Xiang Yu has already been mentioned as one of the rebels who toppled the Qin Dynasty. Chapter 7 of the Historical Records tells his story.
A CERTAIN Xiang Ji was a man of Xiaxiang, and his courtesy name was Yu. When he first rose up in rebellion, he was 24 years old. His father’s youngest brother was Xiang Liang, and Liang’s father had been the Chu general Xiang Yan, who was the one whom the Qin general Wang Jian had brought to a shameful death. The Xiang family had been generals of Chu for generation after generation and had been given a fief at Xiang, and so they had been surnamed Xiang.
When Xiang Yu was young he studied writing but did not persist. Having abandoned this, he studied swordsmanship, but again did not persist. Xiang Liang lost his temper with him, so Yu said: ‘Writing is useful only for recording names. With the sword one opposes a single individual, so it is not worth studying. I will study to oppose 10,000 men.’ Thereupon Xiang Liang did indeed teach Yu military tactics, and although Yu was highly delighted and became aware of the meaning of the subject in outline, he again refused to pursue these studies to the limit.
Xiang Liang was once arrested at Yueyang, so he requested Cao Jiu, the prison official of Ji, to, send a letter to Sima Xin, the prison official of Yueyang, and on account of this he got let off.
Xiang Liang killed someone, so together with Yu he went to Wuzhong to escape those who would exact vengeance. The men of quality and the grandees of Wuzhong all appeared to be inferior to Xiang Liang. Every time there was a major public work in Wuzhong or a funeral, Xiang Liang was always put in charge. Less publicly he trained his friends together with the local youth in military tactics, and in these ways his abilities became known.
When the First August Emperor of Qin was at Kuaiji on tour and was being ferried across the River Zhe, Liang and Yu were watching together. ‘That one could be captured and replaced,’ said Yu. Liang put his hand over his mouth and said: ‘Don’t talk rubbish or our clan will be wiped out!’* But Liang marvelled at Yu because of this. Yu was more than 8 feet* tall and strong enough to be able to carry a big cauldron. His talent and spirit were both exceptional, and even the young men of Wuzhong had all become terrified of Yu.
In the seventh month of the first year of the Second Generation Emperor of Qin, Chen Sheng and others started an uprising in Daze. In the ninth month Tong, the Governor of Kuaiji,* said to Liang: ‘All of the area west of the Yangtze is in revolt, and this is surely the time when Heaven will put an end to Qin. I have heard that, if one gets in first, one gains control of others; but if one is behindhand, one is controlled by others. I wish to send forth soldiers and appoint you, sir, and Huan Chu to take command.’ At this time Huan Chu had disappeared in the marshlands. Liang said: ‘Huan Chu has disappeared and nobody else knows his whereabouts. Only Yu knows it and that is all.’ Accordingly Liang went outside, and warned Yu to take up position outside and wait holding his sword. Liang went in again and, sitting down with the Governor, he said: ‘I request to summon Yu, and make him accept your instructions to summon Huan Chu.’ ‘All right,’ said the Governor. Liang summoned Yu inside. After a short time Liang winked at Yu. ‘It may be done,’ he said, and thereupon Yu immediately drew his sword and decapitated the Governor. Holding the Governor’s head, Xiang Liang attached his seal and seal-cord to his own belt. The retainers were greatly astonished and thrown into confusion, so almost 100 of them were struck down and killed by Yu. Throughout the whole of the government building everyone prostrated himself in terror, and nobody dared to get up again. Liang then summoned those enterprising officers whom he had previously known and proclaimed his reasons for initiating a great uprising, and next raised troops in Wuzhong. Appointing people to carry out recruitment in the subordinate districts, he got together an elite force of 8,000 men. Liang appointed the stalwarts of Wuzhong to be commanders, lieutenants, and marshals. There was one person who did not get employment, so he mentioned himself to Liang. ‘On a previous occasion,’ said Liang, ‘I appointed you to take charge of such-and-such matters at so-and-so’s funeral, but you were unable to cope, and because of this I have not given you any responsibility.’ So the multitude all gave their submission. Thereupon Liang became Governor of Kuaiji and Yu became assistant-general, and all the subordinate districts were brought to submission.
A man of Guangling called Zhao Ping thereupon tried to bring about the submission of Guangling in the interest of King Chen, but he was not at all capable of subduing it. When he heard that King Chen* had been defeated and put to flight and that the Qin army was also about to arrive, he accordingly crossed the Yangtze and fabricated a command from King Chen that Liang be appointed Supreme Pillar of the State to the King of Chu. ‘Now that the area east of the Yangtze has been settled,’ he said, ‘you should urgently lead forth your troops and march west to smite Qin.’ Xiang Liang accordingly crossed the Yangtze with 8,000 men and marched west. When he heard that Chen Ying had already subdued Dongyang, he sent an emissary desiring to join forces with him so that they might go westwards together. Chen Ying had formerly been a clerk to the district magistrate of Dongyang. Because of his unfailing honesty and diligence while he was resident in the district, he was praised as a venerable person. When the district magistrate was killed by the young men of Dongyang, they formed themselves into a band of several thousand men and wished to establish a leader, and since there was no one else who answered the purpose, they accordingly invited Chen Ying. Although Ying declined on the pretext of his inability, they subsequently insisted on setting him up as their leader, and within the district he got followers to the number of 20,000. The young men wished to go further and set Ying up as king, and they started a separate rising, wearing blue caps to distinguish their forces.
Chen Ying’s mother said to him: ‘Ever since I came into your family as a bride I have never heard of the existence of noblemen among your ancestors. If you suddenly acquire a great name, it will be unlucky. The best thing would be if there were someone else to attach yourself to, so that if the enterprise is brought to success you may still get a fief; but if the enterprise fails it will be easy to make a getaway, since you will not be someone whose name the world points to.’ So Ying did not venture to become king. ‘The Xiangs are a family who have produced generals for generation after generation,’ he told his officers, ‘and they are renowned in Chu. If you intend to start a great enterprise, it would be improper if the general were not one of them. If we depend on a famous clan, the destruction of Qin will become inevitable.’ Thereupon the multitude accepted his recommendation, and the soldiers were handed over to Xiang Liang. And when Xiang Liang crossed the Huai,* Qing Bu and General Pu also handed over their troops to him. In all 60,000 or 70,000 men encamped at, Xiapei.
