How are dissertations organized? What guidelines or principles govern the organization of individual chapters? How can the organization be made clear to the reader? And how is the dissertation finally packaged? These are all important issues that confront the doctoral student from the outset. This chapter examines these questions in the order posed.
The answer to this question is simple: in whatever way enables you to communicate your results clearly to the reader. Techniques of organization have no intrinsic value; they operate only to facilitate communication—to help you achieve your goal of informing the reader. Obviously, the particular organizational strategy you choose will be affected by such considerations as the nature of your study, the field in which you are working, the preferences of your dissertation chairperson, the particular requirements of your department, and the regulations imposed by the institution granting the degree.
There is a general pattern used in most dissertations. It is widely used, not just because it is sanctioned by tradition, but because it has its own internal logic. It is a pattern that provides answers to five fundamental questions:
As noted, above, there are many variations to this basic pattern. In some cases, you might feel that a review of the literature would be better integrated into the rest of the dissertation rather than standing as a separate chapter unto itself. In some dissertations, the methodology is so implicit in the nature of the inquiry that you might feel that no separate treatment is needed. Some faculties now require the student to produce a publishable article instead of writing a standard dissertation. Thus, the graduate student has flexibility in organizing the final document; institutional guidelines must be followed regardless.
To illustrate more clearly this notion that the organization of the dissertation can vary with the nature of the study, consider the following plan for a qualitative dissertation.
Qualitative Study of Workplace Skills Needed for the 21st Century
Chapter 1. Introduction
Chapter 2. Methodology
Chapter 3. Phase 1: Workplace Skills Needed
Chapter 4. Phase 2: Workplace Skills Possessed
Chapter 5: Phase 3: Comparison and Contrast of Needed and Possessed Workplace Skills
Chapter 6: Summary and discussion with implications for educators
Rather than writing a separate chapter reviewing the literature, the student decided, with the approval of the chair, to integrate the literature review wherever appropriate.
If you feel at all uncertain about the best order, “stand back” from your study, consider your readers, develop a tentative plan for the order of chapters, and talk with your chair. It is very important to keep the lines of communication open at ALL times.
First, each chapter must seem to relate to the whole. The reader should have the feeling that he or she is reading a unified narrative, not a collection of individual pieces. Next, each chapter should make sense by itself, organized in such a way that the reader can easily follow the line of argument. Finally, the parts of the chapter should clearly relate to each other, conveying a sense of order and form. Also, be sure to frame each chapter with a definite introduction that opens the chapter and suggests what is to come and a clear conclusion that draws the chapter to a close.
The organizational patterns found in most dissertations are summarized in Exhibit 13.1. The suggestions presented in Exhibit 13.1 are not intended as a rigid formula. They are offered only as typical patterns. If they seem useful to you with your dissertation, use them. Be certain that each chapter has its own sense of order.
This is an important issue, for if the organization is clear only to you, then you have failed in communicating with the reader. You have an obligation to make your plan clear, to provide the reader with a verbal road map so that the journey is made without detours. It is probably wiser to err on the side of overemphasizing the plan. Readers will forgive you more readily for providing too many maps than they will for confusing them.
You begin by indicating in Chapter 1 how the dissertation is organized. You open each chapter by linking it with the previous chapter and by indicating what will come. In this manner, you provide the reader with an overall framework for the dissertation.
Then you use headings and subheadings at the major divisions of the chapter. As each division begins, you use a transition paragraph or a transition sentence to illustrate the connection between that division and what has been discussed previously. A transition paragraph is a short paragraph that links major sections of the paper. The first sentence leads the reader to consider the information presented in the previous section or division, and the second sentence directs the reader to the forthcoming discussion. A transition sentence has the same structure in condensed form: The first part of the sentence, usually a subordinate clause, looks back. The second part, usually the main clause, looks ahead.
Exhibit 13.1 Typical Organizational Pattern
Here is an example from the dissertation on student academic performance. Assume that the writer has finished writing the section on types of instruments used for measuring student academic performance. Here is the transition that might be used to lead into the next section on the reliability and validity of such instruments: “In addition to this examination of the types of instruments, researchers have considered the reliability and validity of instruments used to measure academic performance.” Notice that the first part of the sentence looks back, and the second part, ahead.
