It is the body which ultimately controls infections, not chemicals. Without underlying immunity, drugs are meaningless.
Marc Lappé
One of the great lessons from the AIDS epidemic is the realization, among the medical establishment, of the necessity for a healthy immune system. Among those with infections such as tick-borne encephalitis, influenza, Lyme, mycoplasma, and bartonella (as examples) researchers have constantly noted that the healthier the immune system, the less likely one is to be infected and, if infected, the less severe the course of the disease.
The immune system is an “organ” just as our lungs and livers are and there are things you can do to keep the immune system healthy. Regular touching is one of them, such as receiving Swedish massage on a weekly or monthly basis. Certain foods do help immune health as well. Some of the best foods that support immune health are:
And then there are the herbs.
These are my favorite three herbs for optimizing immune function. All three are tonic herbs, can be taken in large quantities, and help the immune system respond to any adverse events that may occur. They tend to act as adaptogens, that is, substances that alter the body’s responses to stressors (either internal — think “illness” — or external — think “my job”) in such a way as to maximize healthy functioning. If you have low energy, or a low-functioning element of the immune system, these will raise them. If you have an overabundance of energy (stressed out) or an overactive immune system, these will lower or calm function.
Of special note: These herbs also have some activity against viruses, including influenza and encephalitis viruses, making them nicely synergistic with the herbal antivirals in this book. They also very specifically reduce the cytokine cascades many of these viruses initiate and raise just the right immune markers necessary to reduce the viral invasion of the body. They are very good herbs. They are: astragalus, cordyceps, and rhodiola.
Family: Leguminosae.
Species used: This is a huge genus of some 3,000 species, prevalent throughout the world. The primary species used is Astragalus membranaceus, a.k.a. A. membranaceus var. mongholicus, a.k.a. A. mongholicus. Sigh . . . now that the number of species in this genus has been, almost, settled, the number of variants is in question. (Yes, this one is Astragalus membranaceus but it looks funny. I found it in Mongolia, therefore . . . )
There is not much information on whether any of the other species in the genus can be used similarly. Most sources say not. However the Chinese are doing some good work with different species and finding a range of antibacterial, antiviral, anti-inflammatory, analgesic, and some immunomodulatory actions in them that are similar to those of the main medicinal species. The species they are looking at are A. adsurgens, A. aksuensis, A. brachystachys, A. siculus, A. strictus, A. verrucosu, and A. verus, so there are quite a few out there that are possibly good medicinals.
Synonyms: Astragalus propinquus is, in some circles, a synonym for A. membranaceus. However, a number of sources now insist (cue shocked expression) that this is the correct name for the plant. And of course, Astragalus mongholicus is just the aromatic reproductive expression of a woody perennial of the genus Rosa by any other name.
Common names: Astragalus (English), huang-qi (Chinese).
The plant is a perennial with a long fibrous rootstock. The root, which is the part used for medicine, is often found thinly sliced and dried (a traditional preparation in Chinese medicine) and most closely resembles a yellow (medical) tongue depressor. Bulk quantities of the powdered or coarsely ground organic root are commonly available through herbal suppliers to Western botanic practitioners.
Many astragalus formulations are standardized, though I’m not sure that the literature really supports standardization with this herb.
The root is sometimes standardized for 7,4'-hydroxy-3'-methoxyisoflavone-7 (or just hydroxy-3'-isoflavone-7) but the reasons are not entirely clear for doing so. No literature exists that I can find that lays out why in fact this particular constituent was singled out and not the astragalosides. (Astragaloside IV, for instance, is one of the primary active ingredients of the plant in heart disease. It increases exercise tolerance, reduces chest distress and dyspnea, and optimizes left ventricular function.) The methoxyisoflavone constituent for which the plant is often standardized is an anabolic-type compound that enhances strength and muscle formation and may have some protective actions in upper respiratory infections and on digestive function. Data on its functions are somewhat unclear and hard to come by; I have been unable to locate any clinical or laboratory studies on the constituent — though they must exist somewhere. Their rarity stimulates speculation. A number of manufacturers, however, seem to have cottoned on to this and are now standardizing for astragalosides.
The whole root contains constituents that are essential for treating carditis and enhancing immune function. And, indeed, the majority of the Chinese studies — clinical and laboratory — were with the whole herb.
The herb may be taken as tea, powder, capsules, tincture, or in food.
Tincture preparations vary considerably in their herb:liquid ratio, from 1:2 and 1:3 up to 1:5, and with alcohol concentrations ranging from 25 to 60 percent. There doesn’t seem to be a lot of data on why nor what is the best tincture preparation procedures. However, there is some good data suggesting it be done this way . . .
In general, many of the most potent actions of the plant come from its polysaccharides, and polysaccharides are most efficiently released from the root cells by hot water. This is, in part, why many traditional uses of astragalus involve cooking it or using it as a tea. So, if you are making an extract of, let’s say, 5 ounces of astragalus powder, you would then use anywhere from two to five times that amount of water. Many of the manufacturers whose products I think are good use from 40 to 50 percent alcohol for their astragalus tinctures in either a 1:3 or 1:5 tincture ratio. For this example, let’s do it this way . . .
Start with 5 ounces of astragalus root powder and 25 ounces of liquid (this makes it a 1:5 ratio). The liquid should be half water and half pure grain alcohol, which will give you a 50 percent alcohol extraction medium. You would be using 12.5 ounces of water. Combine the root with the water only in a pot, and bring it to a boil (starting with cold water). As soon as it comes to a boil, turn off the heat and cover. Let it steep overnight. In the morning, put the whole mess in a jar, add the alcohol (12.5 ounces), and tighten the lid. Leave for 2 weeks, shaking when you remember to do so. Then decant.
As for dosages:
As a tonic: 30–60 drops up to 4x daily.
In chronic illness conditions: 1 teaspoon 4x daily.
As a preventive (from viral infection): 1 teaspoon 4–6x daily.
In acute conditions: 1 teaspoon 4–6x daily, generally every 3 hours.
Put 2–3 ounces of herb in 1 quart of hot water, let steep for 2–3 hours, strain, then drink throughout the day.
In chronic conditions: 1 tablespoon 3x per day.
In acute conditions: 2 tablespoons 3x per day.
Your body’s own bile and stomach acids will extract the constituents. You can go higher on these doses if you wish. The Chinese use very large doses of the powdered root, from 15 to 60 grams per day, essentially 1⁄2 to 2 ounces per day.
Astragalus has been used for centuries as an additive to meal preparation. The sliced root is placed in soups and removed before eating or a strong infusion of the root is made and used to cook rice or as a stock for soups.
Robyn Landis and K. P. S. Khalsa share a tasty recipe (below) for an immune-enhancing astragalus broth in their book Herbal Defense (Warner Books, 1997).
Combine the water, astragalus, and garlic and simmer for several hours, until the garlic is soft. Season with salt and pepper to taste. Consume all the broth if you feel an infection coming on, or take a cup or two several times during the week to prevent infection. Consume the cooked garlic separately, leave in the broth, or use as a spread on toast.
Combine the water and astragalus, bring to boil, and simmer for 2 hours, covered. Remove from the heat and let stand overnight. Remove the astragalus, and add enough water to bring the broth volume back up to 4 cups. Add the rice, bring to a boil, then reduce the heat and simmer, covered, until done, approximately 1 hour. Use this rice as you would any rice, as a base for meals throughout the week.
No toxicity has ever been shown from the regular, daily use of the herb nor from the use of large doses. The Chinese report consistent use for millennia in the treatment of colds and flu and suppressed immune function without side effects.
Astragalus is contraindicated, however, for some people, in certain kinds of late-stage Lyme disease because it can exacerbate autoimmune responses in that particular disease. For others it can alter the Th1/Th2 balance and reduce the autoimmune dynamics. Whether or not it acts as a modulator seems to depend on individual reactions to the herb; I haven’t been able to find a reason why, for some people, it exacerbates their condition and for others it does not.
Synergistic actions: Use of the herb with interferon and acyclovir may increase their effects. The herb has been used in clinical trials with interferon in the treatment of hepatitis B; outcomes were better than with interferon alone. It has also shown synergistic effects when used with interferon in the treatment of cervical erosion; antiviral activity is enhanced.
Drug inhibition: Use of the herb with cyclophosphamide may decrease the effectiveness of the drug. Not for use in people with transplanted organs.
Synergistic with echinacea and licorice in the stimulation of immune function.
There are over 3,000 species of astragalus in the world, 16 of which grow in the United States. The leaf structure looks like that of a typical member of the pea family. It is a short-lived, sprawling perennial and grows up to 4 feet in size.
The medicinal astragalus is native to northeast China though it has been planted a great many other places, including the United States. Wild populations are still rare in the West though astragalus is under wide cultivation as a medicinal in the United States and escape to the wild will occur sooner or later.
Astragalus is started from seeds in the early spring indoors. The seed coat needs to be scored with something like sandpaper prior to planting. Growers (e.g., Elixir Farm in Missouri) have found that it prefers a sunny location with, as the Elixir Farm website notes, “deep, sandy, well-drained, somewhat alkaline soil. It does not like mulch or deep cultivation. The crowns of the emerging plants are very sensitive to compost and respond well after they have gained some momentum in the spring.” Not surprisingly, given the plant’s medicinal actions, it is highly resistant to insect damage, crown rot, mildew, and drought.
