acute respiratory infection, 24
Afkhami, Amir, 29–30
Africa: influenza in, 23–24; pandemic fears for, 162–63; public health in, 156–57, 163
Agriculture Department, 91
AIDS, 55, 56, 58, 129, 130, 163
amantadine, 112
American College of Physicians, 146
American Expeditionary Force, 30
American Medical Association, 25
American Samoa, 33
American Society of Internal Medicine, 146
American Spectator (journal), 100
Andrewes, Christopher, 34
Andromeda Strain, The (Crichton), 5
Angell, Marcia, 137
antiviral medications, stockpiling of, 131, 134–35, 144, 159–60
Armed Forces Institute of Pathology, Maryland, 118
Australia, 33
Aventis-Pasteur, 124, 140, 141, 147, 158
avian flu: deadliness of, 7, 126; first human appearance of, 4; genetic mutation in, 7–8, 11–12, 15, 63–67; as global plague, 4; globalization and, 8; in Guangdong, China, 58–67; in Hong Kong, 45–54; human-to-human transmission of, 120; person-to-person transmission of, 7–8; poultry industry and, 108; propagation of, 9–10; research on, 38, 116–18; in Thailand, 101–14; treatment of, 7, 19; 2003 reappearance of, 5, 101–14. See also Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza (HPAI)
Ban Srisomboon, Thailand, 4–8
Bangkok Livestock Trading Company, 98
Bangkok Post (newspaper), 103
Barlett, Donald, 138
Bean, William, 15
Becker, Jasper, 97
Behrman, Greg, 130
Betrayal of Trust (Garrett), 155
Big Pharma. See pharmaceutical industry
biodefense, 133, 135–37, 147–48
bioterrorism, 133, 135–37, 148
bird flu. See avian flu
Boonrod, Laweng, 106
British Columbia, Canada, 94–95
Broadway, Michael, 83
Brundtland, Gro Harlem, 156
bubonic plague pandemic (1894–1918), 32
Bungaran Saragih, 109
Bush, George H. W., 100–101, 132
Bush, George W., 100, 106, 127–28, 132–35, 137, 140, 144, 146, 148–49, 156
Bush, Neil, 100
bushmeat, 57–58
Byrne, David, 106
Califano, Joseph, 43
California, 91–92
Camus, Albert, 3
Canada: SARS in, 71–72, 76–77, 80; SPAI in, 94–95; and 2003 reappearance of avian flu, 113; vaccine preparedness of, 158
Cardona, Carol, 92
Carlyle Group, 100
Carter, Jimmy, 43
cats, 121
CDC. See Centers for Disease Control
Center for Infectious Disease Research and Policy, University of Minnesota, 125
Centers for Disease Control (CDC), 40, 43, 48–49, 51–52, 121, 143, 146, 151
Centre for Disease Control, Canada, 94
chaos theory, 15
Charoen Pokphand (CP), 97–101, 105–15, 120
Chearavanont, Dhanin, 97–101, 106–8, 115
Chen Kaizhi, 109–10
Chia brothers, 97
Chia Ek Chow. See Chearavanont, Dhanin
chickens. See poultry
Chidchob, Newin, 105
China: Asian flu (1957), 35–36; ecological impact of urban- industrial growth in, 58–67; influenza and hunger in, 28; information dissemination in, 23, 60–61, 70, 73–74, 104, 110; National Influenza Center, 61; poultry consumption in, 100; poultry industry in, 99–100; and SARS, 69–80; as source of flu epidemics/pandemics, 17; and 2003 reappearance of avian flu, 101–5, 109–10, 112–14. See also Guangdong, China
China Daily (newspaper), 65
Chirmsak Pinthong, 107
Clancy, Tom, 135
class: influenza deaths and, 27–30; influenza preparedness and, 157
Clinton, Bill, 100, 107n, 130, 132, 136, 142
Collier, Richard, 24
Congress: and pharmaceutical industry, 127, 137; and public health system decline, 130–32; and swine flu vaccinations, 43–44
conjunctivitis, 86, 87, 94, 122
contract farmers/growers. See small farmers
Corn, David, 100
CP. See Charoen Pokphand
Cracken, Kevin, 30
Crawford, Dorothy, 16
Crawford, Lester, 142–43
Crichton, Michael, 5
Cuba, 139
Curson, Peter, 30
Davis, Pete, 24