You also use paragraphing effectively as a tool to organize the document. You do not begin and end paragraphs whimsically, when the spirit moves you. You end a paragraph when you have fully developed an idea. You begin a new one when you are ready to move to a new idea. Keep in mind the caution noted in Chapter 12: Dissertations call for longer paragraphs. The longer paragraph suggests seriousness, formality, scholarship, and depth. Aim for a 100-word minimum—approximately six keyboarded lines. That seems arbitrary, of course. The point is that much shorter paragraphs—one or two sentences—will seem superficial.
Consider also the use of topic sentences as aids to organizational clarity. The topic sentence is a sentence that states the main idea of the paragraph. Topic sentences usually come first in expository prose, when they are used. Professional writers do not use or think about topic sentences. However, they are of help to the writer learning the craft. They give shape to the paragraph, and they help the reader. They say very clearly, “This is what this paragraph is about.”
Here is an example of a topic sentence that ties the rest of the paragraph together:
Basic requirements to teach in the various states across the nation vary. Every state requires teachers to be college graduates. However, states may require differing minimum scores on the national teaching exam known as the PRAXIS, which is required to be fully certified as a teacher. …
At the beginning of paragraphs and within a paragraph, make appropriate use of transition devices. A transition device is any expression or verbal strategy that helps the reader make connections. These are the devices most typically used:
Excessive use of such transition devices can seem heavy-handed. It may make more sense if you think about a basic matter of raising and meeting expectations. Scholars who have studied coherence in English have stressed that coherence, the quality of seeming to stick together, really seems to emerge when the writer first raises certain expectations in the reader and then meets those expectations. Writing that seems disconnected either is not clear about the expectations or fails to meet the expectations raised.
Perhaps that basic notion summarizes all this advice about organization: Make clear to the reader what you plan to do—and then keep that bargain, clarifying how you have kept it.
The order and appearance of the final dissertation package are important matters: Check with your adviser about any special requirements of your university and consult whatever style manual is recommended. A standard order is presented below, with some brief comments where appropriate (see Chapter 19 for additional details).
Abstract. Remember that the abstract will probably appear by itself in one of the retrieval services—be sure it reads well, describes your study accurately, and seems self-contained. State the problem clearly, indicate briefly the methodology used, summarize the results, and comment briefly about their implications. Do not include any bibliographic references, tables, figures, abbreviations, or acronyms. Abstracts have a limited number of words, and the number of words allowed is mandated by the institution granting the degree.
Title page. In choosing a title, remember that it should be brief, descriptive, and clear. In thinking of a good title, ask yourself this question: “If I were another reader trying to find this study, what search terms would I use?” The answer should indicate to you what terms are important to include. Do not include phrases like a study of, an investigation of. Also keep in mind the scholarly impact of using a colon in your title: Many scholarly books, articles, and dissertations use a colon in the title. Here are two examples to illustrate these points.
POOR TITLE. The Effects of Video Display Terminals in Proofreading
BETTER TITLE. A Comparison of Errors Detected: Video Display Terminals Versus Hard Copy
Approval page. In some institutions, the approval of the committee and the dean of the college or school are indicated on the title page; in others a separate page is included. Be sure to follow the guidelines of the institution granting the degree.
Acknowledgments page. Most dissertations include an acknowledgment page in which the writer acknowledges the assistance received. It is expected that you will acknowledge the assistance of the committee, paying special tribute to the role the adviser played. You also should acknowledge any special financial support from funding agencies. You should note any editorial help you have received. And if you wish, you may acknowledge the assistance of a long-suffering spouse. But keep this section brief, and don’t be too effusive.
Contents. Call the page Contents, not Table of Contents, unless university requirements specify Table of Contents.
The chapters. Present them in the order that you think is clearest.
References. Most dissertations end with a list of references, with only works cited in the dissertation itself.
Appendices. Include in the appendix (or appendices) any supporting material that does not seem to belong in the main body of the dissertation.
Some universities expect an index to be included; follow your university’s requirements if an index is required.
As mentioned previously, the student needs to ask other people to read, critique, and edit his or her written document. The individual who is asked to read the document should review for readability to determine if a reader can understand what has been written. In addition, an editor should suggest ways to improve the quality of the document. Only a person can verify that the document says something. In Chapter 12, style-check software was mentioned, but a style editor—a person—is needed. The style editor is an individual who is familiar with the documentation requirements of the institution granting the degree—this person is to verify the format of the bibliographic information both within the text and within the reference list. Technology is limited in what it can do; however, human ability and capability is needed to ensure that another person can locate your source if necessary.