The plant grows larger and more woody each year, with the roots harvested beginning in the fall of the third year or spring of the fourth. Spring and fall harvests occur in China. The root is generally considered too weak a medicinal if harvested prior to that time.
Astragalus is an immune potentiator and modulator. It strongly regulates interferon-gamma and interleukin-2 levels. If interferon-gamma levels are high, it is strongly active in lowering them. Enhances CD4+ counts and balances the CD4:CD8 ratio. Astragalus is specific for immune atrophy and enhances function in the spleen and thymus.
While not specifically an antimicrobial herb, astragalus does possess some antimicrobial actions. Most important for this book, it does have antiviral activity. It is active against influenza A (H1N1, FM1), human adenovirus type 3, herpes simplex 1, Coxsackie virus B3, infectious bursal disease virus, cytomegalovirus, Punta Toro virus, Japanese encephalitis virus, porcine parvovirus, hepatitis B and significantly reduces the effects of canine distemper virus in vivo. The herb is strongly protective against infection with Japanese encephalitis virus and bunyavirus if taken prophylactically. Most of its actions come from antivirus stimulation of the immune system.
The herb does have some other antimicrobial effects. It is active against E. coli, Arbiter aerogenes, Proteus vulgaris, Staphylococcus aureus, Salmonella enteritidis, Shigella dysenteriae, Campylobacter, Streptococcus hemolyticus, Diplococcus pneumoniae (a.k.a. Streptococcus pneumoniae), Aeromonas hydrophila, and Candida albicans.
All viral infections as an immune adjuvant. Many people are beginning to view the herb as a primary immunomodulator to prevent viral infection and illness. It is specific for that purpose.
It is also specific for treating myocarditis from Coxsackie B3 infection. It is specific for reducing the impacts of Japanese encephalitis virus. It is specific as a preventive for reducing the likelihood of infection from Lyme bacteria and reducing the severity of the disease.
Herb stores everywhere and the Internet.
Astragalosides 1 through 7, astraisoflavin, astramembranagenin, astrapterocarpan, beta-sitosterol, betaine, formononetin, GABA, isoastragaloside (1, 2, and 4), isoliquiritigenin, linoleic acid, linolenic acid, soyasaponin I, kumatakenin, choline, glucuronic acid, 4'-hydroxy-3'-methoxyisoflavone-7, a couple of dihydroxydimethylisoflavones, 3'-hydroxyformonentin, calcium, folic acid, copper, iron, magnesium, manganese, potassium, sodium, zinc.
Astragalus, first mentioned in the 2,000-year-old Chinese text Shen Nong Cao Jing, is considered to be one of the superior tonic herbs in Chinese medicine. The plant has become one of the primary immune herbs used worldwide over the past four decades.
Five species of astragalus are used in the materia medica of India, none of them this species. They are minor herbs, used primarily as emollients.
Astragalus has been a major herb in Chinese medicine for between 2,000 and 4,000 years. It is one of the 50 fundamental herbs in Chinese medicine. Its traditional uses are for spleen deficiency with lack of appetite, fatigue, and diarrhea. It is specific for disease conditions accompanied by weakness and sweating, stabilizes and protects the vital energy (qi), and is used for wasting diseases, numbness of the limbs, and paralysis. Other uses are: for tonifying the lungs, for shortness of breath, for frequent colds and flu infections; as a diuretic and for reduction of edema; for tonifying the blood and for blood loss, especially postpartum; for diabetes; for promoting the discharge of pus, for chronic ulcerations, including of the stomach, and for sores that have not drained or healed well.
The herb was not used to any extent in Western botanic practice until the tremendous East/West herbal blending that began during the 1960s. It is now one of the primary immune tonic herbs in the Western pharmacopoeia.
A considerable amount of scientific testing has occurred with astragalus, including clinical trials and both in vivo and in vitro studies. PubMed now lists over 5,700 citations for studies with astragalus and this does not include the many Chinese studies that have never been indexed for it. The Chinese database CNKI now has over 16,000 entries on the herb. What follows is merely a sampling.
Most of the clinical studies and trials regarding immunostimulation have been focused on the use of astragalus in the treatment of cancer and/or as an adjunct to chemotherapy to help stimulate chemo-depressed immune function. A number of other studies have examined its immune effects with a range of different conditions.
The herb has been used with children suffering tetralogy of Fallot after radical operation to correct the condition. Tetralogy of Fallot is a complex of four heart abnormalities that occur together, generally at birth. Surgery is used to correct it. Astragalus was found to decrease abnormal levels of IgG, Igm, C3, C4, CD8+, and CD19+ while increasing levels of CD4+ and CD56+. The ratios of CD4:CD8, CD3:HLA-DR, and CD3:CD16 normalized between the second and third weeks of use. IL-6 and TNF-α both began decreasing in the first week and by the fourth week were in the normal range.
When astragalus was used in the treatment of herpes simplex keratitis levels of Th1, including IL-2 and IFN-γ, increased and Th2 levels, including IL-4 and IL-10, decreased, showing that the herb modulated Th1 and Th2 levels. This same kind of effect has been found in the treatment of numerous cancers. For example in a study of 37 lung cancer patients astragalus was found to reverse the Th2 status normally present in that condition. Th1 cytokines (IFN-γ and IL-2) and its transcript factor (T-bet) were enhanced and Th2 cytokines were decreased.
A clinical study with 63 people suffering serious abdominal traumatic injury found that the addition of astragalus to the treatment regimen significantly increased cellular immunity.
In clinical trials with a number of different cancers and congestive heart conditions, astragalus has been found to increase CD4+ levels, reduce CD8+ levels, and significantly increase the CD4:CD8 ratio. The plant has been found to have a broad immunostimulatory effect. Use of the herb with cancer patients undergoing chemotherapy found that white blood cell counts improved significantly (normalizing). The herb has been found to be specifically useful in preventing or reversing immunosuppression from any source: age, bacterial, viral, or chemical. It enhances phagocytosis and increases superoxide dismutase production from macrophages.
Eighty-eight children with recurrent respiratory infections were split into two groups. One received astragalus, the other did not. The children were followed for 1 year. Those in the astragalus group had significantly fewer occurrences.
There have been numerous clinical trials with the herb for treating heart disease. The herb has been found specific for inhibiting Coxsackie B infections, both as an antiviral and as a heart protector. It will reverse damage to the heart in a number of conditions. With respect to Lyme carditis probably the most important of its impacts are those on left ventricular function, angina, and shortness of breath. While it is not completely protective for atrioventricular (AV) block it does improve electrophysiological parameters and ameliorates AV block to some extent.
In a trial of astragalus for 2 weeks with 19 people with congestive heart failure, 15 people experienced alleviation of symptoms of chest distress and dyspnea, and their exercise tolerance increased substantially. Radionuclide ventriculography showed that left ventricular modeling and ejection function improved, and heart rate slowed from 88.21 to 54.66 beats/minute.
In another trial, 43 people suffering from myocardial infarction were tested with astragalus. Left ventricular function strengthened. Superoxide dismutase activity or red blood cell levels increased, and lipid peroxidation of plasma was reduced.
In a study with 366 cardiac patients astragalus was found to be effective when compared to lidocaine and mexiletine (which were not found effective). With astragalus the duration of ventricular late potentials shortened significantly.
In the treatment of 92 patients suffering ischemic heart disease, astragalus was more successful than nifedipine. Patients were “markedly relived” from angina pectoris. EKG test results improved 82.6 percent.
Astragalus has been found to possess anti-inflammatory activity by inhibiting the NF-κB pathway and blocking the effect of IL-1ß in leukotriene C production in human amnions. The constituent astragaloside IV inhibits increases in microvascular permeability induced by histamine. The whole herb decoction has been found to reduce capillary hyperpermeability. It is strongly inhibitive of TGF-ß as well.
Astragalus was found to improve anisodine-induced impairment of memory acquisition and alcohol-elicited deficit of memory retrieval. After use of the herb the number of errors were reduced. The plant has been found to exert potent antioxidant effects on the brain, helping to prevent senility.
In one study, 106 newborns with neonatal hypoxic ischemic encephalopathy were separated into two groups. One received oral astragalus granule for 7 months, the other nimodipine for 3 months, then pyritinol for an additional 4 months. There was better recovery in the astragalus group with less long-term negative effects from the initial condition. The incidence of cerebral palsy was markedly reduced. (Another study used injection, with similar outcomes.) Studies on the use of astragalus injection in the treatment of cerebral palsy in children found that it significantly reduced symptoms.
Astragalus has been found effective in alleviating fatigue in heart patients and in athletes. In one trial, 12 athletes were randomly separated into two groups, and six were given astragalus. Astragalus was found to positively influence anaerobic threshold, enhance recovery from fatigue, and increase fatigue threshold.
A double-blind, randomized, controlled trial with 36 adults with chronic fatigue found that a mixture of astragalus and Salviae Radix significantly decreased fatigue scores.
In one study, injection of astragalus was found helpful in reducing negative parameters in patients with chronic glomerulonephritis. In another study astragalus injection was used in the treatment of renal syndrome of hemorrhagic fever. One hundred forty-six people were separated into two groups. One group received ribavirin, the other astragalus. Both groups received IV glucose. The course of the disease was shorter in the astragalus group; renal function was restored more quickly.
A number of trials have found the herb effective in the clinical treatment of hepatitis B and liver disease. Liver function is improved, the liver is protected from damage, and regeneration is stimulated.