De Waal, Alex, 157
death, psychological effect of mass, 3
Democratic National Committee, 100
Deng Xiaoping, 99
Diary of Anne Frank, The, 3
Diouf, Jacques, 104
Dowdle, Walter, 40
East Indies, 28
ecocide, 123
Edwards, John, 133
Eisenhower, Dwight D., 35–36
Emerging Viruses (Morse), 55
Epidemic and Peace: 1918 (Crosby), 41
Epidemic Influenza (Jordan), 25
error catastrophe, 15
European Union (EU), 159
evolutionary medicine, 151
Ezekiel, vi
falcated teals, 46
Falkenrath, Richard A., 148
famine. See hunger
Fanning, Thomas, 118
Farr, William, 22
fast foods, 98
federal biosafety guidelines, 50
Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA), 130
fishing, West Africa and, 57
Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), United Nations, 66, 104, 113, 121
Food and Drug Administration (FDA), 42, 127–28, 140, 142–44
Food Inspection Agency, Canada, 94
Ford, Gerald, 41–43
Fort Detrick, Maryland Army base, 133
fossil virus, 77
Francis, Thomas, 34
Francis/Salk vaccine, 34
Garrett, Laurie, 155–56, 161–62
geese, 9–10
General Accounting Office (GAO), 128–30
genetic mutation: in avian flu, 7–8, 11–12; in influenza, 11–12, 14–19; in mammal-borne flu, 10, 15–16
GenZ, 102, 104, 112–13, 116–17, 119, 121, 126, 160, 165
Gerberding, Julie, 145
globalization: avian flu in context of, 8; and human-microbe relations, 153; meat industry and, 81–95; public health and, 155–57; and viral diseases, 55–67
Goozner, Merrill, 136
Goudsmit, Jaap, 45
Government Accounting Office (GAO), 128–31, 140
Great Influenza, The (Barry), 32
Guan, Yi, 54, 62, 65, 66, 75, 78
Guangdong, China, 48; and Hong Kong flu (1968), 36; and Hong Kong flu (1997), 53–54, 58–67; influenza research in, 62–64; meat-eating in, 59–60; rapidity of viral evolution in, 63–67; and SARS, 69–73, 79; urbanization in, 58–59; as viral disease source, 17, 39, 81
Guillain-Barré syndrome, 43
H1N2, 90
H3N1, 86
H3N2, 36, 51, 61, 77, 90, 120, 132, 141
H4N6, 90
H5N1, 4–5, 46–54, 60–67, 69–70, 97, 101–3, 105, 107n, 109–10, 112–14, 116–27, 141, 147, 157–59, 162, 167, 170–71
H6N1, 64
H6N2, 91–92
H7N2, 95
H7N3, 94
HA. See hemagglutinin
Hanoi, Vietnam, 71
Harbin Veterinary Research Institute, 118
He Changchui, 108
Health and Human Services Department (HHS), 128–33, 137, 140–41, 144, 146
health care personnel, SARS among, 76–77
hemagglutinin (HA), 12, 14, 17–19, 38–39, 47, 49, 52, 67, 87–88, 94
Higginbottom, Samuel, 28
Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza (HPAI), 46–47, 85–87; LPAI versus, 91–95
HMOs (health maintenance organizations), 128, 131–32, 156
Holland. See Netherlands
Holland, John, 16
Holocaust Museum, 3
Hong Kong: avian flu in (1997), 45–54; SARS in, 71–73, 75, 76, 80
Hong Kong Standard (newspaper), 101
Horton, Richard, 128, 151, 156
hospitals, inadequacy of, 131–32
Hoyle, Fred, 15n
HPAI. See Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza
Hu Jintao, 74
Huang, John, 100
hunger, influenza deaths and, 27–30
Hussein, Saddam, 135
immune system: fossil viruses insusceptible to, 77; influenza viruses versus, 10–12, 14–16; memory in, 40
immunization programs, 42, 44, 156
India: 1918 flu pandemic in, 25–30; non-reporting of flu statistics by, 23; pneumonic plague in, 161–62; public health system in, 157, 161
Infectious Diseases Society of America, 146, 160
