism, see Link, Wilson, vol. 1, 321–322; Link, Wilson, vol. 3, 64–66; and Crunden, Ministers of Reform, 39.
20. Wilson, notes for an address at Carnegie Hall, “Mediation of Youth in Christian Progress,” November 19, 1905, PWW, vol. 16, 227; “Two News Reports of an Address in New York on Youth and Christian Progress,” November 20, 1905, ibid., 228–229; Wilson address to the FCC, Columbus, Ohio, December 10, 1915, ibid., vol. 35, 330, 332. For “spiritual mediation,” see Magee, What the World Should Be, 76, 82.
21. Quoted in Mulder, Woodrow Wilson, 270.
22. “An Address at Mansion House,” London, December 28, 1918, PWW, vol. 53, 534; “An Address in Free Trade Hall,” Manchester, December 30, 1918, ibid., 552. For Smuts, see Crunden, Ministers of Reform, 258. On the Covenant, see also Mulder, Woodrow Wilson, 269–277; and Magee, What the World Should Be, 14–15, 100, 105–106, 110.
23. Kerby quoted in Piper, American Churches in World War I, 104; Baroway to his family, November 14, 1918, Baroway papers, Box 1, JTS.
24. Maxwell, “Irish-Americans and the Fight for Treaty Ratification”; Jacobson, Special Sorrows, 226–227; O’Connell quoted in McKeown, War and Welfare, 52–53; Wise to Wilson, April 11, 1917, in Voss, Stephen S. Wise, 76–77; McKillen, “Ethnicity, Class, and Wilsonian Internationalism Reconsidered.”
25. Oren, Power, Faith, and Fantasy, 351–366; Berkowitz, Western Jewry and the Zionist Project, 40–45.
26. Brandeis to Bernard Flexner, February 12, 1919, Letters of Louis D. Brandeis, vol. 4, 381; meeting notes, May 17, 1919, FRUS: Paris Peace Conference, vol. V, 680; Gelfand, Inquiry, 248; Wise, Challenging Years, 182–201 (for the letter, see 194). On Progressivism as central to Brandeis’s Zionism, see Urofsky, Mind of One Piece, 95–115. For Lansing’s unease with Wilson’s Zionism, see minutes of daily meeting, April 12, 1919, FRUS: Paris Peace Conference, vol. XI, 150; and Lansing, Peace Negotiations, 97–98.
27. “From World War to World Brotherhood,” Federal Council Bulletin, June 1919, 91; Cooper, Breaking the Heart of the World, 302–303; Gamble, War for Righteousness, 228–231. For the best account of the Paris Peace Conference, including Wilson’s role, see MacMillan, Paris 1919.
28. Brandeis to Federation of English Zionists, May 8, 1919, Letters of Louis D. Brandeis, vol. 4, 393; Wilson quoted in Wise, Challenging Years, 186–187; Grabill, Protestant Diplomacy, 155–185; MacMillan, Paris 1919, 410–423, 434–436, 444; Oren, Power, Faith, and Fantasy, 376–393.
29. Cooper, “A Friend in Power?”; Hovannisian, “Armenian Genocide,” 260–261; Duff, “Versailles Treaty and the Irish-Americans.”
30. Church service program, Calvary Baptist Church, New York, June 8, 1924, Straton papers, Box 7, ABHS; Horsh, Modern Religious Liberalism, 196–198. For opposition to the IWM, see I. M. Haldeman, “Why I Am Opposed to the Interchurch World Movement,” in Carpenter, ed., Fundamentalist-Modernist Conflict. On these elements within fundamentalist theology, see Ammerman, “North American Protestant Fundamentalism,” esp. 14–16; and Marsden, Understanding Fundamentalism and Evangelicalism, esp. 67–68.
31. Gray, “The Proposed World Church Union—Is It of God or Man?” May 1919, in Carpenter, ed., Fundamentalist-Modernist Conflict; Sandeen, Roots of Fundamentalism, 235; Marsden, Fundamentalism and American Culture, 154–156 (Gray quoted on 154).
32. Gaebelein and Massee quoted in Ruotsila, Origins of Christian AntiInternationalism, 38–39.
33. Smith, Robert Lansing, 5–6, 147–148; Crunden, Ministers of Reform, 231; Walworth, Wilson and His Peacemakers, 42–43, 109–110; Knock, To End All Wars, 205. Lansing defined his own faith in these terms: “I consider myself of the orthodox school which look upon the Bible as containing the history of the true religion, and of God’s relation to man, and which consider repentance toward God and belief in Jesus Christ to be the only means of salvation.” Quoted in Reed, Missionary Mind, 195.