Meanwhile Qin Jia had already set up Jing Ju as King of Chu and encamped to the east of Pengcheng,* intending to oppose Xiang Liang. ‘King Chen was at the head of the business first of all,’ said Xiang Liang to his army officers, ‘but in battle he did not secure an advantage, and we have not yet heard his whereabouts. If Qin Jia ignores King Chen and sets Jing Ju on the throne, this is treacherous and unprincipled.’ Accordingly he moved his troops forward and attacked Qin Jia. Qin Jia’s army was defeated and put to flight, and he was pursued as far as Huling. Jia turned back and fought all day long, but he died and his army surrendered. Jing Ju fled and died in the territory of Liang. Having absorbed Qin Jia’s army into his own, Xiang Liang encamped at Huling, intending to march westwards at the head of his army.
The army of Zhang Han* had reached Li, and Xiang Liang sent a detachment under the command of Zhu Jishi and Yu Fanjun to do battle with him. Yu Fanjun died and Zhu Jishi’s army was defeated, but he escaped and fled to Huling. Xiang Liang accordingly led his troops into Xue and executed Jishi. Xiang Liang had previously sent Xiang Yu to make a separate attack on Xiangcheng, but Xiangcheng put up a strong defence and did not submit; so, when it was seized, it was totally laid waste. He returned and reported this to Xiang Liang. When Xiang Liang heard that King Chen was certainly dead, he summoned all the commanders of separate detachments to gather together at Xue and plan what was to be done. At this time the Governor of Pei* had also caused Pei to rise up in revolt, and he was present on this occasion.
Fan Zeng, a man of Juchao, a 70-year-old who usually stayed at home, but had a fondness for concocting bizarre plans, went and told Xiang Liang: ‘Chen Sheng’s defeat was certainly appropriate. When Qin destroyed the Six States, Chu was the most blameless. Ever since King Huai* entered Qin and did not return, the men of Chu have felt sorry for him right up to the present, and that is why Master Nan of Chu said: “Even if Chu consisted of only three households, if Qin is destroyed it is bound to be Chu’s doing.” Now since Chen Sheng, when he was in charge of the business, did not set on the throne a descendant of Chu but instead set himself up, his power did not last long. Now that you, my lord, have risen up in the east of the Yangtze, a swarm of Chu generals have all striven to join you, thinking that you, whose family have been generals of Chu from generation to generation, will be able to restore a descendant of Chu.’ Thereupon, thinking his words were true, Xiang Liang consequently sought out Xin, a grandson of King Huai of Chu, who was living among the common people and working as a shepherd for somebody else, and promptly made him King Huai of Chu in accordance with what the people were hoping for. Chen Ying became Supreme Pillar of the State of Chu and was enfeoffed with five districts, and together with King Huai established a capital at Xuyi. And Xiang Liang entitled himself Lord of Wuxin.
After a few months he led his troops forth and attacked Kangfu, and together with the armies of Tian Rong of Qi and Marshal Long Qie he went to the relief of Donga, and inflicted a major defeat on the Qin army at Donga. Having led his army back home, Tian Rong drove out his king, Jia, and Jia fled to Chu while his chief minister, Tian Jue, fled to Zhao. Jue’s younger brother Tian Jian, an erstwhile general of Qi, was living in Zhao and did not dare to return home. Tian Rong set up Shi, the son of Tian Dan, as King of Qi.* Having defeated the army below Donga, Xiang Liang next went in pursuit of the Qin army. He frequently sent emissaries to put pressure on the Qi troops, wishing to go westwards together with them. But Tian Rong said: ‘If Chu will kill Tian Jia and Zhao will kill Tian Jue and Tian Jian, I will in fact send forth troops.’ Xiang Liang said: ‘Tian Jia was the king of an allied state who came and joined me in his distress so I could not bear to kill him.’ Zhao also did not kill Tian Jue and Tian Jian in order to do a deal with Qi. So Qi refused to send out troops to help Chu. Xiang Liang sent the Governor of Pei and Xiang Yu to make a separate attack on Chengyang and butchered it. Then they went west and defeated the Qin army east of Puyang. The Qin soldiers gathered themselves together and entered Puyang. Then the Governor of Pei and Xiang Yu attacked Dingtao. When Dingtao did not submit, they withdrew and seized territory to the west as far as Yongqiu. They inflicted a major defeat on the Qin army and decapitated Li You.* On their return they attacked Waihuang, but Waihuang did not submit.
Starting out from Donga, Xiang Liang went westwards and reached Dingtao, where he again defeated a Qin army; and since he and his followers had also decapitated Li You, Xiang Yu became all the more contemptuous of Qin and wore an arrogant expression. Accordingly Song Yi* reprimanded him, saying: ‘If a general becomes arrogant and his troops become idle because of a victory in battle, then they will be defeated. Now the troops have become a little idle, and the Qin soldiers increase in numbers day by day, and I am fearful of this for your sake.’ But Xiang Liang did not listen to him. In fact he sent Song Yi on a mission to Qi. On the way he encountered a Qi emissary, Xian, Lord of Gaoling. ‘Are you intending to see the Lord of Wuxin?’ he said. ‘Yes,’ he replied. ‘I suggest that the army of the Lord of Wuxin will certainly be defeated,’ he said. ‘If you go slowly, then you will escape death; but if you go quickly, then you will come upon disaster.’ Qin did in fact raise all the soldiers it could to reinforce Zhang Han, and he attacked the Chu army and heavily defeated it at Dingtao, and Xiang Liang died.