Family: Ummm, errrr, uhhhh, well, let’s see . . . (Counts on fingers — can I use the thumb? Is it a finger? Or not?). Ophiocordyceps? (Taxonomists really are the most irritating of people.)
Species used: Cordyceps sinensis almost always though C. militaris is considered interchangeable (and by some, stronger), and many of the others in the genus are usable as well.
In total, there are 140 or 480 or 670 members of the Cordyceps genus or the Ophiocordyceps genus or the Metacordyceps genus, or the Elaphocordyceps genus, or all of them together . . . or something. (I read the whole 55-page peer-reviewed journal article — three times — but despite having opposable thumbs and a degree in advanced basket weaving, I still can’t follow it. Let’s see, the seraphim are the ones that hang from the top of the cave . . . ?).
All of these (prefix)cordyceps mushrooms are endoparasitoids (as distinct from elastoparanoids, i.e., taxonomists). This 10-dollar word simply means that they are parasitic on other living organisms, mostly insects, though a few parasitize other fungi (turning on their own kind). The fungus invades and takes over the host’s body, replacing its tissues with its own. The main medicinal species that most people use, Prefix-or-not-cordyceps sinensis, is a parasite on caterpillars, specifically the larvae of the ghost moth (which is why it is sometimes called the caterpillar fungus). The fungal spores invade the caterpillar (which lives underground), and they sprout into active mycelia (which spread throughout the caterpillar body via the circulatory system), eventually killing the caterpillar (which then mummifies). The mycelia ultimately fill the corpse, leaving the exoskeleton intact, and the mushroom sprouts from the body (via the head) the next summer, and, hey, we got medicine. (Yum!)
As usual taxonomists are creating trouble for everyone who accepted their formerly completely-accurate-and-no-doubt-about-it descriptions of the natural world. Remember all those lectures we tried not to sleep through, the notes we took that concretely identified parts of the world as this and not that, the tests that we passed (or didn’t), and the degrees we got (or didn’t) that proved how much we knew? Well, none of it, it turns out, had much to do with the real world. (Cue shocked expression.)
In previous years — well, centuries actually — plants, and ultimately most living organisms, were classified by the system that that irritating man Carl Linnaeus developed. He spent a lot of time looking up plant skirts and describing their sexual organs and physical appearance and then putting them into groups — as did his legions of obedient automatons, I mean, followers. The classification system used in most plant field guides is still oriented around the basic framework he laid down centuries ago.
But . . . with the advent of DNA analysis everything in the natural world is being relabeled, creating a huge shift in the human lens through which the natural world is segmented into its various boxes. In the old model, hippos and whales were very different animals. In the new one, they are each other’s closest living relatives. The closest living relatives of birds are now crocodiles and alligators (you can tell by the feathers). The closest living relative of the hyrax, a guinea-pig-like animal (weighing 8 pounds) is now the elephant (which is the only animal that can’t jump — my mind’s a junkyard). And the closest living relative of the taxonomist is the measuring tape. (Who knew?)
Close examination shows that this new lens is likely to be, ultimately, as unworkable as the old one. There really isn’t a basic underlying reality upon which all other things rest that will allow us to conquer our fear of the wild (allowing us to feel in control of all the lesser-evolved organisms on the planet). And as some of the new generations of naturalists are beginning to say (and as Darwin himself said long ago) evolution is not an escalator going from there to there (with us riding triumphantly on the top step) but in reality a tremendously tangled bush all woven about itself, every branch equidistant from the center (and all equally important). As those involved in deep, perceptual observations of the real world will find, this new DNA system of ours will itself be found to be flawed (because under every cause is another cause, ad infinitum), which will lead in time to a new classification system that will, again, make all our previous maps unworkable once more.
These classification systems, again, are only maps. And maps are not, and never have been, the real world. (Hmmm, the GPS says that this road does go through, where the hell did this swamp come from? Hey! Is that an alligator? I mean a bird?) Nevertheless . . .
Once upon a time, there was a large grouping of mushrooms called the cordyceps. (And no, they really aren’t mushrooms but are in fact ascomycetes and yeah, tomato is a fruit — but no one cares.) And for hundreds of years there were scores, nay, hundreds of mushrooms in the genus. Then came a plague of DNA scientists upon the land and one of them, after much thought, putteth down his tools and he looketh upon the multitude and sayeth, “This is so wrong.” And he taketh up his measuring tape and toucheth his chalk to the board and then he writeth for those among us who haveth ears . . .
“The Species Cordyceps sinensis of the Genus that we have known as Cordyceps of the Family called Clavicipitaceous is no more. It is casteth out and we place it now in the Family Ophiocordycipitaceae and we rename the Genus Ophiocordyceps. And the one that was formerly called Cordyceps sinensis shall henceforth be known as Ophiocordyceps sinsensis.”
And drawing the sacred dagger along the ground he declared, “So mote it be.” Then a great cry went up throughout the land in-the-year-of-our-DNA- scientist 2007 and thus was this thing done. Woe be to he that heedeth it not.
Still . . .
Cordyceps species of one sort or another are common throughout the world. Each species is a parasite of either a different arthropod or the one particular mushroom species it likes to parasitize. The range of insect hosts is large: beetles, moth and butterfly pupae and larvae, ants, spiders, grasshoppers, locusts, cicadas, centipedes, bees, and cockroaches, and probably more that no one has found out about yet. Each species of cordyceps has somewhat different medicinal actions, no doubt coming, in part, from what kind of host species it infects (and no, no one has studied this as yet either).
This particular species of I-guess-it’s-a-cordyceps that we are talking about, the primary one used in medicine, is specific to the Tibetan plateau and the Himalayas in India, Nepal, and Bhutan. It is generally hand-harvested by the local people and is, at this point in time, tremendously expensive (a recent estimate I was given — in 2012 — was US$1,600 to $2,000 per pound; prices are increasing about 20 percent per year). Cordyceps mushrooms provide a major source of income for people in those regions. Several hundred tons are harvested each year, making up about half the yearly income of the local peoples and about 10 percent of Tibet’s GDP.
To lower the cost and to make the herb more available, the mycelia, in China, are now grown (fermented) in vats much like penicillin and other pharmaceuticals. Those manufactured in the West are usually grown on grains (vegan cordyceps?). All the commercial varieties of cordyceps you are likely to find are grown, not wild.
Synonyms: Sphaeria sinensis, Cordyceps sinensis, Ophiocordyceps sinensis.
Common names: Cordyceps, caterpillar fungus, yartsa (or yatsa) gunbu (Tibetan), keera jhar (India), dong chong xia cao (Chinese, and it translates as “worm in winter, herb in summer”), chong cao (Chinese again, but this term usually refers to species other than C. sinensis), tochukaso (Japanese), aweto (Maori, New Zealand), club mushroom (United States — we are a poetic people but we walk really softly).
Grown varieties: the mycelium. Wild-harvested: the whole damn thing — caterpillar body, fruiting mushroom, and all.
Cordyceps needs to be viewed as a medicinal food, not a raw drug to be taken in minute doses. The Chinese tonic dosages are normally rather large, 3 to 9 grams per day, and during acute disease conditions they can go as high as 50 grams, nearly 2 ounces, per day.
If you think of the herb as a food, then eating 2 ounces, say, as you do of asparagus or potatoes, doesn’t seem like all that much. In China, cordyceps is often added to soups and stews (just as astragalus is) as a food ingredient for chronic illness. Sometimes the Chinese decoct it in water and drink it as a tea; however traditional healers for millennia in Tibet and India (and in parts of China) used the herb only after soaking it in an alcohol/water combination, usually the local alcoholic drink. And in fact a number of the constituents are only extractable in alcohol.
The best way to use the herb is either as a powder preparation, taken directly by mouth (allowing the stomach acids and bile, etc., to extract for you), or as a tincture.
For acute viral infections, especially in the brain and CNS, and systemic mycoplasma, especially with brain/CNS involvement, I would recommend you buy the powder in bulk from someone such as 1stChineseHerbs.com and then take 3–4 tablespoons of the powder blended in water or juice three times daily.
The tepid U.S. dosages, 500–1,000 mg daily, are useless for any active disease condition.
The Chinese brands, if you buy capsules, run around 900–1,000 mg per capsule and the suggested dose is 6,000 mg (6 grams) per day — just for a tonic dose. If you want to use the capsules for active viral infections in the brain and CNS I would double that.
As a tonic: 1⁄4–1⁄2 teaspoon 3x daily.
For active infections: 1⁄2–1 teaspoon 3–6x daily.
Note: If you are going to make your own tincture from cordyceps powder, then use a 50 percent alcohol solution in a 1:5 herb:liquid ratio. Add the cordyceps powder to the water only. Starting with cold water, bring the mixture to a boil, then cover and let steep overnight. Then add the alcohol and let it steep for a few weeks. This will more efficiently extract the polysaccharides from the root.
Some sources recommend taking cordyceps with vitamin C to help assimilation. There isn’t anything in the scientific literature on this and the Asians used the herb (and noted its beneficial effects) for thousands of years before vitamin C was discovered, so . . . not sure where that urban legend came from.
There are no side effects noted in the literature. Up to 5 grams per kilogram of body weight per day have been used in rats long term with no side effects. That would be 350 grams — i.e., about 12 ounces or 3/4 pound — in a person weighing 150 pounds. Double that dose was used with rabbits for 3 months with no side effects.