1. Memcon, Henry-Haye and Hull, January 18, 1941, FRUS, 1941, vol. II: 102; Hull, Memoirs, vol. 1, 847.
2. Memcon, Henderson and Rajchman, February 29, 1940, FRUS, 1940, vol. II: 756; Leopold III to Roosevelt, in William C. Bullitt (Paris) to Hull, May 21, 1940, FRUS, 1940, vol. I: 204; René de Saint-Quentin to Hull, August 6, 1940, FRUS, 1940, vol. II: 538–540; Pétain to Roosevelt, August 27, 1940, ibid., 541; memcon, Welles and Henry-Haye, September 20, 1940, ibid., 549–550. However, some observers in 1940–41 doubted that Europe was on the brink of starvation, indeed, thought that it had more than enough resources to feed itself. See, for example, Brandt, “How Europe Is Fighting Famine.”
3. Aide-Mémoire, British Embassy in Washington to the Department of State, July 17, 1940, ibid., 537; Hull to U.S. Embassy in London, February 15, 1940, ibid., 753.
4. Hoover speech at Vassar College, November 15, 1940, and Collier’s article, November 23, 1940, both reprinted in Hoover, American Epic, vol. 4, 32–33. On Hoover and Quaker relief in Nazi-occupied Europe, see Schmitt, Quakers and Nazis, 176–177. On Quaker religion as a major source of Hoover’s outlook, see Houck, Rhetoric as Currency, 55–59; Fausold, Presidency of Herbert C. Hoover, 18–19, 244–245; Burner, “Quaker Faith of Herbert Hoover,” 60–63; and Burner, Herbert Hoover, 8–16, 253. On his relief efforts in World War II, see George, “Another Chance.”
5. Hull, Memoirs, vol. 1, 804; diary entry, December 7, 1939, Israel, War Diary of Breckenridge Long, 40; diary entry, December 1, 1940, Ickes, Secret Diary, vol. 3, 385.
6. “10,000 pulpits” from Medlicott, Economic Blockade, vol. 1, 576; “spiritual and moral forces” quoted in Hoover to William Barrow Pugh (Secretary of the Presbyterian Church USA), October 19, 1940, Coffin papers, Box 3, Folder 32, UTS; partial Committee membership list in Hoover, American Epic, vol. 4, 30. On Mooney, see Flynn, Roosevelt and Romanism, 79. On Mott, see Hoover to Mott, December 5, 1940, Mott papers, Box 42, Folder 766, YDS. On Poling, see Poling, Mine Eyes Have Seen, 179–193; Poling, presidential address to the International Society of Christian Endeavor, “Always—For Christ and the Church,” July 9, 1941, Pamphlets Collection, Box 134, ABHS; and Poling, Preacher Looks at War. On the Four Chaplains and the sinking of the Dorchester, see Morison, History of United States Naval Operations in World War II, vol. 1, 331–334.
7. James P. Alter to Coffin, October 23, 1940, Coffin papers, Box 3, Folder 32, UTS. For the FCC, see “What the Churches Are Doing About Relief Needs Abroad,” FCB, October 1940, 7–8. For Tittle, see Miller, How Shall They Hear, 437–438; and Marty, Modern American Religion, vol. 3, 30–31.
8. Tuttle, “Aid-to-the-Allies,” 844–846.
9. “15 Leaders Oppose Feeding of Europe,” NYT, October 6, 1940, 1; “Group Opposes Sending Food to Europeans,” WP, October 6, 1940, 12; “American Christians and the Feeding Proposals,” December 2, 1940, Coffin papers, Box 3, Folder 32, UTS; Cavert to Edwin M. Watson, Presidential Papers: OF 213, FDRL; Friedlander, Years of Extermination, 304; Wise, Challenging Years, 178.
10. For Coffin and the British, see Coffin to Lord Lothian, November 18, November 27, and December 4, 1940, all in Coffin papers, Box 3, Folder 32, UTS; and Coffin to Dean Acheson, November 18, 1941, Coffin papers, Box 3, Folder 35, UTS. For the Inter-Faith Committee, see “3 Faiths’ Leaders Plea for Britain,” NYT, December 29, 1940, 14; and “Jewish Congress Plans British Aid,” NYT, December 30, 1940, 9. For Wise, see “U.S. Jews Praised for Aid to Britain,” NYT, September 21, 1941, 38; “$18,000 in vitamins Donated to British,” NYT, March 1, 1941, 5; “$69,000 Contributed for British Children,” NYT, July 2, 1941, 5; “Mrs. Stephen S. Wise ‘Adopts’ British Boy,” NYT, June 23, 1941, 9.