influenza: A type, 11–12, 14–19, 21–22, 34, 39, 47, 52; AIDS and, 163; animal carriers of, 9–11; Asian (1957), 16, 35–36; co-infections of, 16–17, 87; deadliness of, 21–22; diagnosis of, 21; dormancy of, 38–39; as extraterrestrial, 15n; genetic mutation in, 11–12, 14–19, 63–67, 89–90; Hong Kong (1968), 16, 36–37; Hong Kong (1997), 45–54; HxNy classification of, 19; infection process, 12, 14; infectiousness of, 79; mortality rate from, 22–23, 25–26, 29–30, 124–26; 1918 pandemic (see 1918 1946–47, 34–35; pneumonial bacteria and, 22, 160; reproduction of, 14–19; research on, 38–39, 116–18; SARS compared to, 78–79; seasonality of, 22, 116; in sub-Saharan Africa, 23–24; swine (1976), 40–44; symptoms of, 21; transmission of, 7–8, 58, 72–73, 87, 120; treatment of, 7, 19; in tropical countries, 23; types of, 10–11, 34; worldwide study of, 34–35, 118–19. See also avian flu; pandemic; 1918 flu pandemic
Institute of Medicine, 92, 129, 132, 140
insurance industry, 41–42
Iran, 29
Iraq invasion (2003), 135
Japan, 104
Jiang Yanyong, 74
Jiang Zemin, 73
Johnson, Nial, 26
Jordan, Edwin Oakes, 25–26
Journal of Infectious Disease, 25
Journal of the American Medical Association (JAMA), 76
Kentucky Fried Chicken, 98, 100
Kenya, 157
Kolata, Gina, 24
Koopmans, Marion, 86
Korea, 103
Krause, Richard, 55
Laemphakwan, Somsak, 5–6
Lancet (journal), 77, 112, 156
Lau, Clive, 53–54
Lavanchy, Daniel, 61
Lederberg, Joshua, 129
Leeb, Martin, 138
Levin, Simon, 117
Lim (Hong Kong scientist), 50
Livestock Revolution, 81–95, 99, 155
Los Angeles, California, 132
Low Pathogenic Avian Influenza (LPAI), 91–95
mammals, hosting of flu by, 10, 15–16
McLean, Angela, 69
meat: exotic, 60, 75–76; global industry for, 81–95; as source of viral diseases, 57–60, 75–76, 81–95
medicine: early 20th-century advances in, 31; evolutionary, 151; shortcomings and failures of, 33, 37; veterinary and human, 89. See also antiviral medications; health care personnel; public health systems
Megawati Sukarnoputri, 112
Meltzer, Martin, 124–25
Meng Zuenong, 74
meningitis B, 140
Milford Valley, Utah, 84
Mills, I., 27–28
Moldea, Dan, 100
Morse, Stephen, 55
mortality rates, 22–23, 25–26, 29–30, 124–26
Mortimer, Philip, 55
Muangsuk, Wattana, 101
Mueller, Juergen, 26
mutation, genetic. See genetic mutation
NA. See neuraminidase
Nader, Ralph, 149
Nakajima, Hiroshi, 162
Nation (journal), 100
National Influenza Center, Rotterdam, 48–49
National Institute for Medical Research (NIMR), London, 34, 48
National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, 141
National Institute of Public Health and the Environment (Netherlands), 86
National Institutes of Health (NIH), 127, 131, 136, 147
National Pandemic Influenza Preparedness Plan, 144
National Pharmaceutical Stockpile, 133
National Vaccine Program Office (NVPO), 130
Nature (magazine), 105, 116, 148, 159
neoliberal politics, 162
Netherlands, HPAI in, 84–87
neuraminidase (NA), 18–19, 38–39, 67
New Scientist (magazine), 102
New York Times (newspaper), 40, 42, 118, 127, 137, 144, 145
Newsweek (magazine), 123
1918 flu pandemic, 6; cause of, 18, 22, 32, 33, 151–52; class and, 28, 30; contributing factors to, 27–30, 152; extent of, 3; historical study of, 24–25, 151–52; in India, 25–30; in Iran, 29–30; laboratory recreation of virus for, 19, 50; as model for contemporary pandemic, 125; mortality rate from, 25–27; treatment of, 32–33; World War I and, 31–32
Office International des Epizooties (OIE), 91, 103–4, 110, 113
Offitt, Paul, 137
OIE. See Office International des Epizooties
Olsen, Christopher, 81
oseltamivir (Tamiflu), 7, 19, 131, 134, 144–46, 159–60
