9/11 terrorist attacks 58, 63–4, 73, 80, 96
910 Group see Centre for Vigilant Freedom (CVF)
2083: A European Declaration of Independence 77, 94
Agrarian League 23
Ali, Tariq 183
al-Muhajiroun (radical Islamic organisation) 60
anti-Islamic networks 61
Arbeitsgemeinschaft für demokratische Politik (AFP) see Working Group for Democratic Politics
Arendt, Hannah 17
Argentine Peronism 21
Association of Freedomite Youth 38–9
Ataka (Bulgarian Attack Party) 2, 10, 53, 58, 163, 166, 168–9, 171
Atekst (Norwegian database) 125
Austria: Anschluss (connection) to Nazi Germany 33; Anti-Mosque civil initiatives (BPÖ) 116; Austro-Fascism, phase of 33; bureaucratic-authoritarian traditions 35; Christian civilisation 37; denazification in 33; failed denazification and the organisations of the veterans 33–4; Freedom Party of Austria see Freedom Party of Austria; neo-Nazi organisations, growth of 38–9; Operation spring (1999 and 2000) 38; post-Nazi political culture 35; post-war democracy 35; right-wing extremism 35–6; societal force against denazification 34; as victim of Nazi Germany 35; Waldheim scandal 35
Austrian Association of Gymnasts 39
Austrian Freedom Party 5, 112–3, 116
Austro corporatism 35
Authoritarianism, Fascism, and National Populism (1978) 20
Avanguardia Nazionale (National Vanguard) movement 41–2
Balibar, Étienne 186
Battle of Seattle protests 190
Berlant, Lauren 7
Berlusconi, Silvio 43–5, 59, 183–5, 184, 189
Bewegung Zukunft Österreich (BZÖ) see Movement Future Austria
bio-politics, concept of 107–8, 112
blasphemy 54
Bodissey, Baron (Edward S. May) 74–8, 80–3, 85–6, 89, 91–5
body politics versus party politics 164–6
Breivik, Anders 164
Brussels Declaration 90
‘Building a Distributed Counterjihad Network’ 75, 80
Bulgarian National Union 110, 112, 151–2, 152–3, 163, 171
Bund Freier Jugend see Association of Freedomite Youth
Caiani, Manuela 171
Cairo Declaration of Human Rights in Islam (1990) 91
capitalism, fight against 15
cartoons of Prophet Muhammad, publication of 60
Centre for Vigilant Freedom (CVF) 73–6, 83, 86
Charlie Hebdo attack 54, 67n22
Chavez, Hugo 3
civic nationalism 182
civil liberties, violation of 65
civil society organisations 9–10, 109
Civil War (USA) 18
CJM-Network (CJM-N) 73, 80–91, 93–4, 98, 100; associations between 82; in Brussels 82–3, 90–1; characteristic of 80, 82; in Copenhagen 86–7; digital and physical presence 81; in London 89–90; in Vienna 83–6; in Warsaw 91–4; in Zurich 88–9
clash of civilisations, concept of 57, 70, 117
‘cloud’ mobilisation, empowerment through 170–1
Club de l’Horloge 51
Cohn-Bendit, Daniel 186
commodification, process of 191
constitutional liberalism 184, 187, 194
contestatory citizenship, concept of 151, 168, 171–3
Counter Jihad Report, The 75
Counter-Jihad conferences (2007–2013) 74–5
Counter-Jihad Europa website 73
Counterjihad Manifesto, The 76
Counter-Jihad Movement (CJM) 7, 70–2, 79; in Brussels (2007) 82–3; in Brussels (2012) 90–1; characteristic of 80; construction of 71; in Copenhagen (2009) 86–8; discernments of the West and Islam 95–8; discourses of 76–80, 95–8; goals of 76–7; historical and social context of 73–6; internet-supported networks 81; in London (2011) 89–90; network facilitators 86; network of 80–94; physical and digital presence of 81; social organisation of 73; and threat of Islamisation 76–80; in Vienna (2008) 83–6; in Warsaw (2013) 91–4; in Zurich (2010) 88–9
‘Counter-Jihadist’ narrative 73, 79
Cromwell, Oliver 16
crowdsourcing, empowerment through 170–1
cultural identity 6, 50–2, 59, 72, 79, 95, 164