The Governor of Pei and Xiang Yu left Waihuang and attacked Chenliu, but Chenliu was strongly defended and they could not subdue it. The Governor of Pei and Xiang Yu made plans together, saying: ‘Now that the army of Xiang Liang has been defeated, the officers and soldiers are afraid.’ So, together with the army of Lü Chen, they led forth their troops and went eastwards. Lü Chen encamped east of Pengcheng, Xiang Yu encamped west of Pengcheng, and the Governor of Pei encamped at Dang.
When he had defeated the army of Xiang Liang, Zhang Han considered that the soldiers of the land of Chu were not worth worrying about, so he crossed the Yellow River and attacked Zhao, and inflicted a major defeat upon it. At this time Zhao Xie was king, Chen Yu was general, and Zhang Er was chancellor, and they all fled to the walls of Julu.* Zhang Han ordered Wang Li and She Jian to besiege Julu, and Zhang Han himself encamped to the south of it and built a walled road to transport grain to them. Chen Yu was the general and he was in command of several tens of thousands of troops and they encamped north of Julu, and this was the so-called ‘army north of the Yellow River’.
When the soldiers of Chu had been defeated at Dingtao, King Huai was afraid and went from Xuyi to Pengcheng. Combining the armies of Xiang Yu and Lü Chen, he took personal command of them. He appointed Lü Chen as minister of education, and appointed his father, Lü Qing, as chief minister. He appointed the Governor of Pei as chief of the province of Dang, and enfeoffed him as Marquis of Wuan, and he was to take command of the soldiers in the Dang province.
Before this the Qi emissary Xian Lord of Gaoling, whom Song Yi had encountered, had entered the Chu army. When he was received in audience by the King of Chu, he said: ‘Song Yi argued that the army of the Lord of Wuxin would certainly be defeated, and after a few days the army was actually defeated. To see the evidence of defeat before the soldiers have gone into battle—this may be called understanding soldiers.’ So the King summoned Song Yi to make a plan of action with him and was greatly pleased with him, and he therefore decided to appoint him supreme general. Xiang Yu was made Duke of Lu and became second in command, and Fan Zeng became junior general, to go to the relief of Zhao. All the generals of separate detachments were subordinated to Song Yi, whose title was Minister at the Head of the Armies.
On their march they reached Anyang, where they stayed for forty-six days and did not advance. Xiang Yu said: ‘I hear that the Qin army is besieging the King of Zhao at Julu, so if we quickly lead our soldiers across the Yellow River and Chu attacks from the outside and Zhao responds from within, then the defeat of the Qin army will be inevitable.’ ‘Not so,’ said Song Yi. ‘The gadfly that attacks an ox cannot destroy the lice. If Qin attacks Zhao and is victorious in battle, then its soldiers will be exhausted, and we shall benefit from their weariness; but if they are not victorious, then we shall lead our soldiers and march westwards, sounding the drum on our journey, and we shall certainly take Qin. Therefore the best thing is to let Qin and Zhao fight first of all. At donning armour and wielding the sword, I am not the equal of you, sir; but at sitting down and turning over plans, you are not as good as me.’ Accordingly he sent down orders throughout the army saying: ‘Those who are as fierce as tigers, obstinate as rams, and greedy as wolves, but whose strength cannot be disciplined are all to be put to death.’
Then he sent his son Song Xiang to become Chief Minister of Qi, and personally escorted him as far as Wuyan, where he held a drinking-party for those of high rank. The weather was cold and it was raining heavily, and both officers and men were frozen and starving. Xiang Yu said: ‘We shall join forces and attack Qin, for it will not do to hang about a long time. At present the harvest threatens famine and the people are poor, and officers and men feed on taro root and pulse, and there is no sign of provisions for the army, yet he is actually holding a drinking-party for the high-ups. He does not lead the soldiers across the Yellow River to take advantage of the food in Zhao and combine forces with Zhao to attack Qin, but even says: “We shall benefit from their weariness.” Now when a newly created Zhao is attacked by means of the strength of Qin, its power is bound to take Zhao. If Zhao is taken and Qin is strong, what weariness is there to benefit from! Moreover, since the soldiers of our state were recently defeated, the King does not rest easy on his throne and, since he made a clean sweep within the frontiers and has subordinated everyone to the General alone, then the safety or danger of the state depends on this single enterprise. But now he does not feel sorry for his officers and men, but follows his private interests, so he is not a true servant of the altars of the land and grain.’
That morning, when Xiang Yu paid a formal visit to the supreme general, Song Yi, he cut off Song Yi’s head within his tent, and sent out orders throughout the army saying: ‘Song Yi plotted with Qi to revolt against Chu, and the King of Chu secretly ordered me to put him to death.’ At this time all the generals submitted in terror, and nobody dared to put up any resistance. They all said: ‘It was the general’s family that was at the forefront in establishing Chu, and now the general is punishing treachery.’ So they got together and jointly set up Xiang Yu as acting supreme general. People were sent to pursue Song Yi’s son, and when they reached Qi he was killed. Huan Chu was sent to make a report to King Huai and receive instructions from him. King Huai accordingly appointed Xiang Yu to be supreme general, and Qing Bu and General Pu both placed themselves under Xiang Yu.
Having killed the Minister at the Head of the Armies, Xiang Yu inspired awe in the state of Chu and became famous throughout the feudal states. Accordingly he dispatched Qing Bu and General Pu in command of 20,000 troops to cross the Yellow River, and go to the relief of Julu. They gained little advantage in the fighting and Chen Yu again requested soldiers. So Xiang Yu led all the soldiers across the Yellow River. He sank all the boats, smashed the pots and pans, and set fire to the huts, and kept only three days’ supplies in order to demonstrate to his officers and men that they must die and not have a single thought of returning. So when they arrived, they surrounded Wang Li and encountered the Qin army. After nine battles they had breached their walled roadway, inflicted a major defeat upon them, killed Su Jue, and taken Wang Li prisoner. She Jian did not surrender to Chu but burnt himself to death.