The only reported side effects I can find are occasional reports of dry mouth, nausea, diarrhea. One case of an allergic reaction that subsided when the herb was discontinued.
Cordyceps sinensis is synergistic with cyclosporine A and the amount of the drug needed is lessened if cordyceps is taken. The hypoglycemic actions of the herb also reduce the dosage needs for those on antidiabetic medications. There is some concern as well that cordyceps might be synergistic or additive with antiretroviral drugs, thus affecting dosage requirements, but nothing has yet been reported in the literature.
The most common cordyceps medicinal species are what are called club mushrooms by all the mushroom hunters I know, though some mycofanatics are given to Latinizing, often rolling the consonants trippingly across their tongues. They are generally brownish-to-orangish in color (the mushrooms, not the tongues, though if the tongues were brownish-to-orangish this medicine would help clear them up). They look somewhat like a tiny club, narrowing at the bottom, widening at the top, up to 5 inches or so tall (the mushrooms, not the mycologists, though there was this one guy . . .). Basically a very tiny version of something Fred Flintstone might use. Normally they are a bit wrinkled along the sides. There are some other species that have a cap, like other mushrooms, but I have never seen one in person; they tend to be a bit rare in my part of the woods. Cordyceps militaris is the one most often found in the United States; it’s the only one I have met, and collected, personally, in the Rocky Mountains at 8,000 to 10,000 feet. (C. sinensis develops at high altitudes between 10,000 and 16,000 feet, on and in prairies rather than in forests, and tends to be more brownish; C. militaris tends more toward orange.)
Most of the cordyceps species specialize in their preferred hosts but Cordyceps militaris (go figure) parasitizes the pupae and larvae of numerous moth species and, I have heard, beetles as well. All of the cordyceps tend to sprout from the head of whatever insect they infect. (What is this about anyway? Doctrine of signatures? Good for treating mental disorders?) Cordyceps, by the way, means “club head,” cord being club, ceps head, while y is a query referent, e.g., why.
Most of the species that have been found exist in Asia (about 100 in China alone) but there are somewhere between 5 and 20 in the United States depending on how many digits the taxonomists are using to count them. The U.S. species commonly parasitize cicadas, beetles, and moth larvae and pupae. Cordyceps cardinalis for example is moderately common in the southern Appalachian mountains of the eastern United States (and also in southeastern Japan). It is closely related to C. militaris (or C. pseudomilitaris, which only pretends to be violent), the species that has the largest geographical distribution, having been found on all continents except Antarctica. (Antarctica means “no bears,” another useless fact I can’t get out of my brain.)
C. militaris grows throughout the United States and is especially common in the Rocky Mountains, the Carolinas, and along the East Coast, often in mountainous regions. It is the primary medicinal species that is easy to find wild in this country. It is used similarly to C. sinensis and there have been some decent studies on its effects (150 or so on PubMed, versus 300 on C. sinensis).
Cordyceps is a rather potent immunoadaptogen. If immune activity is high, it reduces it; if low, it enhances it. When taken regularly, if the immune system is stressed by, say, a bacterial organism, the herb will stimulate the immune system in just the right way to respond to the stressor while lowering the levels of or inhibiting entirely the bacterial-induced cytokines that are generated.
As a mitochondrial adaptogen, it increases oxygen utilization in the mitochondria, stimulates ATP production by the mitochondria, and protects mitochondria from adverse events. As a hepatoprotective, it offers autoimmune protection, reduces fibrosis, reduces and inhibits cirrhosis, and protects against hepatitis B. As a renoprotective, it protects from toxicity, inhibits renal failure, and reverses glomerulonephritis. And as a cardiotonic, it is hypotensive, strengthens heartbeat, is antiarrhythmic, and improves myocardial ischemia.
Cordyceps is not primarily an antibacterial but is rather a systemic tonic and adaptogen. Still it does have some antimicrobial actions. It is active against some viruses, a few strongly so — influenza virus (H1N1, H9N2), herpes simplex virus 1, HIV-1 protease, hepatitis B, Newcastle virus — and a number of other microbes such as Mycobacterium tuberculosis, Plasmodium spp., Clostridium spp., Staphylococcus aureus (resistant and nonresistant), Enterococcus faecalis, Bacillus subtilis, Candida albicans, and various cancers (breast, thyroid, kidney, bladder, prostate, lung, Leydig cell tumor, melanoma). Its antiviral actions make it a perfect immune adjunct for use in treating most major viral infections.
The herb, while not generally active against bacteria, is, however, highly protective of the human body when bacterial infections occur. For example, in one study, mice were fed either phosphate buffered saline (PBS) or Cordyceps sinensis mycelium for 3 days and then infected with Streptococcus pyogenes. The PBS group showed bacterial dissemination throughout their bodies, while those in the cordyceps group did not. Only 40 percent of the PBS group survived until day 8, while at day 10 70 percent of the cordyceps group were still alive. In addition the PBS group showed extensive skin necrosis, none in the cordyceps group did.
Survival was significantly increased if the cordyceps group received more cordyceps every other day. In fact, all of the cordyceps-treated group then survived while ALT and AST levels remained normal. Use of the extract, in vitro, against the same bacterial strain showed no direct antibacterial activity at all.
Any respiratory viral infection, any inflammation in the brain or CNS — especially encephalitis and meningitis, fatigue and weakness, especially after long illness or in chronic infections, poor mitochondrial function, chronic wasting, unproductive cough from no known cause, joint inflammation, mental fog and confusion, low libido, lung infections, kidney infections, thick mucus in the lungs that will not move, immune dysregulation, dizziness, tinnitus, nocturia, cancer. It is especially effective for mycoplasma infections.
You can get bulk powder and capsules from 1stChineseHerbs.com (www.1stchineseherbs.com) as well as many other places on the Internet. If you want to spend enormous amounts of money, you can also buy the wild-crafted mushroom itself. Or . . . you can join the local mycological society (find a fun one, usually it won’t include guys with mathematically shaven beards) and learn to find it in the wild.
I have seen photos of Cordyceps militaris being intentionally grown on grain. In fact, the main method to develop fruiting bodies of cordyceps, rather than just the mycelium, is to use grains as a substrate — the first used, and still most common, is rice. There is also a company in Texas, called Unicorn Bags, that sells C. militaris spores with detailed inoculation information on how to use live pupae (that is the stage between caterpillar and butterfly). Not my thing really but if you are excited about it look them up (www.unicornbags.com). (First, grasp the pupa firmly, then take your hypodermic needle and . . .)
There is some speculation, but there is little research on it as yet, that the fruiting mushrooms grown on grain have different medicinal actions and chemistry than those found wild and this is true of the vat-grown mycelium as well.
Studies of the gross constituents show a high similarity between the grown and wild species and, when tested, the grown varieties do have very similar impacts in the body. The one in-depth study I have seen does show a variation in chemistry — the same compounds are in both but in differing quantities, the grown having much more of some, less of a few others. One other analysis found that there were some particular compounds in the insect-host-grown cordyceps that were not in the vat-grown. Those compounds tend to be named after the insect host itself, e.g., cicadapeptins. And those compounds do have medicinal actions themselves. Nevertheless, most studies have been with the grown varieties, not the wild, and they have been shown to have range of action very close to that of the wild species.
If you wish to harvest wild cordyceps, especially in the United States, you will most likely find C. militaris. I, personally, don’t know any of the others in their wild state though some mycofanatics do know of them, find them, and utilize them with supposedly good results. C. militaris does have the best research outside of C. sinensis; I don’t think there is any doubt that the two can be considered interchangeable in action. The Chinese, in practice, apparently agree, and some even think C. militaris is better. So, if you want to hunt the wild cordyceps, look for C. militaris. (Easiest way? Join the local mycological society and go hunting with them.)
The best time to harvest the mushroom is in the summer after a good wet winter or spring — depending on the local climate they can be found from April to August. I have found them only in the mountains, in pine forests, usually in July/August. Once you’ve located one, carefully dig the entire mushroom, including the host insect, which will be belowground or embedded in rotted wood (or something). Bag it separately from all the other mushroom species you have collected, take it home, and dry it on an open-air tray in the dark. Watch it carefully to make sure it does not decay as mushrooms are wont to do (though these generally are not as wet as most of the other types and so are less prone to decay once picked). When dry, store in whole form in plastic bags in plastic tubs, out of the sun.
Three constituents are, at present, considered to be the major active chemicals in cordyceps: cordycepin (a.k.a. 3'-deoxyadenosine, a purine alkaloid and a derivative of adenosine), cordycepic acid (a.k.a. D-mannitol), and cordyceps polysaccharide. Some commercial formulations are standardized for cordycepic acid (usually 10 percent), others for 7 percent cordycepin or 0.1 percent adenosine (sort of the same thing). Most are made from cordyceps mycelium and will state as much on the label.
Vat-fermented cordyceps mycelium contains a lot more cordycepin than the wild mushrooms, 40 mcg per gram versus 5 mcg/g. Cordycepic acid varies in wild populations, comprising anywhere from 7 to 29 percent by weight depending on time of year, location, and so on. The fruiting bodies contain from 30 to 85 mg per gram of cordycepic acid; the mycelial content is much higher (which is part of the reason the whole caterpillar is harvested for medicine, not just the club mushroom itself).