cultural racism 5, 58, 66, 182
cultural war 79
Dagsavisen (newspaper) 136
Danish Free Press Society 74
Danish People’s Party (DF) 2, 10, 24, 56, 58, 60, 65, 115, 116, 122
David Horowotz Freedom Centre 75
De Smet, François 54
decommodification, politics of 155, 157
Defeat Jihad Summit (2015) 81, 94
Defending Civil Liberties in Europe 85
Dematteo, Lynda 44
democracy, idea of 16
Descamizados regime 21
dictatorships, idea of 16
Die Identitären movement 39
division of labour, gendered 104
Dumézil, Georges 52
English Defence League (EDL) 60, 74–5, 108, 117, 152
English Revolution 16
ethnic cleansing 6
ethnic nation 100; nationalist interpretation of populism 6; against the others 51–3
ethnic primordialism 18
ethnic racism 62
ethnic strife 17
ethno-nationalism 23, 181–3, 185, 187
ethno-nationalist transformation 25
Eurabia: the Euro-Arab Axis (2005) 79
European fascism 20
European people, idea of 3
European ‘populism’: nationalist interpretation of 6; political landscape of 3–11; rise of 1–3; rural parties, in Northern Europe 23–5; Uomo Qualunque and Poujadisme 22–3; variations of a concept of 3–11
European Union 1–3, 13, 25, 31, 37, 44, 104, 180–1, 184–5, 187–9, 194
Evola, Julius 41
exclusive intersectionality, concept of 8, 105–7, 109, 118
‘extreme’ nationalism 181
extreme right 1, 5, 24, 31–2, 44, 118, 142, 153, 155–6, 160–2, 167, 175
Fabian Ideas 190
Fallaci, Oriana 79
Farmers’ Alliances (National Farmers Alliance and Colorado Farmers Alliance) 18
far-right movements 1–2, 6, 152
far-right populism, types of 10–1, 23–6, 173
far-right youth 9, 150; aesthetics versus extremism 162–4; affinities between Internet and youth extremism 170; body politics versus party politics 164–6; contestatory citizenship 151, 168, 171–3; contestatory generation of 157–9; de-ideologised nationalism 166–7; digitalisation of hate 169; empowerment through crowdsourcing and ‘cloud’ mobilisation 170–1; hate violence 159; Jobbik phenomenon 158–9; leadership strategy 154; lost generation 155–7; meta-politics versus extremist politics 166–8; organic ecologism 168–9; populism 151; rhizomatic networking 171; social solidarity 167–8; tweeterisation of extremism 169; virility versus violence 159–162; youth connection 151–3
fascism 4–5, 27; political-ideological 31
female leadership 123; approaches to gender and women political leadership 126–8; case studies of 124; female politicians 125; Jensen, Siv 123, 127, 135–40; Kjærsgaard, Pia 123, 127, 130–5; Le Pen, Marine 123, 127, 140–4; methodology and the empirical data for analysis of 124–5; and representations of women in politics 125–6; women in politics 128–30
Finkielkraut, Alain 186
Finnish Defence League 60
Finnish Legal Party (FLP) 110
Finnish nationalism, emergence of 51
Finnish Resistance Movement 60
Finnish Rural Party (FRP) 13, 23, 27
‘firm’ populism 182
Five Star Movement of Beppe Grillo (Italy) 2, 180–1, 188, 193
ForceAtlas2 (force-based algorithm) 82
Forza Nuova 2, 5, 10, 45–6, 51–3, 56–7, 65, 113–4, 117, 155
Free Congress Foundation 77
Free Press Societies 10, 74–5, 82–3, 94
freedom of religion 186
freedom of speech 54, 60, 66, 72, 79, 96, 186
Freedom Party of Austria 55, 113; construction of 36–8; Documentation Archive of Austrian Resistance 36; foundation of 34–6; Ghetto Party 35; ideology of 37; participation in a coalition 38; programmatic development of 37; as right-wing national populist party 36–8; split of 38–9
free-market economy 187
Freiheitliche Partei Österreich (FPÖ) see Freedom Party of Austria
French Front National (FN) 8, 47, 57, 108, 114, 117, 151