At this time the soldiers of Chu* capped those of the feudal states. There were more than ten walled camps nearby occupied by armies of the feudal states which had gone to the relief of Julu, but nobody had dared to commit his soldiers. When Chu attacked Qin, the generals all looked on from the top of their ramparts. It only took one of the fighting men of Chu to stand up to ten of their adversaries, and the shouts of the Chu soldiers moved Heaven, and not a single person in the armies of the feudal states was not terrified. And so when he had defeated the Qin army, Xiang Yu summoned to interview the generals of the feudal states, and as they entered the carriage-shaft gates,* they all went forward on their knees, and nobody dared to look up at him. From this moment Xiang Yu became for the first time supreme general of the feudal states, and the feudal states were all subordinated to him.
Zhang Han made his camp at Jiyuan and Xiang Yu made his camp south of the Zhang. They contained each other but had not yet fought a battle. Since the Qin army had been repulsed on several occasions, Second Generation sent someone to reprimand Zhang Han. Zhang Han was afraid so he sent his senior scribe Xin to ask what to do. When he reached Xianyang, he waited three days at the palace gate but Zhao Gao did not give him an interview and felt suspicious. The senior scribe Xin was afraid and fled back to his camp. He did not dare to leave via the road he had formerly taken, so when Zhao Gao actually sent someone in pursuit of him, he did not catch up with him. When Xin reached the army he reported: ‘Zhao Gao is in control of whatever happens within the palace and his subordinates do not have responsibility. If we fight now and are able to win victory, Gao is bound to be bitterly jealous of our success; but if we fight and are unable to win victory, we will not escape from death. I would like you, general, to give this your mature consideration.’
Chen Yu also sent a letter to Zhang Han. ‘Bai Qi was a Qin general,’* it said, ‘who marched south and subjugated Yan and Ying, and marched north and obliterated Mafu. The cities he attacked and the territory he seized are incalculable, but in the end he had death bestowed upon him. Meng Tian was a general of Qin, and in the north he drove back the Rong barbarians and opened up several thousand li of the territory of Yuzhong, but in the end he had his head cut off at Yangzhou. Why is that? Their successes were so many that Qin could not fully reward them with fiefs, and therefore it had recourse to the law and put them to death. Now you, general, have been the Qin commander for three years, and those you have lost may be counted by the hundred thousand, while the feudal states have also risen up in rebellion in ever-increasing numbers. The constant flattery of that person Zhao Gao has been going on for a long time, so now that the situation has become critical, he is consequently afraid that Second Generation will put him to death. That is why he intends to put you, general, to death on some legal pretext in order to block criticism, and to have someone replace you in order to avoid suffering calamity himself. You, general, have dwelt away from the capital for a long time, and there are many grudges against you within it, so you will be put to death whether you are successful or not. Moreover the fact that Heaven is destroying Qin is known by everybody, no matter whether they are stupid or wise. If you, general, cannot offer outspoken remonstrance within the capital, and outside it have become the general of a ruined state, surely it is pathetic to stand out alone and wish to go on surviving! Why do you not make your soldiers retreat and form a north–south alliance with the feudal states, agreeing to make a joint attack on Qin and divide up its territories and rule them as kings, turning your faces to the south and adopting the title of “solitary one”?* This would surely be better than offering your body to be cut in two and your wife and children to be put to death?’
Zhang Han was suspicious, but he secretly sent Shi Cheng on a mission to Xiang Yu and intended to make a pact. But before this pact had been completed, Xiang Yu made General Pu lead troops day and night across the Sanhu to encamp south of the Zhang, and they fought battles with Qin and twice defeated them. Xiang Yu led all his troops and smote the Qin army on the River Yu, and inflicted a major defeat on them.
Zhang Han sent someone to see Xiang Yu, intending to make a pact. Xiang Yu summoned the army officers and took counsel with them. ‘Provisions are scarce, and I intend to listen to what he has to say about a pact,’ he said. ‘Good,’ said all the army officers. Xiang Yu accordingly arranged a meeting with him at the waste of Yin,* south of the River Yuan. Having made a treaty, Zhang Han went to see Xiang Yu and, letting the tears flow, gave him an account of Zhao Gao. Xiang Yu accordingly set Zhang Han up as King of Yong and established him in the Chu army. He appointed senior scribe Xin as supreme general, to command the Qin armies,* which would form the advance columns.
They came to Xin’an. At various times in the past when the officers or the troops of the feudal states had passed through Qin on corvée duty or on their way to guard the frontier, the officers and troops of Qin had generally treated them unceremoniously. Now when the Qin army surrendered to the feudal states, the officers and troops of the feudal states generally took advantage of their victory to employ them as slaves or captives, and readily humiliated the officers and troops of Qin. Many of the officers and troops of Qin were saying on the quiet: ‘General Zhang and the rest tricked us into becoming subordinate to the feudal states, and now if we can enter the passes and defeat Qin, it will be splendid; but if we cannot, the feudal states will march east, making captives of us who are subordinate to them, and Qin will certainly put to death all our fathers, mothers, wives, and children.’ The various generals got wind of their deliberations, and reported them to Xiang Yu. Xiang Yu accordingly summoned Qing Bu and General Pu. ‘The officers and troops of Qin are still numerous,’ he said, forming a plan. ‘If they do not submit in their hearts and do not obey when we are within the passes, the situation will certainly become dangerous. The best thing would be to attack and kill them, so that we enter Qin with only Zhang Han, senior scribe Xin, and Commandant Yi.’ Thereupon the Chu army made a night attack and annihilated more than 200,000 Qin troops south of the city of Xin’an.