1. The relevant literature is large, but for a recent account see Kosek, Acts of Conscience.
2. Brown, Statement of the Church Peace Union on the Japan-China Conflict, 3–4. See also, for example, Merrill, Christian Internationalism; and Tufts, “Religion’s Place in Securing a Better World-Order.” Though their perspectives are often sharply different, the best secondary accounts of the interwar peace movement are Chatfield, For Peace and Justice (Thomas quoted on 321); and Meyer, Protestant Search for Political Realism. On the internationalism of the American peace movement, see also Lynch, Beyond Appeasement, 125–171.
3. On Quakers, see Jones, Swords Into Ploughshares; and Forbes, Quaker Star Under Seven Flags. On Mennonites, see Bush, Two Kingdoms, Two Loyalties, 32–57.
4. Page, Sword or the Cross, 40, 49. See also Eddy and Page, Abolition of War.
5. “Extract from letter by G. Sherwood Eddy,” October 28, 1935, Eddy papers, Box 2, Folder 33, YDS; see also Nutt, Whole Gospel for the Whole World, 284–294. Thomas quoted in Chatfield, For Peace and Justice, 243.
6. Sermon, “The Peacemakers,” November 11, 1934, Fitt papers, Box 1, BHL. Especially good on the political influence of religious noninterventionism are Divine, Illusion of Neutrality; and Doenecke, Storm on the Horizon.
7. Talbot to William Floyd, April 29, 1940, America Magazine Archives, Box 5, Folder 14, Georgetown; Talbot to Louis C. Haggerty, May 9, 1941, America Magazine Archives, Box 6, Folder 1, Georgetown. On the 1936 election, see Flynn, American Catholics and the Roosevelt Presidency, 233–234. On Coughlin, see Brinkley, Voices of Protest, 96, 134–137, 151–152, 267; and Marcus, Father Coughlin, 83–84, 196–204. On Smith, see Ribuffo, Old Christian Right, 157–159.
8. For examples of CAIP thinking on war in the 1930s and in 1940, see Moon, Causes of War; Emanuel, et al., Ethics of War; and Ryan, et al., Obligation of Catholics to Promote Peace. On the Catholic Worker movement, see Segers, “Equality and Christian Anarchism,” 196–202. On both CAIP and CW, see McNeal, Harder Than War, 1–48. For an incisive analysis of Ryan’s anti-fascism, see Miscamble, “Limits of American Catholic Antifascism.”
9. Edgar Jones and Joseph Sizoo to Roosevelt, February 15, 1938, Presidential Papers: OF 213, FDRL.
10. Fey to Wygal, October 23, 1937, Niebuhr papers, Box 6, LOC. On CORE, see Chatfield, For Peace and Justice, 214–220; Branch, Parting the Waters, 171–173; and Kosek, “Richard Gregg, Mohandas Gandhi, and the Strategy of Nonviolence,” 1319–1321, 1342–1343. This is not to say that civil rights groups discovered Gandhi only through the FOR and white Christians. On the many pre–World War II links between Indian nationalists and African Americans, see Horne, End of Empires.
11. Van Kirk, Religion Renounces War; Van Kirk, “The ABC of American Neutrality,” 1935, FCC Records, RG18, Box 38, Folder 1, PHS; Meyer, Protestant Search for Political Realism, 370.
12. Notes from the annual and general assemblies of the PCUSA (1934), Evangelical Synod of North America (1934), Methodist Episcopal Church (1936), Northern Baptist Convention (1936), Southern Baptist Convention (1934), all in FCC Records, RG18, Box 34, Folder 11, PHS; Lambeth Conference, 1930, 46.
13. Buttrick and Cavert to Roosevelt, October 9, 1939, Presidential Papers: OF 213, FDRL.
14. Churches Survey Their Task, 48–50; notes of discussion of the Church and War Committee, Oxford Conference on Church and Society, July 15, 1937, Box 301.002, Folder 1, WCC; William Adams Brown to Nicholas Murray Butler, October 1938, Box 225, Folder 3, CEIP; Provisional Committee of the World Council of Churches, “The Churches and the International Situation,” July 1939, FCC Records, RG18, Box 34, Folder 17, PHS.
15. Charles Aldrich to Niebuhr, December 17, 1940, Box 2; Ansley to Niebuhr, February 4, 1941, Box 2; Brandon to Niebuhr, January 13, 1941, Box 2; Lyttle to Niebuhr, May 10, 1941, Box 8; Day to Niebuhr, January 18, 1941, Box 3: all in Niebuhr papers, LOC.
16. Frankfurter to Niebuhr, December 24, 1941, Niebuhr papers, Box 6, LOC.
17. Fox, Reinhold Niebuhr, 174–178, 193–197; Stone, Reinhold Niebuhr, 54–69. On Niebuhr’s place in the liberal theological tradition, see Dorrien, Making of American Liberal Theology, vol. 2, 435–521: rather than “realist” or “neo-orthodox,” Dorrien classifies Niebuhr as “neoliberal.” On Niebuhr’s place in the liberal tradition in political thought, see Halliwell, Constant Dialogue.