French La Manif Pour Tous movement 114
French National Front 1, 57, 111, 114
French Resistance 61
French Revolution 16
Gallini, Luciano 193
Gates of Vienna 61, 74–6, 80–1, 86, 94–6
gay racism 108
gender and sexuality, constructions of: bio-political argumentation and 110–4; gender, sexuality and right-wing populism 106; heterosexual matrix 107; LGBT persons, right of 104–5; national and ethnic ‘we’ 110–4; normalisation and exclusion 114–8; normation of 112–4; theoretical foundation of 107–9
gender equality 7–8, 51, 60, 62, 66, 104–5, 108–9, 111, 113–8, 115, 126, 134, 136–40, 144–5
gender mainstreaming, state institutions for 104–5
Gephi (software tool) 82
German: political romanticism 16–7; reunification 155–6
Germani, Gino 20–1, 27, 31, 32
global company 192
global corporate capital 27
Golden Dawn 1–2, 10, 51, 53, 55, 64–5, 110, 112, 117, 150, 152, 157, 166–8
governmentality, idea of 107–8
Gravers, Anders 74
Greece 51–3, 55, 64–5, 110, 154, 166
Groupement de recherche et d’études pour la civilisation (GRECE) 42, 51–2
Hagen, Carl Ivar 122, 135, 139–40
hegemonic masculinity, concept of 106, 124, 126–8, 127
Heitmeyer, Wilhelm 155
Hernes, Helga Maria 136
heterosexual matrix 107
heterosexuality, issue of 107–10
Hitler Jugend (HJ) 34
Hobbit, The (film) 162
Hobsbawm, Eric 52
Holocaust 33, 39, 46–7, 96, 111
homonationalism, idea of 8, 105, 108, 118
homonationalist and femonationalist argumentation 114–8
House of Cards (American series) 125–6
illiberal democracy: concept of 181; on conflict between democracy and sovereignty 185–8; populism and 181–3
immigrants 5, 7, 8, 31, 37, 38, 43, 44, 50, 51, 53–7, 59, 72, 78–9, 92, 96, 105, 106, 110, 112, 116–8, 138, 159, 161, 168, 173, 186; anti- 37, 38, 44, 55, 65, 100, 108, 112, 117, 152, 159, 182
industrial economies 19, 25, 43
insurgency, rise of 2
International Civil Liberties Alliance (ICLA) 73–4, 86, 94
International Conference for Free Speech and Human Rights 90
International Defence Leagues 74
International Free Press Society (IFPS) 74, 75, 82, 94
International Monetary Fund (IMF) 187
intersectionality, concept of 109
Islam, representations of 62
Islamic practices, public displays of 76
Islamisation: campaign of 79; concept of 62; of England 60; of Europe 62, 70; mass opposition to 89; of public spaces 66; resistance to 75; threat of 76–80, 82; of Western societies 74–5
Islamophobia 7; anti-Islamic networks 61; growth of 58; Muslim migrants and 63; othering Muslims, idea of 57–61; rhetoric of 59, 61–3
Italian Free Space Association 163
Italian neo-fascism: Avanguardia Nazionale (National Vanguard) movement 41; Centro Studi Ordine Nuovo (New Order) 41; European dimension of 41–2; First Republic 42; links between Northern League and 44–5; Movimento Sociale Fiamma Tricolore (Social Movement of Three Flames) 42; Northern League, rise of 42–4; of the third millennium 45–7; two souls of 39–41
Italian Social Movement (MSI) 40–1, 164
ius sanguini, principle of 186
ius soli, principle of 186
Jensen, Michael 74
Jensen, Siv 123, 127, 135–40; media’s reception of 136; as new FrP queen after Carl Ivar Hagen’s kingdom 135–7; opposition to Norwegian state feminism 137–9; political qualities 135; positions on feminism and gender equality 137–8; self-representation of her private and public life 140
Jeune Europe movement 44, 48n6
jihad terrorist network 80
jihadi Islamists 72
‘joint possession of the world,’ idea of 187
Judeo-Christian centres 80
Jyllandposten 60