As they marched on, they captured and assumed control over Qin territory. There were soldiers on guard in the Hangu Pass, so they were not able to enter. News was also received that the Governor of Pei had already taken Xianyang, so Xiang Yu was furious and ordered Qing Bu and others to attack the pass. Xiang Yu then went through and reached the west of the Xi. The Governor of Pei was encamped at Bashang, but he and Xiang Yu were not yet in view of each other. Cao Wushang, the marshal of the left to the Governor of Pei, sent someone to say to Xiang Yu: ‘The Governor of Pei intends to reign as king over the area within the passes and to employ Ziying* as chief minister, and the treasures are all in his possession.’ Xiang Yu was furious. ‘Tomorrow morning’, he said, ‘I will feast my officers and men for them to smite and defeat the army of the Governor of Pei!’ At this time Xiang Yu had soldiers to the number of 400,000 at Hongmen near Xinfeng, and the Governor of Pei had 100,000 at Bashang. Fan Zeng said to Xiang Yu: ‘When the Governor of Pei resided east of the mountains, he was greedy for property and fond of attractive women, but now he has entered the passes, there are no possessions which he takes and there are no women he favours with his presence. This is because his ambition is not centred on the trivial. I have instructed people to gaze upon his vapours, and they have all become dragons and tigers in all the five colours, and these are the vapours of a Son of Heaven. Strike quickly and do not lose this opportunity.’
Xiang Bo, the Chu commander of the left was an uncle of Xiang Yu, and he was a constant admirer of Zhang Liang, Marquis of Liu. At this time Zhang Liang was a follower of the Governor of Pei, so Xiang Bo drove off by night and went to the army of the Governor of Pei to see Zhang Liang privately and tell him everything that had been going on, intending to call on Zhang Liang to go off together with him. ‘Do not follow him or you will die together with him,’ he said. ‘I am escorting the Governor of Pei for the sake of the King of Hann,’ said Zhang Liang, ‘and if there is a crisis in the affairs of the Governor of Pei, it would be improper to desert, and I cannot but tell him.’ So Liang went in and reported everything to the Governor of Pei. The Governor of Pei was astonished. ‘What shall I do about it?’ he said. ‘Who formed this plan for the Great King?’* said Zhang Liang. He said: ‘Some poor fish told me: “Put up a resistance at the passes and do not let the feudal states come inside, and the territory of Qin can all be reigned over.” So I listened to him.’ Liang said: ‘Do you reckon that the Great King’s officers and men are sufficient to provide a match for King Xiang?’ The Governor of Pei fell silent. ‘They are certainly not as good,’ he said, ‘so what shall I do about it?’ ‘I beg to go and have a word with Xiang Bo,’ said Zhang Liang, ‘and say that the Governor of Pei does not dare to turn his back on King Xiang.’ The Governor of Pei said: ‘How is it that you are friends with Xiang Bo?’ ‘In Qin times he used to go around with me,’ he said, ‘and when Xiang Bo killed someone, I saved his life. Now that we are in a critical situation, he has therefore done me the favour of coming to tell me.’ ‘Which of you is the elder?’ said the Governor of Pei. ‘He is older than me,’ said Liang. ‘Call him in for me,’ said the Governor of Pei, ‘and I will be able to serve him as if he were an elder brother.’ Zhang Liang went outside and asked for Xiang Bo. Xiang Bo immediately went in and presented himself to the Governor of Pei. The Governor of Pei raised a cup of wine to toast him, and agreed to form a marriage relationship, saying: ‘When I entered the passes, I did not presume to take possession of the tiniest thing I came upon. I registered the officials and people, I sealed up the treasuries, and I waited for the general. The reason why I sent generals to guard the passes was to make preparations against other brigands going in and out and doing things which were contrary to the normal practice. Day and night I was expecting the general to arrive, so how would I dare go against him! I would like you, Bo, fully to inform him that his servant would not dare to ignore his kindness.’ Xiang Bo agreed. ‘Tomorrow you must yourself come early and apologize to King Xiang,’ he said to the Governor of Pei. ‘All right,’ said the Governor of Pei. At that Xiang Bo again left by night, and when he reached the army he reported all the Governor of Pei’s remarks to King Xiang. Taking advantage of these remarks, he said: ‘If the Governor of Pei had not first conquered the area within the passes, how would you, sir, have dared to enter? Now if someone has done one an important service, it is improper to strike him, and the best thing would be to deal with him on a friendly basis.’ King Xiang agreed.
On the following day the Governor of Pei and an escort of more than 100 horsemen came to see King Xiang, and when they reached Hongmen, he apologized, saying: ‘You and I, general, exerted our strength to attack Qin, with you, general, fighting to the north of the Yellow River and me fighting to the south of the Yellow River, but I did not think that I myself could be the first to enter the pass and defeat Qin, and that I would manage to see you again here. But now there have been the remarks of a petty fellow, and these have caused there to be a rift between you, general, and me.’ King Xiang said: ‘This your marshal of the left, Cao Wushang, said; otherwise how would I have gone so far as this?’
So on the same day King Xiang entertained the Governor of Pei and drank with him. King Xiang and Xiang Bo sat facing east, and Yafu sat facing south. (Yafu was Fan Zeng.) The Governor of Pei sat facing north. Zhang Liang was in attendance facing west. Fan Zeng frequently eyed King Xiang and three times raised the jade ornaments that he wore on his belt in order to signal to him, but King Xiang remained silent and did not respond. Fan Zeng rose and went outside to summon Xiang Zhuang.* ‘Our king’, he said, ‘is too kind-hearted, so you go in and toast him, and when the toasting is finished, request to do a sword-dance, and take this opportunity to strike the Governor of Pei as he is seated, and kill him. If you do not do so, then you and your associates will all become prisoners.’
So Zhuang entered and toasted him. When the toasting was finished, he said: ‘When our king drinks with the Governor of Pei, there is no means of providing entertainment in the camp, so I request to do a sword-dance.’ ‘All right,’ said King Xiang. Xiang Zhuang drew his sword and rose to dance, and Xiang Bo also drew his sword and rose to dance, continually protecting the Governor of Pei with his body, so that Zhuang could not strike.
Thereupon Zhang Liang went to the gate of the camp, where he saw Fan Kuai. ‘What about today’s business?’ said Fan Kuai. ‘It is very serious,’ said Liang. ‘Just now Xiang Zhuang drew his sword and he is dancing, with his thoughts constantly on the Governor of Pei.’ ‘This has become critical,’ said Kuai. ‘I beg to go in and share his fate with him.’ Kuai immediately girded on his sword and, carrying his shield, entered the gate of the camp. The sentries with crossed halberds wanted to prevent him from coming inside, but Fan Kuai moved his shield from side to side so as to strike them, and the sentries fell to the ground. Kuai then entered and, opening the curtain, took up a position facing west, and looked at King Xiang with a glare. His hair stood on end and his eyes opened wide.