Cordyceps, like most mushrooms, has a very high polysaccharide content. The main one is considered to be cordyceps polysaccharide and is primarily composed of D-mannose and D-galactose in a ratio of 3:5. It runs from 3 to 8 percent by weight of the harvested fungus. Most of the rest of the polysaccharides in the herb are simply labeled by identifiers such as P70-1, CPS-1, and so on. As with many mushrooms, there are a lot of them, 36 so far.
The fungus is very high in nucleotides, the molecular components of the nucleic acids RNA and DNA. The main ones are guanosine, adenosine, and uridine in that order. The nucleotides tend to be higher, often much more so, in vat-grown cordyceps mycelium than in the wild fungus.
There are various sterols. Ergosterol is a primary one, a precursor of vitamin D2. It is much higher in the fruiting body itself (10 mg/g) than in the grown mycelium (1.5 mg/g). Others are sitosterol, daucosterol, and campesterol.
Cordyceps has very high levels of 18 different amino acids. The mycelial powders have the highest content. Glutamate, arginine, and aspartic acid are the highest.
The mushroom also has very high levels of fatty acids, in this order: linoleic acid, oleic acid, palmitic acid.
It also contains substantial quantities of 13 different minerals (and traces of 7 more), in this order: potassium, phosphorus, magnesium, calcium, sodium, iron, aluminum, zinc, manganese, silicon, boron, copper, selenium.
And, of course, vitamins: E, K, B1, B2, B12.
There are a few other compounds in the fungus including cordymin, various aminophenols, some unusual cyclic dipeptides, various dihydroisocoumarins, cordypyridones A and B, various diphenyl ethers, myriocin, various polyamines (cadaverine, spermidine, spermine, putrescine and so on).
The constituents of C. militaris are very similar.
Note: Research is showing that some of the active compounds in the various cordyceps species are specific to the insect host upon which they form, e.g., cicadapeptins 1 and 2 that Cordyceps heteropoda creates from the chemicals in the cicadas upon which it develops. Again, this type of research is very new and very uncommon.
Cordyceps was first recorded in Tibet in the fifteenth century in the medical text Mennag chewa rinsel by Zurkhar Namnyi Dorje. Oddly enough, in spite of the fact that cordyceps first appeared in Tibetan healing texts, and continued to do so through the nineteenth century, it is rarely used as a medicine there. Those who do use it do so primarily as a liquid tonic that they take throughout the day for increasing vigor and strength and as an aphrodisiac. Generally, the liquid is prepared by placing four or five cordyceps mushrooms in arak (a rice or barley liquor) and leaving it to steep in a cool, dark place for 2 to 3 months (sometimes up to a year).
While rarely mentioned in Tibetan texts, and not considered all that important an herb in that tradition, its range of actions in that system are increasing the energy of the body, increasing and restoring semen, increasing kidney strength. It is considered specific for altitude sickness.
Though the Tibetans didn’t find cordyceps to be a major medicine, the Chinese did. It has, since its discovery, been a major trade item with China, sometimes worth more than gold.
The herb came to Western prominence in 1994 when a Chinese track coach insisted that his team won so handily in the 1994 Asian Games in Hiroshima, Japan, beating the world records in the 1,500-, 3,000-, and 10,000-meter events, because he had them use the herb regularly as part of their training regimen.
In spite of cordyceps being indigenous in India, there is little, if any, mention of the herb in traditional Ayurvedic texts. There is some speculation that the herb “sanjivani” mentioned in the older texts is cordyceps, but it’s a guess.
In India, the use of cordyceps primarily occurs in community herbal practice, not in formal Ayurvedic healing. It is commonly used among traditional healers in Sikkim, a landlocked Indian state in the Himalayan mountains that borders both Nepal and Tibet. It is recommended as a tonic for all illnesses, improving energy, appetite, stamina, libido, endurance and normalizing sleep. It is considered to be a longevity herb and specific for colds and flu, coughs, asthma, cancer, tuberculosis, diabetes, erectile dysfunction, BHP, jaundice, and hepatitis. Although occasionally prepared as a water extraction it is generally infused in an alcoholic liquor, as in Tibet.
Cordyceps is described variously as having a neutral property and sweet taste or as being sweet/acrid with a warm property. It acts on the lung and kidney channels, is lung nourishing, kidney vital essence and vital energy tonifying, hemostatic, and phlegm resolvent, that is, a mucolytic. It is generally prescribed for overall debility after sickness and for the aged. It is considered to be one of the three primary invigorating medicinals in Chinese medicine along with Asian ginseng and deer antler.
It is specific for tonifying the lungs, arresting bronchial bleeding, dispelling phlegm, chronic cough, asthma, wasting, and tonifying the kidneys. It is also used for impotence, low libido, poor seminal emissions, aching of loins and knees, and as a tonic for spontaneous sweating, aversion to cold, tinnitus, chronic nephritis, general weakness, and sexual hypofunction.
Until 1994, none. Now, lots of interest, primarily based on the Chinese and Japanese research and cordyceps’s reputation as a longevity herb and aphrodisiac. (We seek our youth and we will not be denied.)
Most of the scientific studies have occurred since 1995, after the Asian Games, and the numbers of published articles are increasing every year. There were four studies published in 1995, by 2011 there were 80. And those are just the ones accessible through PubMed; there are scores more in the Chinese, Japanese, and Korean databases, most not translated into English. Of those 80, only 13 were not Korean, Japanese, or Chinese and about half of those 13 were not studying the medicinal actions of the plant. The Western world is still betting that those buggy whip orders will pick up again . . . any day now.
The majority of the studies I am citing were with C. sinensis or C. militaris herbs or their isolated compounds.
Cordyceps downregulates a number of inflammatory cytokines and upregulates others such as IL-10, TGF-ß, and IL-1ra that are specific for controlling overactive inflammation responses in the body. In underactive immune systems, it will upregulate cytokines to help the body deal with disease. In overactive immune circumstances it will downregulate them.
It downregulates or inhibits NF-κB, TNF-α, IL-1ß, IL-12, NO, iNOS, SOD, elastase, luceriferase, ERK, JAK-2 (Janus kinase-2), JNK, p38, PGE2, spleen tyrosine kinase (Syk), STAT-1, AP-1, MMP-3, MMP-9, and H2O2 hemolysis, and it scavenges hydroxyl radicals.
When cells are challenged by lipoproteins from the bacterial cytoplasmic membrane cordyceps strongly downregulates TNF-α, IL-12, and NO. In lipopolysaccharide-activated macrophages it inhibits NF-κB, NO, TNF-α, IL-1ß, IL-6, IL-12, IFN-γ, AP-1, COX-2, the phosphorylation of p38 MAPK and Akt, as well as inhibiting PGE2 levels and suppressing Syk/NF-κB, IKKε/IRF-3, and p38/AP-1 pathways.
Treatment with cordyceps or the cordyceps constituent cordycepin, or adenosine, causes lipopolysaccharide-stimulated macrophages to return to their original inactivated shape. This dynamic is dose dependent and needs relatively high levels of the herb.
Cordycepin suppresses TNF-α and MMP-9 expression in human bladder cancer cells, inactivates the phosphoinositide 3-kinase (PI3K) pathway in LNCaP cells, and increases levels of TIMP (tissue inhibitor of metalloproteinase) 1 and 2, and thus downregulates MMP-3 and MMP-9 in prostate cancer cells.
Cordyceps possesses a potent sphingomyelinase inhibitor that inhibits the breakdown of sphingomyelin in the body, especially in the brain, making it specific for mycoplasma. It strongly inhibits hydrogen peroxide oxidation and activity against cells and actively protects the mitochrondria (reducing oxidative stress and mitochondrial depolarization). It acts as an intracellular antioxidant and is a strong hydroxyl radical scavenger. All these actions are dose dependent.
Cordycepin strongly inhibits lipopolysaccharide-activated inflammation in microglia cells. It significantly inhibits the production of NO, PGE2, and proinflammatory cytokines in the microglia. It suppresses NF-κB translocation by blocking IkappaBalpha degradation and inhibits phosphorylation of Akt, ERK-1 and ERK-2, JNK, and p38 kinase. A compound of cordyceps, coptidis rhizoma, and Chinese skullcap was shown to have powerful neuroprotective effects on lipopolysaccharide-activated microglial cells. It inhibited NO, iNOS, COX-2, PGE2, gp91 phox, iROS (intracellular reactive oxygen species), TNF-α, IL-1ß, and IkappaBalpha degradation. It upregulated heme oxygenase-1 and increased cell viability and mitochondrial membrane potential. The three-herb compound was found to strongly protect neural cells from toxicity.
Cordyceps is strongly modulatory on immune cells. In vitro it acts as an activator and maturation stimulant to monocytes and immature dendritic cells by stimulating the expression of costimulatory molecules and proinflammatory cytokines, enhancing dendritic-cell-induced allogeneic T cell proliferation and reducing the endocytic ability of dendritic cells. However, during lipopolysaccharide stimulation cordyceps suppresses the proinflammatory cytokines involved. It suppresses the lipopolysaccharide-induced, dendritic-cell-elicited allogeneic T cell proliferation and shifts the immune response from a potent Th1 to a Th2 dynamic. In the absence of infection, it potentiates Th1 immune activity. During active infection, it actively modulates the extreme upregulation of lipopolysaccharide cytokines and balances the overreactivity of the Th1 response.