Kjærsgaard, Pia 123, 127, 130–5; authoritarian leadership style 132–4; gendering the public and politicising the private 134–5; the iron lady 131–2; as model of female leadership 134; as populist right-wing women leader 130–1; private and public life of 132; self-portrayal of ‘total control’ 132
Küssel, Gottfried 39
Kuzmanić, Tonči 17
Laclau, Ernesto 21, 25–6, 71, 181
laïcité, French concept of 63, 142
Laikos Orthodoxos Synagermos (LAOS) 10, 55
laissez-faire policies, myth of 186
Lange, Anders 24
Law and Justice (PiS) 3
Le Pen, Marine 123, 127, 140–4, 169, 182; background and leadership style 142; gendered representations of 142–3; self-representations 143–4
left-wing populism 188
Les Identitaires (France) 152–3
lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender (LGBT) persons 60, 104–5, 108; demand for equal rights 104, 115
liberal democracy 16, 21, 150, 181, 183–5, 187, 194
Lööw, Helene 160
Lord of the Rings, The (film) 42, 162
Marxism 19
media and mass culture, for glorification of violence 163
Mény, Yves 32
Michaloliakos, Nikos 110
migrants 6, 25, 43, 50, 55–7, 60–3, 64, 65–6, 67n10, 108–9, 141, 180, 183, 186, 191, 194
migration, securitisation of 63–5
militant democracy 175
Milyoukov, Paul 15
Mölzer, Andreas 37
Mora, Miguel 193
Morales, Evo 3
Movimento Giovani Padani and CasaPound (Italy) 152
Movimento Sociale Italiano (MSI) see Italian Social Movement (MSI)
multi-layered citizenship 187
Muslim extremism, threat of 71
Muslim immigrants, violence of 78–9, 92, 96, 116, 118
Muslim migrants 60, 62–3, 66, 183
‘narod’, notion of 17
Narodnichestvo (agrarian socialist movement in Russia) 19–20, 26; origin of 14–5; rejection by Marxists 15
Narodniks (Russian revolutionaries) 13
Nasser, Gamal Abdel 21
nation, Herderian concept of 5
national citizenship 187
national exceptionalism, notions of 55
National Extra-parliamentary Opposition (Austria) 39
national particularism, idea of 16
national populists 18, 180; characteristic of 182
National Rebirth of Poland 152
nationalism: de-ideologised 166–7; rise of 17; statehood 17; volkisch 17
Nazism 5, 21, 27, 33, 37, 40–2, 175
Nedelcu, Cristina 21
neo-fascism 5, 18, 31–3, 39–42, 45–7
neo-Nazi organisations, growth of 38–9
neo-Nazism 5, 31–3, 42, 72, 100, 167
New European Order 41
Norwegian Defence League (NDL) 75
Norwegian Progress Party 24
Nowotny, Walter 34
Nuclei Armati Rivoluzionari (NAR) 46, 48n9
Occorsio, Vittorio 44
Oneself as Another, concept of 151
Operation spring (1999 and 2000), Austria 38
Orban, Victor 3
Ordre Nouveau (French organisation) 42
Orthodox Christianity 58
Österreichische Turnerbund (ÖTB) see Austrian Association of Gymnasts
Österreichischen Kameradschaftsbund (ÖKB) 34
‘other’ 6–8, 37, 50–1, 60, 61, 65, 78, 95, 104–105, 106, 108, 111, 115–6, 118, 119n1, 181
othering, rhetoric of 54, 65; and growth of Islamophobia 58; othering Muslims 57–61
Parenti, Linda 171
passport citizenship 186
Patriotic Europeans against Islamisation of the West (Pegida) protest, Dresden (2014) 94
‘the people,’ concept of 14, 16–8, 26
performativity, concept of 126
Peron, Juan 20
political citizenship 186
political socialisation 150, 152
populism 181–3; contemporary attributions of 25–6; definition of 70; European see European ‘populism’; experience of Latin America 19–20; far-right parties and 23–5; forms of participation 20–1; and illiberal democracy 183–5; inter-classism 20–1; leaders and people 20–1; left-wing 188; nationalist interpretation of 6; and neo-liberal dogmas 188–90; as a political regime 19–20; right-wing 32, 106
Populism and the Mirror of Democracy (2005) 71
‘populist insurgency’ in Europe 1–3
populist nationalism 6
populist right-wing women 144–5