King Xiang put his hand on his sword and rose to his knees. ‘Who is our guest?’ he said. ‘This is Fan Kuai, the right-hand man in the Governor of Pei’s chariot,’ said Zhang Liang. ‘A sturdy fellow,’ said King Xiang. ‘Bestow upon him a cup of wine.’ So he was given a large cup of wine. Kuai bowed and thanked him. When he got up, he drank it as he stood there. ‘Bestow on him a shoulder of pork,’ said King Xiang, and then he was given a whole raw shoulder of pork. Fan Kuai laid his shield face down on the ground and, putting the shoulder of pork on it, drew his sword, cut it up, and ate it. ‘Sturdy fellow, can you drink again?’ said King Xiang. ‘Death I will not avoid,’ said Fan Kuai, ‘so why should a cup of wine be worth refusing? That King of Qin* has the heart of a tiger or a wolf, and he kills people as if he cannot manage them all, punishes people as if he is afraid he may not do the lot, and all under Heaven is in revolt against him. King Huai made a pact with all the generals that “Whoever first defeated Qin and entered Xianyang would be king over it.” Now the Governor of Pei was the first to defeat Qin and enter Xianyang, but he did not presume to take possession of the tiniest thing he came across, sealed the palaces and dwellings, and returned his army to Bashang, in order to wait for the Great King to arrive. That is why he sent generals to guard the passes to take precautions against other brigands going in and out and doing what is contrary to normal practice. After toil so bitter and achievements so lofty and with no reward of a fiefdom, instead you pay attention to trivial gossip and intend to put to death a man of achievements. This is simply to prolong a ruined Qin. I make so bold as to say that I will not accept this on the Great King’s behalf.’ Having no reply, King Xiang told him to sit down. Fan Kuai sat down beside Liang. After they had been seated for a short while, the Governor of Pei got up to go to the toilet, taking the opportunity to invite Fan Kuai to go outside too.
When the Governor of Pei had gone outside, King Xiang sent the commandant Chen Ping to summon him. ‘When I went outside just now,’ said the Governor of Pei, ‘I never made my excuses, so what should I do about it?’ Fan Kuai said: ‘In an important enterprise one does not deal with trivial concerns, and in important ceremonies one does not give utterance to petty politenesses. At present it is others who have just played the part of knives and meat-stands, but we play the part of the fish and the meat, so why make one’s excuses?’ and so at that he left, but he ordered Zhang Liang to stay and make excuses for him.
‘What were you carrying when you came here, O Great King?’ asked Liang. ‘I was holding a pair of white jade rings,’ he said, ‘intending to present them to King Xiang, and a pair of jade cups, intending to give them to Yafu, but when it so happened that they became angry, I did not venture to present them. Present them for me, sir.’ ‘I respectfully consent,’ said Zhang Liang.
At this time King Xiang was encamped below Hongmen and the Governor of Pei was encamped at Bashang, and they were 40 li apart from each other. As for the Governor of Pei, he left his chariots and horsemen and slipped away, riding off alone apart from the four men, Fan Kuai, Xiahou Ying, Jin Qiang, and Ji Xin. They went on foot, carrying their swords and shields, going via the base of Mount Li and making their way through Zhiyang. ‘If we follow this path,’ said the Governor of Pei to Zhang Liang, ‘we shall reach my army in only 20 li. You, sir, are to go in when you calculate that we have reached the army.’ When the Governor of Pei had left and had reached the army via this route, Zhang Liang entered and apologized, saying: ‘The Governor of Pei was the worse for drink so he was not able to make his excuses. He respectfully sends your servant Liang, bearing a pair of white jade rings which, bowing twice, he presents at the Great King’s feet; and a pair of jade cups which, bowing twice, he offers at the feet of the supreme general.’ ‘Where is the Governor of Pei?’ said King Xiang. Liang said: ‘He heard that the Great King had a mind to reprove him for his errors, so he slipped away on his own, and has already reached the army.’ For his part King Xiang accepted the rings and put them down on his seat, but Fan Zeng, having accepted the jade cups, put them down on the ground. Drawing his sword, he smashed them with a blow, saying: ‘Alas, the fool is not worth plotting with. It is certainly the Governor of Pei who is the one who deprives King Xiang of empire. Our dependants have even now become prisoners because of him.’ When the Governor of Pei reached the army, he immediately put Cao Wushang to death.
After a few days Xiang Yu led his soldiers forth and they went westwards and butchered Xianyang. They killed Ziying, the King of Qin who had surrendered, and they set light to the Qin palaces, and the fire was not put out for three months.* They went east, having collected the goods and valuables and women from there. Someone advised King Xiang: ‘The area within the passes is blocked by mountains and rivers which form a barrier on all sides, and the territory is fertile; so it is a suitable place in which to establish a capital city in order to rule as paramount prince.’ But King Xiang saw that the palaces of Qin had all been destroyed by fire, and he also cherished in his heart the desire to return home east. ‘If riches and honours are not taken back to one’s place of origin,’ he said, ‘it is like going out at night wearing embroideries, for who is there who will know about it?’ The person who gave the advice said: ‘People say that the men of Chu are only monkeys with caps on, and it’s quite true.’ When King Xiang heard this, he had the man who gave the advice immersed in boiling water.
King Xiang sent someone to fetch orders from King Huai. ‘It will be just as we agreed,’ said King Huai. So he honoured King Huai as the Righteous Emperor. Intending to make himself a king,* King Xiang first of all made all the generals and ministers into kings. ‘When the troubles first broke out in the Empire,’ he said, ‘the descendants of the rulers of the feudal states were provisionally set up in order to attack Qin. But as for those who put on their armour and wielded their swords and were at the forefront of activities, those who exposed themselves to sun and dew in the wilderness for three years so as to destroy Qin and settle all under Heaven—this is due to the efforts of the generals, ministers, and various lords as well as myself. Even though the Righteous Emperor has had no success, we certainly ought to allocate some territory for him to rule over.’ The generals all approved, so the Empire was divided up* and all the generals were set up as marquises and kings.