Cordyceps has a lot of effects on airway epithelial cells. It acts to normalize cellular function in airway epithelia by normalizing ion transport. It blocks airway inflammation by blocking NF-κB production in airway epithelial cells. It significantly reduces epidermal-growth-factor-stimulated mucous hypersecretion in lung mucoepidermoid cells by downregulating COX-2, MMP-9, and MUC5AC gene expression through blocking NF-κB and the p38/ERK MAPK pathways. It strongly regulates the inflammation that occurs in the bronchii and regulates bronchoalveolar lavage fluids by doing do. It downregulates IL-1ß, IL-6, IL-8, and TNF-α. It is highly protective of epithelia and normalizes the function of the surface epithelium.
In rheumatoid arthritis synovial fibroblasts it inhibits IL-1ß-induced MMP-1 and MMP-3 expression. MMP-1 degrades fibrillar collagens, MMP-3 the extracellular matrix. It also inhibits MAPK activation, specifically p38 and JNK. It is a fairly potent inhibitor of p38 phosphorylation.
Cordyceps is highly protective of renal tubular epithelial cells in vitro. It is antiadipogenic. It is antiatherogenic by blocking MAPK, specifically ERK, JNK, and p38. It suppresses the expression of diabetes-regulating genes. It reduces platelet aggregation.
Cordyceps stimulates ATP generation by mitochondria and also antioxidant activity, and it modulates immune responses intracellularly. It protects mitochondria from ROS and enhances the mitochondrial antioxidant defenses. The effects are dose dependent.
Cordyceps militaris, grown on soybeans, was used to prepare a hot water extract that was then given to mice infected with influenza A virus. Significantly reduced virus titers in lung tissue were observed after 3 days when compared with mice not given cordyceps. A polysaccharide, presumed to be the most active antiviral agent, was extracted and given intranasally to mice infected with lethal strains of influenza A. Mortality dropped from 70 to 18 percent. The polysaccharide was determined to be a type of arabinogalactan, similar to those extracted from larch and juniper.
In rats, cordycepin attenuated neointima formation (a thickened layer of arterial tissue) in vascular smooth-tissue muscle cells by inhibiting ROS. Cordymin, a constituent of cordyceps, was found to be strongly anti-inflammatory in induced gastric inflammation in mice by inhibiting IL-1ß, TNF-α, and total oxidant levels. It was also found to be strongly analgesic. Cordyceps (militaris) extract suppressed induced acute colitis in mice and significantly reduced the production of inflammatory cytokines from macrophages and mast cells. NO, iNOS, and TNF-α were all strongly inhibited. Cordyceps extract inhibited airway inflammation in rats by blocking NF-κB. It significantly inhibited ovalbumin-induced airway inflammation in sensitized guinea pigs and rats that mimics the human condition of asthma. Likewise, Cordyceps militaris reduced airway inflammation in a mouse asthma model.
Lipopolysaccharide-injected mice, experiencing induced inflammation, showed a remarkable reduction of IL-1ß, TNF-α, iNOS, COX-2, and PGE2 when given an extract of Cordyceps pruinosa.
Cordyceps extract increased CD4+ and CD8+, IL-4, and IL-10 in mice, especially in mesenteric lymph node lymphocytes. Regular daily doses of cordyceps extract prevented disuse-induced osteoporosis in rats. And an extract increased glutathione levels, reduced oxidants, and lowered blood glucose levels in rats with streptozotocin-induced diabetes.
Cordyceps extract significantly improved learning and reduced memory impairment in mice. Cordyceps militaris extract (and cordycepin) protected hippocampal neurons in gerbils from ischemic injury. Cordycepin was found to be strongly protective of neurons against cerebral ischemia/reperfusion. It considerably lowered levels of MMP-3 in the brain, increased SOD, and decreased malondialdehyde, significantly reducing oxidation. In one study Cordyceps sinensis mycelium strongly protected rat neurons from ischemic injury by inhibiting NF-κB, PMNs (polymorphonuclear neutrophils), IL-1ß, iNOS, TNF-α, ICAM-1, and COX-2. A cordymin extract pretty much did the same thing in another study. In still another study cordyceps extract protected the brain from injury after middle cerebral artery occlusion-induced cerebral ischemia in rats. And in yet another study cordycepin prevented postischemic neuronal degeneration in mice.
Cordyceps sinensis extract significantly reduced renal ischemia/reperfusion injury in rats. Various forms of renal injury in rats were ameliorated by the use of several types of Cordyceps cicadae extracts.
Mice exposed to ionizing radiation experienced restored immune function from a polysaccharide of C. sinensis through modulation of the secretion of IL-4, IL-5, and IL-17. A butanol extract of Cordyceps bassiana was shown to inhibit induced atopic dermatitis in mice. And in hamsters, cordycepin was shown to prevent hyperlipidemia.
Other studies have shown cordycepin to be strongly steroidogenic. It stimulated testosterone production in mouse Leydig cells. And serum testosterone and sperm count and motility were strongly increased in rats after supplementation with Cordyceps militaris.
Cordyceps extract inhibits the proliferation and differentiation of Th2 cells and reduces the expression of related cytokines by downregulating GST-3 mRNA and upregulating FOXP3 mRNA and relieves chronic allergic inflammation by increasing IL-10 in the blood of children with chronic asthma.
In one study, 60 asthmatic patients were split into two groups. Thirty used an inhaler, the rest used Cordyceps sinensis (CS) capsules. IgE, solubal ICAM-1, IL-4, and MMP-9 were all lowered in the cordyceps group (though not as much as in those using an inhaler). Another study at the Beijing Medical University with 50 asthma patients found that the symptoms in the group treated with CS were reduced by 81 percent in 5 days versus 61 percent over 9 days in the pharmaceutical group.
There have been a number of other trials of the herb in the treatment of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), asthma, and bronchitis that have not been translated into English. The herb was effective for all these conditions; it is especially indicated for COPD.
One trial split 65 renal dialysis patients into two groups. The 33 in the second group took cordyceps (330 mg) and ginkgo (230 mg) three times daily for 3 months. At the end of that period microinflammation, a problem in renal hemodialysis, was significantly lowered in the herb group. Levels of hs-CRP (high-sensitivity C-reactive protein), IL-6, and TNF-α were all much lower.
In one study with 51 patients suffering chronic renal failure, the use of 3–5 grams/day of CS significantly improved renal function and increased immune function. Another study with 57 people suffering gentamicin-induced renal damage split the subjects into two groups; one received CS, the other conventional pharmaceuticals. After 6 days those in the CS group had recovered 89 percent of their kidney function versus 45 percent in the other group.
Sixty-one people with lupus nephritis were split into two groups. One received 2–4 grams of cordyceps (before meals) and 600 mg of artemisinin (after meals) three times daily for 3 years. They were observed for an additional 5 years after treatment. Twenty-six had no recurrence, four had mild, and for one the herbs did not work.
A randomized trial of cordyceps in the treatment of 21 aged patients (divided into two groups) found that cordyceps ameliorated aminoglycoside nephrotoxicity.
Cordyceps sinensis (CS) was used in the long-term treatment of renal transplant patients. Long-term survival was no different in the treated and untreated groups, however the incidence of complication was significantly lower in the CS group. The CS group needed much lower doses of cyclosporine A and serum levels of IL-10 in the CS group were much higher. Another renal transplant study with 200 transplant patients showed the same outcomes.
Three separate studies with a combined patient population of 756 men and women who were experiencing reduced sex drive found that after 40 days 65 percent of those taking cordyceps reported improved libido and performance versus 24 percent of those taking placebo. In another study with elderly patients complaining of decreased libido, impotence, and other sexual malfunctions 3 grams/day of cordyceps was administered for 40 days. Increased sperm survival time, increased sperm count, and decreased numbers of malformed sperm were all found in the majority of males. Improvements in hypoleukorrhagia, menoxenia, and sex drive were reported in a majority of the women.
There have been a number of clinical studies of the herb in cancer treatment, along with chemo and radiation. In one study of 50 patients taking cordyceps, tumors reduced in 23. In another, after 2 months, most patients taking cordyceps reported improved subjective symptoms. White blood counts stayed at 3000/mm3 or higher. The use of cordyceps during radiation and chemo has been found to counteract the negative immune effects of those procedures.
There have been a number of Chinese studies on using the herb for treating heart conditions, liver problems, hypercholesterolemia, and male/female sexual dysfunction but few of them have been translated into English. There have also been a few studying exercise tolerance and improvement, e.g., 20 adults aged 50 to 75, in a double-blind, placebo-controlled trial showed improved exercise performance while taking cordyceps. However, the main studies in the United States have been on exercise tolerance with young athletes, and they all showed no improvement. The dosages were extremely low.
The best overall look at the herb, its history, and its medical uses is probably John Holliday and Matt Cleaver, On the Trail of the Yak: Ancient Cordyceps in the Modern World (June 2004). I have only found it online and downloaded it from the website of Earthpulse Press (www.earthpulse.com).
Note: To be effective for anything, cordyceps must be dosed appropriately. That means a minimum dose of 3 grams daily but the best results occur with 6 grams daily as the baseline, especially in acute conditions. The renal studies usually used from 3 to 4.5 grams. This dose range can also work for lung problems, except in truly acute conditions when it should be 6 to 9 grams (in mycoplasma treatment as well).
Family: Crassulaceae.