pandemic: antigenic shift and, 11; avian flu as, 8; beginning stages of, predictions about, 147; control measures for, 78–79; definition of influenza, 14; genetic mutation and, 10, 11; obstacles to, 16; predictions of, 123–26, 128, 151; preparedness for, 78–80, 95, 124, 128–38, 143–50; speed of, 158–59; superspreaders of, 70–71, 72, 79; urban density and, 152–54; veterinary medicine as weapon against, 89
Parkdale Pharmaceuticals, 140
Parke-Davis, 42
Parvia, Andrew, 146–47
peasants, 83
Peiris, Malik, 54, 62, 66, 75, 78, 125
pharmaceutical industry: political power of, 137; profit motive of, 8, 137–38; vaccine development by, 8, 35–38, 41–42, 44, 124, 129, 137, 139–41, 158
Phitakwatchara, Nirum, 105
Phongpaichit, Pasuk, 101
Pien, Howard, 143
pigs: genetic instability increasing among, 89–90; hosting of flu by, 10, 17, 89–90; industrial production of, 84, 90; swine flu (1976), 40–44, 129
Pilgrim’s Pride, 115
plague, and mass death, 3
Plague, The (Camus), 4
pneumonia: action of, 6; influenza and, 22, 160; plague in Surat, India (1994), 161–62
poaching, 58
poultry: destruction of, 5, 53–54, 85–86; history of, 97; industrial production of, 83–85, 97–114; and 2003 reappearance of avian flu, 113
Poultry and Egg Export Council, 115
poultry destruction: economic effects of, 5; Hong Kong (1997), 53–54; Netherlands (2003), 85–86
poverty: children in, 156; as factor in influenza threat, 8; in India, 27–28; influenza deaths and, 27–30; U.S. health care and, 131–32
preparedness: Africa and, 163; alternative goals for, 146; class and, 157; and human-animal interface monitoring, 95; recent calls for, 124; SARS as test case of, 78–80; state plans for, 148; Third World, 161–62; U.S., 128–38, 143–50
Project BioShield, 133, 135–37, 147
proteases, 14
proteins, 87–88
public health systems: in Africa, 156–57, 163; free enterprise versus, 35–38; in Hong Kong, 76–77; inadequacy of, 8, 155–57; in India, 27–28, 161; SARS and, 76–77; in Third World, 156–57, 161–63; in Toronto, 76–77; in United States, 128–33, 147–48
public policy: HHS influenza preparedness, 128–33; Hong Kong flu (1968) and, 37–38; HPAI versus LPAI monitoring, 91, 93–95; swine flu (1976) and, 41–44; on vaccine manufacture and distribution, 37–38, 41–44, 129–31, 134–36, 144–49, 159–60
Putin, Vladimir, 120
race, vaccination rates and, 131
rationing of vaccines, 135, 143, 145–46
reassortment of genes, 16–17, 38, 63, 91
recombination of genes, 17–18
Red Cross, 130
rimantadine, 52
Romania, 116
Sabin, Albert, 42–43
Sabin Vaccine Institute, 123
Saha Farms, 98
Salk, Jonas, 34
Samoa, American, 33
SARS. See Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome (SARS)
Schweiker, Richard, 43–44
Science (journal), 18, 19, 90, 158, 159
science, warnings on avian flu from, 151. See also medicine
seasonality of influenza, 22, 116
Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome (SARS), 69–80; cause of, 75; infectiousness of, 78; influenza compared to, 78–79; mortality rate from, 76; transmission of, 72–73; vaccine for, 76
Shah, Ghanshyam, 161–62
Shope, Robert, 129
Shortridge, Ken, 54, 62, 66, 75, 123
Siluangon, Kanda, 121
slums. See urban poverty
small farmers, 5, 83, 99, 105–8, 111, 115, 121
smallpox, 135
Southeast Asia, 23
Spanish flu, 24
species barrier, viral crossing of, 11, 47–49, 63, 86, 123, 153, 155
Steele, James, 138
stockpiling: antiviral medications, 131, 134–35, 144, 159–60; influenza vaccines, 19, 123–24, 145; smallpox vaccines, 135
Stohr, Klaus, 121, 124–26, 139, 157, 159, 162, 165
Strategic National Stockpile, 144, 146
Stull, Donald, 83
Summer, Jim, 115
Sunday Herald (newspaper), 125
swine. See pigs
Taiwan, 77