King Xiang and Fan Zeng suspected that the Governor of Pei had really gained possession of the Empire and that matters were already amicably settled, but they also hated to turn their backs on the compact and were afraid that the feudal states would rebel against them. So they secretly plotted together, saying that ‘The routes through Ba and Shu are hazardous, and people whom Qin deported all went to live in Shu.’ Accordingly they announced that ‘Ba and Shu are also territories within the passes.’ Therefore they set up the Governor of Pei as King of Han, to reign over Ba, Shu, and Hanzhong, and establish a capital at Nanzheng. And the territory within the passes was divided into three, and the surrendered generals of Qin were made kings in order to place an obstacle in the way of the King of Han. King Xiang then set up Zhang Han as King of Yong, to reign over the area to the west of Xianyang, establishing his capital at Feiqiu.
I now omit a passage concerned mainly with the details of the allocation of kingdoms and marquisates to Xiang Yu’s supporters, but conclude with Sima’s account of the last few years of Xiang Yu’s life. The Han Dynasty reckoned its beginning from the date of its founder’s establishment as the King of Han, which has just been mentioned, but as these pages will show, the rebellion was far from being settled in his favour.
Next, in winter in the second year of the Han, Xiang Yu went north and came to Chengyang, and Tian Rong also took command of his troops and met him and fought a battle with him. Tian Rong was not victorious, so he fled as far as Pingyuan, and the people of Pingyuan killed him. Next he went north and burnt and razed the city walls and dwellings of Qi, and put to death all the surrendered troops of Tian Rong, and tied up and made captive the old and young and the womenfolk. He occupied Qi as far as the northern sea, and wreaked havoc over much of it. But the people of Qi gathered themselves together to rebel against him. Thereupon Tian Rong’s younger brother Tian Heng rallied the troops of Qi who had deserted and got together a force of some ten thousands of men, and staged a rebellion at Chengyang. King Xiang was kept there because of this, but although he continued to fight he could not defeat them at all.
In spring the King of Han, having under his control the soldiers of five of the feudal states, a force of 560,000 men in all, went east and attacked Chu. When King Xiang heard about this, he ordered all the generals to attack Qi, but himself went south with 30,000 élite soldiers, and going via Lu, came out at Huling. In the fourth month all the Han forces had already entered Pengcheng and removed valuables and beautiful women from it, and every day wine was set out and a party held for those of high rank. So King Xiang came west via Xiao and attacked the Han army at dawn, and then went east and reached Pengcheng. During the day he inflicted a major defeat on the Han army. The Han army all fled, following each other into the Gu and Si Rivers, and more than 100,000 Han troops were killed. The Han troops all fled south to the mountains, and Chu also pursued and attacked them as far as east of Lingbi, on the banks of the Sui River. So when the Han army was repelled it came under pressure from Chu. Many were killed and more than 100,000 of the Han troops all went into the Sui River, which ceased to flow because of this.
The King of Han was encircled by a body of men three deep. Thereupon a great wind arose from the north-west. It felled trees, demolished houses, and raised a sandstorm. It was so gloomy that the day was like night. When this hit the Chu army, it was thrown into great confusion; and since its ranks were in disorder, the King of Han managed to make a getaway with twenty or thirty horsemen. He intended to visit Pei and go west after collecting his family, but Chu had also sent men to pursue him to Pei, and take the King of Han’s family; but they had all disappeared, so they and the King of Han did not see each other. But on the way the King of Han met up with the Emperor Hui and Yuan of Lu,* so he put them in the carriage and continued his journey. But the Chu horsemen were pursuing the King of Han, so in his desperation he pushed the Emperor Hui and Yuan of Lu out of the carriage. Every time this happened Lord Deng got down from the carriage, picked them up, and put them back on board. When this had happened three times, he said: ‘Even if you are desperate, it is impossible to get on any quicker, so why get rid of them?’ After that he was able to make his escape. He sought the Supreme Duke and the Empress Lü,* but they did not encounter each other. They had gone off in disguise with Shen Yiqi in attendance, and had been searching for the King of Han, but instead had met the Chu army. Then the Chu army returned with them and made a report to King Xiang, and King Xiang always kept them within the camp.
At this time the Marquis of Zhoulü, the elder brother of the Empress Lü, was stationed at Xiayi in command of troops acting on behalf of the Han. The King of Han went off in disguise and joined them, and gradually gathered together his own officers and men. He went on to Xingyang, where there was a rendezvous of all the defeated armies, and Xiao He* also sent there all the old men and young men who had not yet been conscripted from within the passes, so that it again became a formidable force. Starting out from Pengcheng, Chu drove constantly northwards, taking advantage of its victory, and fought with Han between Jing and Suo to the south of Xingyang. Han defeated Chu, so Chu was not able to get past Xingyang and go west.
When King Xiang was going to the relief of Pengcheng and pursuing the King of Han as far as Xingyang, Tian Heng also managed to rally Qi and set up Guang, the son of Tian Rong, as King of Qi. When the King of Han was defeated at Pengcheng, the feudal states all joined Chu again and turned their backs on Han. When Han based itself at Xingyang, it built a covered way connecting it with the Yellow River in order to obtain grain from the Ao Granary.*
In the third year of Han, King Xiang made several attacks so as to deprive Han of the use of the covered way. Frightened because the food was running short, the King of Han requested peace, with the area to the west of Xingyang being detached as Han territory. King Xiang wanted to listen to him but Fan Zeng, Marquis of Liyang, said: ‘Han is easy to get along with, but if you let them go and do not seize them now, later on you are bound to regret it.’ So King Xiang, together with Fan Zeng, urgently laid siege to Xingyang. The King of Han was worried about this, so, taking the advice of Chen Ping, he gave King Xiang cause for antagonism. When a messenger came from King Xiang, a sacrificial ox was prepared, as if the intention were to hand it to him. But when they saw the messenger, they feigned astonishment and said: ‘We thought it was a messenger from Fan Zeng, but on the contrary you are a messenger from King Xiang.’ So it was taken away and some poor food was given to the messenger of King Xiang to eat. When the messenger returned and made his report to King Xiang, King Xiang consequently suspected that there was collusion between Fan Zeng and Han, and gradually deprived him of authority. ‘The Empire’s affairs are mainly settled,’ said Fan Zeng in a great rage. ‘Your Majesty should manage them himself. I should like to be granted my freedom to return to the ranks.’ King Xiang agreed to this, but before he had reached Pengcheng on his journey he died from an ulcerous growth which had appeared on his back.