Species used: There is, as usual, confusion among those with advanced degrees in plant science as to just how many species of rhodiola there are: 36, or maybe 60, probably 90. It’s like stamp collectors (“No, look at that tiny ink spot on the edge, that’s what makes it rare.”); I just want to scream.
The primary medicinal that most people use is Rhodiola rosea, but many of the related species are used medicinally in the regions in which they grow. Because of the interest in R. rosea, the genus is being intensively studied for activity: I have found medicinal studies of one sort or another on R. crenulata, R. quadrifida, R. heterodonta,, R. semenovii, R. sachalinensis, R. sacra, R. fastigiata, R. kirilowii, R. bupleuroides, R. imbricata, R. rhodantha, and R. integrifolia.
There have been some extravagant claims (easily found on the Internet) that only Russian Rhodiola rosea, harvested near the Arctic Circle (presumably by fasting virgins as the northern lights first emerge over the rim of the Earth), contains the necessary active constituents for the herb to be useful. However, all the Rhodiola rosea plants, irrespective of where they grow or in what country, have nearly identical chemistry. They are all perfectly usable as medicine.
But please note: The exact chemical profile of the R. rosea plants themselves differs depending on time of year, time of day, and geographical location (this valley in Russia or that one) irrespective of whether they are harvested at the Arctic Circle in Russia by fasting virgins or not. In other words, you can pick R. rosea from this location in May and again in September and the chemical profile of the plant won’t be the same. The same is true of every species in the genus — and of every medicinal plant on Earth. Part of the art of herbalism is being able to determine medicinal potency of the plants you are harvesting by using the most sophisticated scientific instrument ever discovered — the focused power of human consciousness. Machines just aren’t a reliable substitute for the capacity to reason and feel simultaneously. Furthermore . . . oops! Sorry. Got carried away again.
Studies on 14 other species in the genus have found the same constituents in them as in R. rosea. They can all be used medicinally, they all do pretty much the same things, they all work identically to the usual commercial variety R. rosea — see “Scientific Research” (page 300) for more. Rhodiola integrifolia, by the way, is considered to be a natural hybrid between Rhodiola rhodantha and R. rosea; you can consider it pretty much identical to R. rosea.
Synonyms: The rhodiolas look much like sedums and were once included in that genus, so you will see rosea sometimes listed as Sedum rosea and so on.
Common names: Rhodiola, golden root, roseroot, stonecrop, arctic root. The fresh roots smell a bit like roses, hence the origin of that name. They are golden in color, thus golden root.
The root.
Generally used as capsules or tincture.
Use the dried root, in an herb:liquid ratio of 1:5, with the liquid being 50 percent alcohol. Some people use a 1:3 formulation. I am not sure it is necessary.
Tonic dose: 30–40 drops 3x of 4x daily, usually in water.
In acute conditions: 1⁄2–1 teaspoon 3x daily for 20–30 days, then back to the tonic dose. There really isn’t an upper dosage limit that I can find.
The root is most often used in capsule form, 100 mg each. Usual dose is 1 or 2 capsules per day. In acute conditions up to 1,000 mg a day can be taken. The capsules are often standardized to contain 2–3 percent rosavins and 0.8–1 percent salidroside. They are usually taken just before meals.
Some people experience jitteriness from the herb; you should not take it at night until you know if you are one of them.
None noted.
Rhodiolas are plants that like high altitude and cold; either will do. They are a circumpolar genus of the subarctic and cool, mountainous regions of the northern hemisphere and are common in eastern Russia, parts of China, Tibet (which has many species), the mountains and northern climes of Europe, Canada, the mountainous and colder regions of the United States. The United States, Europe, and Tibet appear to have the largest populations, with Tibet having the most species.
The rhodiolas are typical succulents with fleshy, moisture-filled, grayish-green leaves. The plants grow to about 12 inches and they will have, depending on the species, a cluster of yellow, pink, red, or orange flowers at the top of the stalk. R. rosea’s flowers are yellow.
The root system is fairly large if the plants grow in a nutrient-rich environment. The farther north they grow, and the poorer the soils, the smaller the root.
There are three species of rhodiola in North America: Rhodiola rosea, which grows in the mountains of North Carolina, and in Pennsylvania through New England into Canada and all the way to the Arctic Circle; R. rhodantha, which grows in the Rocky Mountain states from New Mexico and Arizona up to the Canadian border; and R. integrifolia, which has the widest distribution in North America. It ranges from the Rocky Mountain spine (New Mexico, etc., westward) up into Canada and into the Arctic. There are populations as well in Minnesota and New York State. Most of the eastern rhodiolas are considered endangered.
If you are in the western United States and wanting to wild-harvest your own roots, look for R. integrifolia; it is just as useful as R. rosea medicinally and it is not endangered as many of the eastern U.S. R. rosea populations are.
Due to the popularizing of the plant as an antiaging and chronic fatigue medicinal, wild populations of rosea are becoming endangered; the Russians have put them on their red list of threatened plants. The largest populations of the plant were formerly in the Altai region of southern Siberia. However, over 45 companies have been harvesting the plant for export (“Real Russian rhodiola”) and those plant populations have been severely reduced.
If you live in a region in which rhodiola grows, you can harvest your own roots; you won’t need to harvest much for yourself and your family. Commercial harvesting, except for very limited amounts in abundant areas, is highly discouraged.
If you find the plant in your area, harvest the roots in the fall after seeding or in the spring just as it is coming up. The roots will be bigger and, in my opinion, more potent in the spring. Slice the bigger roots; the interior of the root will change from white to a brown or reddish color as it begins to dry.
Due to the heavy worldwide demand for the plant, there are increasing efforts to make the plant an agricultural staple in regions where it will grow; Bulgaria, Canada, and Finland are early innovators in growing the crop. The yields are low, only about 3 tons per hectare, and they are labor intensive. Since the roots are taken, and only after 5 years, agricultural production of the plant demands a minimum of five fields, planted in rotation so they can be harvested in successive years in order to keep up continual production.
The seeds are tiny; 1,000 of them weigh only 0.2 gram. The germination rates are low, 2 to 36 percent; they are happier with a little stratification. Thirty days at –5°C (23° F) will increase germination rates to 50 to 75 percent. Soak the seeds in water overnight, mix into moist soil, store for 1 month at a temperature of 2° to 4°C (36–39° F). You will then get about a 75 percent germination rate.
In Finland they get 95 to 100 percent germination if they sow the seeds on the surface of a sand/peat mix and keep the trays outside all winter under the snow. In April/May the boxes are brought into a greenhouse at a temperature of 18° to 22°C (64–72° F). Germination begins in 3 days to 1 week.
If you keep the seedlings inside for a year before transplanting, yields are significantly higher. They like sandy, loamy soil, neutral or slightly acidic. NPK: 50/50/70. They don’t need additional fertilizer after the first year. The easiest method, however, is to divide the roots of an established plant and plant the root cuttings, much like potatoes.
The plant takes a minimum of 3 years to mature but the roots should not be harvested for 5 years. Dig in the fall, slice, let dry out of the sun. Store in plastic bags, inside plastic containers, in the dark.
Most people think that salidroside (a.k.a. rhodioloside) is the most important compound in the root, while others insist it is the rosavin. Others say, yeah those and . . . rosin, rosarin, and tyrosol. Studies have found, as usual, that salidroside is much more effective when combined with rosavin, rosin, and rosarin. So, I’m guessing, just a wild shot here, that it’s the whole root that is most active.
There are, of course, a great many other compounds in the root, at least 85 essential oils and another 50 water-soluble nonvolatiles. Many of the usual plant compounds are present.
Rhodiola, as far as I can tell, and in spite of assertions that it is a long-standing medicinal in traditional Chinese medicine, was a contribution to the medicinal plant world by the Russians due to their interest in adaptogens. This is pretty much a Russian-introduced category of medicinal herb — a plant that enhances general overall functioning, somewhat like a tonic but one that increases the ability of the organism to respond to outside stressors of whatever sort, diseases included. It enhances an organism’s general resistance to multiple adverse influences or conditions.
The Russians have done a lot of great work on the medicinal actions of plants and deeply developed some unique categories of herbs, such as the adaptogenics. I see a lot of comments here and there picking on them, insisting that they are a dour people. But the Russians themselves say they smile and laugh only when there is truly something to smile or laugh about (which is almost never). Contrariwise they comment, “Have you ever wondered why the first thing Americans do when they meet you is show you their teeth?” And, of course, they did not laugh when they said that (but I did, it’s really funny).
Rhodiola, like the stronger preparations of eleutherococcus (another Russian-developed herb), is considered to be not just adaptogenic but an adaptogenic stimulant — part of the reason it can cause jitteriness and wakefulness in some. I like it and it tastes yummy (yes, that is a technical Russian term).
A few of my obscure herb reference sources reveal that rhodiola was used in traditional Russian folk medicine to increase physical endurance, work productivity, longevity, resistance to altitude sickness, fatigue, depression, anemia, impotence, GI tract ailments, infections, and nervous afflictions. But they seem to be the only people who used it regularly.
You can buy it pretty much everywhere. If you live in the right climate you can probably find it wild or grow it yourself.