post-democracy, concept of 181, 190–3
Pride Parade, Athens (2005) 110
Priester, Karin 4
proletarian populism 25
public sphere, concept of 79, 114, 126–7, 158, 162, 170
Q Society Australia 75
race discrimination 53
racial hierarchisation 182
radical democracy, idea of 15
radical extremism 162
radical right 1, 6, 8, 10, 25, 122–4, 127, 130, 135, 140, 141, 150, 152, 153, 160, 162–3, 165
radical youth see far-right youth
Radio Black Flag 46
Rathkolb, Oliver 37
Reano, Ariana 13
religious principles, revolutions based on 16
religious war 80
Republica Sociale Italiana (RSI) 40
Resistenza (the Resistance to fascism and Nazism) 39–40, 48n5
Rethinking the Public Sphere (1997) 127
rhizomatic networking 9, 169, 171
Ricoeur, Paul 151
right-wing populism 3, 5, 7–9, 25, 32, 47, 51, 65, 104–6, 108, 111, 114–6, 124, 135, 140, 183; gender dimension of 106
Roman Catholic Church 10, 111, 114
Rome, Treaty of 22
Roubini, Nouriel 187
‘rule of the people’ 15
rural parties, in Northern Europe 23–5
rural populism 25
Russian Empire 51
Sabaditsch-Wolff, Elisabeth 74, 83, 86, 88, 89, 91
same-sex couples, right to matrimonial union 117
same-sex marriage 60, 105, 113–4, 114–5
same-sex parenthood 115
Santanchè, Daniela 63
self-responsibility, notion of 112
sexual minorities, treatment of 105
Sharia law: campaigning against 74; critics of 91; imposition of 73–4, 79
‘silent counter-revolution’ 172
‘silent revolution’ 172
Skjeie, Hege 138
Slovene Democratic Party (SDP) 113
Slovenian Civil Initiative for the Family and the Rights of Children 114
Slovenian Democratic Party (SDP) 10, 54
social citizenship 157, 186–7; concept of 157
Social Network Analysis (SNA) 73, 81
social protection, distribution of 186
Solberg, Erna 139
Spencer, Robert 74–5, 77, 83, 94, 100
standard of living 18
Stanghellini, Giovanni 16
statehood nationalism 17
Stop Islamisation of Europe (SIOE) 74–5
Stop Islamisation of Nations (SION) 74, 75
‘Stop the Islamisation’ network 74, 82
Suomen Sisu (SuSi) 10, 51–2, 61, 115
supra-national organisations 185, 187
Surel, Yves 32
Taggart, Paul 4
Taguieff, Pierre André 4, 25, 180, 182
tax protest mobilisation 23
territorial state 185
Thatcher, Margaret 126, 133–4, 186
There Is No Alternative (TINA) 188
Third World asylum-seekers 65
Thulesen Dahl, Kristian 131, 134–5
transnational citizenship 187
Tsarist absolutism 14
Tsipras, Alexis 25
Ulrichsberggemeinschaft (Ulrichsberg society) 34
unemployment, rate of 64
Union and French Fraternity (UFF) 22
Union de defence des marchands, des commerçants et des artisans (UDCA) 22
United Kingdom Independent Party (UKIP) 47; anti-Islamic themes 60–1
‘Volk’, German notion of 17
volkisch nationalism 17
Volks Gemeinschaft 17
Volkstreue außerparlamentarische Opposition (VAPO) see National Extra-parliamentary Opposition (Austria)
Waldheim scandal (Austria) 35
Wall Street Journal 3
Watson, Tom 19
Western cultural identity, preservation of 72
women-friendly welfare state, concept of 136
women’s reproductive rights, campaign against 111
Working Group for Democratic Politics 39
world citizenship 187
World Trade Organization (WTO) 190
World War II 13, 32, 34, 39–40, 47, 54, 155, 173, 182, 184, 186, 194
Worldwide Counter-Jihad Initiative 75
xenophobia 23, 63, 71–2, 96, 194
xenophobic nationalism 55
Ye’Or, Bat (Gisell Litmann) 74, 77, 79, 83, 94; Eurabia theory 79–80
youth extremism: aesthetics versus 162–4; affinities between Internet and 170; development of 151; digitalisation of hate 169; hate violence 159; Jobbik phenomenon 158–9; tweeterisation of 169; virility versus violence 159–62