18. For a detailed examination, see esp. Lovin, Reinhold Niebuhr and Christian Realism.
19. The previous paragraphs are based on Fox, Reinhold Niebuhr, 154–159; and Thompson, “Exception to Exceptionalism,” 838–842. For a penetrating and thorough analysis on Niebuhr’s transition throughout the period, see Meyer, Protestant Search for Political Realism.
20. Goldman, God’s Sacred Tongue, 260–262; Craig, Glimmer of a New Leviathan, 38–45.
21. Fox, Reinhold Niebuhr, 187–192.
22. Eddy, Eighty Adventurous Years, 104.
23. Zietsma, “Sin Has No History,” 536–538. For the realist turn to theology, see Bennett, “Outlook for Theology.”
24. Lovin, Reinhold Niebuhr and Christian Realism; Zietsma, “Sin Has No History,” 544–546; Gilkey, On Niebuhr, 130–141, 151–154, 224–225; Niebuhr, Moral Man and Immoral Society; Niebuhr, “Why the Christian Church Is Not Pacifist,” in Brown, Essential Reinhold Niebuhr, 102–103. On neo-orthodox theology and its American application, see Ahlstrom, Religious History of the American People, 932–948. A transcendent, entirely spiritual God and a belief that everyone was a sinner had profound implications for evangelical and fundamentalist theology, although conservatives could never wholly accept neo-orthodoxy because they rejected Barth’s claim that the Bible was not necessarily the literal word of God. See Balmer and Winner, Protestantism in America, 31–32. Niebuhr remained a political liberal, but theologically he stood somewhere between the opposing ends of conservative fundamentalism and liberal modernism (albeit much, much closer to modernism). For a fuller analysis of Moral Man and its context, see Meyer, Protestant Search for Political Realism, 227–232; Craig, Glimmer of a New Leviathan, 33–37; and Danielson, “In My Extremity I Turned to Gandhi,” 369–373.
25. Lovin, Reinhold Niebuhr and Christian Realism, 1–3; Bennett, “After Liberalism—What?” CC, November 8, 1933, 1403–1406; Horton, Realistic Theology; Niebuhr, “Man the Sinner”; Bennett, Social Salvation, esp. 10–19. For fuller discussions, see Meyer, Protestant Search for Political Realism, 240–246; Marty, Modern American Religion, vol. 2, 303–320; and Dorrien, Making of American Liberal Theology, vol. 2, 459–464.
26. Childress, “Reinhold Niebuhr’s Critique of Pacifism,” esp. 488; Haas, “Reinhold Niebuhr’s ‘Christian Pragmatism’ ”; McKeogh, Political Realism of Reinhold Niebuhr, 71–94. Niebuhr later expanded upon his earlier inchoate thinking on just war theory: see Craig, Glimmer of a New Leviathan, 40–41, 80–83.
27. Bennett, Christianity—And Our World, 58–59; Van Dusen to Cavert, September 12, 1939, FCC Records, RG18, Box 6, Folder 10, PHS. For the FCC statement, see Hutchison, We Are Not Divided, 218–219.
28. Niebuhr to Bennett, May 31, 1940, Niebuhr papers, Series 2, Box 1, Folder III-3, UTS.
29. Church and Industrial Reconstruction, 114–115.
30. “The Church and World Problems,” Brown essay for the Federal Council Biennial Meeting, New York, December 6, 1938, FCC Records, RG18, Box 27, Folder 15, PHS; Handy, History of Union Theological Seminary, 189–202; Warren, Theologians of a New World Order, esp. 59–75.
31. Niebuhr, “Christian Faith and the Common Life”; Bennett, “Causes of Social Evil”; Aubrey, “Oxford Conference,” 380. See also Warren, Theologians of a New World Order, 77–83.
32. Statement of purpose, “Christianity and Crisis,” December 1940, Mott papers, Box 62, Folder 1149, YDS. On the UDA, see Fox, Reinhold Niebuhr, 197–199. On C&C, see Hulsether, Building a Protestant Left, 24–48.
33. Shafer, “What Should Be the Bearing of the Foreign Missionary Enterprise on World Peace?” in Foreign Missions Conference of North America … 1938, 107–108.
34. Phillips, “Can Pacifism Save Democracy,” CRT, February 1941, 14–15.
35. Attebery speech to the Rotary Club of Portland, “The United States Faces Up to the World Crisis,” January 12, 1941, Attebery papers, Box 2, Folder 3, UW.
36. On the sharp swing of American public opinion toward the Allies, especially Britain, see the polling data in Cantril, “America Faces the War”; and Cantril, Rugg, and Williams, “America Faces the War.”