Again, this herb is not primarily an antimicrobial but it does have some antiviral actions. It is active against influenza viruses due to its neuraminidase inhibitory activity. It has been found active against H1N1 and H9N2 viral strains. It is also active against the hepatitis C and Coxsackie B3 viruses. One of its constituents, kaempferol, is specific against Japanese encephalitis virus and enterovirus 71. It has some antibacterial activity as well, against Staphylococcus aureus (strong), Bacillus subtilis and Mycobacterium tuberculosis (moderate), E. coli (weak).
Chronic long-term fatigue, recurrent infections, recovery from long-term illness and infections, nervous exhaustion, chronic fatigue syndrome, chronic disease conditions with depression, low immune function, brain fog, and to accelerate recovery from debilitating conditions.
Note: The plant is specific for the kinds of damage that occur during encephalitis infections. It is highly neuroprotective and strongly anti-inflammatory in the brain and CNS. It should be used in all encephalitis infections.
The leaves of most species can be eaten, chopped finely and added to salads, or cooked as a pot herb. The plants are very high in vitamin C, with 33 mg per gram of fresh plant.
I just can’t find much mention of the herb.
Rhodiolas have (supposedly) been used in Chinese medicine, Tibetan medicine, and Ayurveda for a very long time — according to many reports. But my library, extensive, doesn’t list the genus in any of my source books for those systems of healing. I did find some indigenous uses in Tibet, however. The plant is a part of traditional Tibetan medicine for promoting blood circulation and relieving cough. In central Asia the tea has been used for a long time as the most effective local treatment for colds and flu. Mongolian physicians use it for tuberculosis and cancer.
The plant never was a huge medicinal in the West even though there are traces of its use as far back as the seventeenth century in the Scandinavian countries. Rhodiola rosea and R. integrifolia were used by the indigenous tribes of Alaska as food, and the root was eaten for sores in the mouth, tuberculosis, stomachache, and GI tract troubles. The Eclectics recognized a couple of the sedums but none of the rhodiolas before their name change.
There is a lot of research on this plant right now, and more studies are occurring daily. There have been, unlike the case for many other newish medicinal plants, a lot of human clinical trials with this herb. I am primarily going to look at the neuroprotective/neuroregenerative, immune, and antistress/antifatigue actions of the plant — they are strongly interrelated. The potent antioxidant actions of the plant are deeply interrelated with those as well.
In vitro: Compounds in both Rhodiola sacra and R. sachalinensis protect neurons against beta-amyloid-induced, stauroporine-induced, and H2O2-induced death. Salidroside, a common compound in many rhodiolas, protects cultured neurons from injury from hypoxia and hypoglycemia; protects neuronal PC12 cells and SH-SY5Y neuroblastoma cells against cytotoxicity from beta-amyloid and against hypoglycemia and serum limitation; and protects neurons. It does so by inducing the antioxidant enzymes thioredoxin, heme oxygenase-1, and peroxiredoxin-1, downregulating the pro-apoptotic gene Bax, and upregulating the anti-apoptotic genes Bcl-2 and Bcl-X(L). It also restores H2O2-induced loss of mitochondrial membrane potential and restores intracellular calcium levels.
In vivo: Rhodiola rosea enhances the level of 5-hydroxytryptamine in the hippocampus, promotes the proliferation and differentiation of neural stem cells in the hippocampus, and protects hippocampal neurons from injury. R. rosea protects against cognitive deficits, neuronal injury, and oxidative stress induced by intracerebroventricular injection of streptozotocin. Salidroside protects rat hippocampal neurons against H2O2-induced apoptosis. A combination of rhodiola and astragalus protects rats against simulated plateau hypoxia (8,000 m/24,000 feet). It inhibits the accumulation of lactic acid in brain tissue and serum.
Human clinical trial: A double-blind, placebo-controlled, randomized study with 40 women, ages 20 to 68, who were highly stressed, found that a Rhodiola rosea extract increased attention, speed, and accuracy during stressful cognitive tasks. Similarly, Rhodiola rosea was used with 120 adults with both physical and cognitive deficiencies (exhaustion, decreased motivation, daytime sleepiness, decreased libido, sleep disturbances, concentration deficiencies, forgetfulness, decreased memory, susceptibility to stress, irritability); after 12 weeks, 80 percent of patients showed improvements. In another study, a combination formula (Xinnaoxin capsule) of Rhodiola rosea, Lycium chinense berry, and fresh Hippophae rhamnoides fruit juice was given to 30 patients with chronic cerebral circulatory insufficiency; after 4 weeks the condition was significantly improved. A double-blind, crossover 3-week study on stress-induced fatigue on the mental performance of healthy physicians during night duty found that Rhodiola rosea extract decreased mental fatigue and increased cognitive functions such as associative thinking, short-term memory, calculation and concentration, and speed of audiovisual perception.
In vitro: Salidroside stimulated glucose uptake by rat muscle cells. Rhodiola rosea extract stimulated the synthesis or resynthesis of ATP and stimulated reparative processes in mitochondria.
In vivo: Rhodiola rosea extracts increased the life span of Drosophila melanogaster, lowered mitochondrial superoxide levels, and increased protection against the superoxide generator paraquat. Four weeks’ supplementation with R. rosea extract significantly increased swimming time in exhausted mice — it significantly increased liver glycogen levels, SREBP-1 (sterol regulatory element binding protein 1), FAS (fatty acid synthase), heat shock protein 70 expression, the Bcl-2:Bax ratio, and oxygen content in the blood. Salidroside protected the hypothalamic/pituitary/gonad axis of male rats under intense stress — testosterone levels remained normal rather than dropping, secretory granules of the pituitary gland increased, and mitochondrial cells were strongly protected. R. rosea extract completely reversed the effects of chronic mild stress in female rats — that is, decreased sucrose intake, decreased movement, weight loss, and dysregulation of menstrual cycle. Rhodiola suppressed increased enzyme activity in rats subjected to noise stress — glutamic pyruvic transaminase, alkaline phosphatase, and creatine kinase levels all returned to normal, and glycogen, lactic acid, and cholesterol levels in the liver also returned to normal. R. rosea reduced stress and CRF-induced anorexia in rats. And so on.
Human clinical trial: Twenty-four men who had lived at high altitude for a year were tested to see the effects of rhodiola on blood oxygen saturation and sleep disorders; rhodiola was found to increase blood oxygen saturation significantly and increase both sleeping time and quality. In a double-blind, placebo-controlled study of the effects of R. rosea on fatigue in students caused by stress, physical fitness, mental fatigue, and neuro-motoric indices all increased (other studies found similar outcomes). R. rosea intake in a group of healthy volunteers reduced inflammatory C-reactive protein and creatine kinase in blood and protected muscle tissue during exercise. Rhodiola rosea in a placebo-controlled, double-blind, randomized study was found to increase physical capacity, muscle strength, speed of limb movement, reaction time and attention — in other words it improved exercise endurance performance. A similarly structured study found that 1 week of rhodiola supplementation decreased fatigue and stress levels but more interestingly decreased photon emissions on the dorsal side of the hand. In another study Rhodiola rosea increased the efficiency of the cardiovascular and respiratory systems and prevented fatigue during an hour of continuous physical exercise. A phase three clinical trial found that rhodiola exerts an antifatigue effect that increases mental performance and concentration and decreases cortisol response in burnout patients with fatigue syndrome; other studies have found similar outcomes including the amelioration of depression and anxiety.
In vitro: Rhodiola imbricata protects macrophages against tert-butyl hydroperoxide injury and upregulates the immune response. Additionally it potently stimulates the innate immune pathway and initiates strong immunostimulatory actions, increasing Toll-like receptor 4, granzyme B, and Th1 cytokines. R. sachalinensis extract enhances the expression of iNOS in macrophages. R. quadrifida stimulates granulocyte activity and increases lymphocyte response to mitogens. R. algida stimulates human peripheral blood lymphocytes and upregulates IL-2 in Th1 cells and IL-4, IL-6, and IL-10 in Th2 cells.
In vivo: Rhodiola kirilowii enhances cellular immunity, stimulating the activity of lymphocytes and increasing phagocytosis in response to microbial organisms. R. imbricata enhances specific immunoglobulin levels in response to tetanus toxoid and ovalbumin in rats — the plant has adjuvant/immunopotentiating activity in both humoral and cell-mediated immune response.
Human clinical trial: Rhodiola rosea (in combination with schisandra, eleuthero, and leuzea) significantly increased both cell-mediated and humoral immune response in ovarian cancer patients. Rhodiola significantly reduced problems and infection after the treatment of acute lung injury caused by massive trauma/infection and thoracic-cardio operations. A combination formula of rhodiola, eleuthero, and schisandra significantly enhanced positive outcomes in the treatment of acute nonspecific pneumonia. R. rosea increased the parameters of leukocyte integrins and T-cell immunity in bladder cancer patients.
Rhodiola, various species, has been found effective in the treatment of breast cancer. It inhibits the tumorigenic properties of invasive mammary epithelial cells, inhibits superficial bladder cancer, suppresses T241 fibrosarcoma tumor cell proliferation, and reduces angiogenesis in various tumor lines. R. imbricata is highly protective in mice against whole-body lethal radiation.
The plant has also been found highly antioxidant in numerous studies, to be liver protective, and to be highly protective of the cardiovascular system.
The plant is adaptogenic; that is, it increases the function of the organism to meet whatever adverse influences are affecting it, whether stress or illness. Most of the attention has been paid to its ability to increase endurance and mental acuity but its effects on the immune system, though less studied than eleuthero’s, are similar.