Tamiflu, 7, 19, 131, 134, 144–46, 159–60
Taubenberger, Jeffrey, 17, 25, 118
teals, 46
Terrestrial Animal Health Code (OIE), 91
Thai Rak Thai, 101
Thailand, 4–8, 97–114, 119–22, 157–58
Thaksin Shinawatra, 101, 105, 106, 108, 120, 121
Third World: disasters multiplied in, 27, 29; global meat industry in, 81–83; influenza understudied in, 24; pandemic response of, 161–62; pharmaceutical needs of, 156; potential influenza victims in, 150; public health systems in, 156–57, 161–63; urbanization in, 55–56, 155
Thompson, Tommy, 127–28, 132, 136–37, 141–43, 147
Thongchan, Pranom, 6–7
Thongchan, Sakuntala, 4–8
Thongcharoen, Prasert, 158
Time (magazine), 74
Toronto, Canada, SARS in, 72, 76–77, 80
transportation of animals, viral diseases spread through, 90–92
Triangle of Doom, 92
Trinwuthipong, Charal, 120
Trust for America’s Health, 133, 147–48
tularemia, 136–37
Tung Chee-hwa, 51
Tyson Foods, 83, 90, 107n, 115
Ukraine, 116
UNICEF, 156
United Kingdom, 140
United Nations, Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), 66, 104, 121
United States: Agriculture Department, 91; Asian (1957) flu in, 35–36; cheaper pharmaceuticals opposed by, 156; Defense Department, 130, 146; East Asian viruses in, 91; ecological impact of industrial meat production in, 90–95; Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), 113; Food and Drug Administration (FDA), 42, 127–28, 140, 142–44; Health and Human Services Department (HHS), 128–33, 137, 140–41, 144, 146; 1918 flu pandemic in, 26, 32; preparedness for influenza pandemic in, 128–38, 143–50; public health system inadequacy in, 128–33, 147–48; vaccines for influenza in, 129–31, 134–50
urban poverty, 8, 28–29, 55–56, 152–54
Urbani, Carlo, 71
vaccines: Cuba and, 139–40; flu caused by, 102; Franics/Salk, 34; free enterprise and control of, 35–38, 41–42, 129–30, 144; global strategy for, 123–24; global supply of, 157–60; immunization programs, 42, 44, 156; new technologies for, 139, 158; pharmaceutical industry reluctance to develop, 8, 41–42, 44, 124, 129, 137, 139–41; problems in manufacturing, 139–40, 142–43; public policy on, 37–38, 41–44, 129–31, 134–36, 144–49, 159–60; rationing of, 135, 143, 145–46; SARS, 76; smallpox, 135; stockpiling of, 19, 123–24, 135, 145; UNICEF spending on, 156; unprofitability of, 138; updating, 34; U.S. and, 129–31, 134–50
Van Dongen, John, 95
veterinary medicine, 89
Viagra, 138
Vietnam, 75–76, 103–4, 108, 111–14, 119, 157, 160
Vietnam News (newspaper), 108
Vioxx, 128
viral diseases: animal-human transmission of, 58; globalization as context for, 55–67
Viraphol, Sarasin, 105
Washington Post (newspaper), 147–48
Webster, Robert, 15, 21, 48–49, 55, 77, 95, 112, 116, 127, 134–35, 141, 145
Weiss, Robin, 69
West Africa, 57–58
Wickramasinghe, Chandra, 15n
wildlife trade, viral diseases spread through, 60, 75–76
Wolfe, Nathan, 58
World Health Organization (WHO), 7, 23; criticisms of, 156; and Dutch avian flu (2003), 88; global influence of, 156; and Hong Kong avian flu (1997), 51, 60–61, 67; influenza fears of, 4, 123–26, 150, 151, 162–63; and pharmaceutical industry, 156; and pneumonic plague in India, 162; and SARS, 69–76, 78; on transmissibility of avian flu, 118; and 2004 reappearance of avian flu, 119–21; and 2003 reappearance of avian flu, 104, 110–14; on vaccine needs, 158–60; vaccine stockpile for, 19, 123–24; world influenza network established by, 24, 34–35
World War II, 33–34
Wyeth, 41
Wyeth-Ayerst, 140
Young India (newspaper), 28
Yukol Limlamthong, 120
Zambia, 157