The Han general Ji Xin advised the King of Han. ‘The situation has become desperate,’ he said. ‘For Your Majesty’s sake I beg to deceive Chu by playing the part of king, and Your Majesty may then make a secret getaway.’ The King of Han thereupon sent out at night by the eastern gate of Xingyang 2,000 women clad in armour, and the Chu soldiers attacked them on all four sides. Ji Xin then mounted the yellow-canopied carriage* with its plumes attached to the left. ‘The food in the city is all used up,’ he said. ‘So the King of Han surrenders.’ While the Chu army all proclaimed their congratulations, the King of Han was also leaving via the western gate of the city together with twenty or thirty horsemen, fleeing to Chenggao. When King Xiang interviewed Ji Xin, he asked him where the King of Han was. He told him that the King of Han had escaped, so King Xiang had Ji Xin burnt to death.
The King of Han appointed the Imperial Secretary Zhou Ke, the Honourable Cong, and Wei Bao to keep guard over Xingyang. Zhou Ke and the Honourable Cong plotted together. ‘It will be difficult to keep guard over a city together with the king of a state which has been made to revolt,’ they said. So they collaborated to kill Wei Bao.* Chu defeated the city of Xingyang and took Zhou Ke alive. ‘If you will become a commander for me,’ said King Xiang to Zhou Ke, ‘I will make you supreme general and enfeoff you with 30,000 households.’ But Zhou Ke cursed and said: ‘If you do not make haste to surrender to Han, Han will take you prisoner at this moment. You are not a match for Han.’ King Xiang was angry and he boiled Zhou Ke alive, and at the same time killed the Honourable Cong.
When the King of Han left Xingyang, he fled south to Yuan and She and got hold of Bu, King of Jiujiang. Recruiting soldiers on his journey, he again entered and provided protection for Chenggao.
In the fourth year of Han, King Xiang advanced his soldiers and laid siege to Chenggao. The King of Han escaped and, accompanied only by the Honourable Teng, went out of the northern gate of Chenggao, crossed the Yellow River, and fled to Xiuwu, where he joined the armies of Zhang Er and Han Xin. The various generals gradually managed to get out of Chenggao and join the King of Han. Chu next took Chenggao and intended to go west. But Han sent soldiers to oppose them at Gong and cause them to be unable to go west.
At this time Peng Yue crossed the Yellow River and attacked Chu at Donga and killed the Chu general, the Honourable Xue. So King Xiang himself went east and attacked Peng Yue. The King of Han, having obtained command of the soldiers of the Marquis of Huaiyin, intended to cross the Yellow River and go south. But when Zheng Zhong gave the King of Han some advice, he accordingly stopped and built fortifications in Henei. He made Liu Jia take command of soldiers to go to the assistance of Peng Yue and burn the stores of Chu. King Xiang went east and attacked and defeated them and caused Peng Yue to flee. As for the King of Han, he led his soldiers across the Yellow River, retook Chenggao, and made camp at Guangwu, where they fetched food from the Ao Granary. King Xiang, having pacified the eastern coastal area, came west and pitched camp facing Guangwu, just like the Han. They kept watch on each other for several months.
Meanwhile Peng Yue caused several rebellions in Liang territory and cut off Chu provisions. King Xiang was worried about this. He constructed a high sacrificial stand and placed the Supreme Duke on it and announced to the King of Han: ‘If you do not submit quickly, I shall boil the Supreme Duke.’ The King of Han said: ‘When you, Xiang Yu, and I together faced north to receive our commands from King Huai, we said that we made a pact to become brothers, so my father is your father. If you must insist on boiling your own father, then do me the honour of allotting me a cup of soup.’ King Xiang was angry and intended to kill him, but Xiang Bo said: ‘What will happen to the Empire cannot yet be known about, and moreover one who runs the Empire pays no heed to his family, so even if you kill him, there will be no benefit. You will only be increasing your misfortunes, that is all.’ King Xiang followed his advice.
Chu and Han held each other in check for a long time and the outcome remained indecisive. The able-bodied men suffered the hardships of military life, and the old and the young grew weary from transporting provisions by land and water. King Xiang said to the King of Han: ‘That all under Heaven has been in chaos for several years now is due only to the two of us, so I would like to challenge you to single combat to decide who is cock and hen, for the sake of not bringing hardship to the fathers and sons among the people of all under Heaven.’ The King of Han made his excuses with a smile. ‘I would rather compete in wisdom,’ he said, ‘since I cannot compete in strength.’
King Xiang then ordered a valiant fellow to go forth and make a challenge to single combat. Han had an excellent mounted archer known as Lou Fan. Chu challenged him to combat three times, but Lou Fan immediately shot and killed his adversary. King Xiang was furious, so he himself put on his armour and brandished his spear and made a challenge to single combat. Lou Fan intended to shoot him, but King Xiang glared and shouted at him, so Lou Fan did not dare to look him in the eye or raise his hand, and he ran off back inside the ramparts and did not dare emerge again. The King of Han sent someone to ask questions about him on the quiet, and when it turned out that it was King Xiang, the King of Han was astonished. After that King Xiang actually approached the King of Han and they held conversation with each other facing across the gorge of Guangwu. When the King of Han reprimanded him, King Xiang became angry, and wanted to fight him in single combat. The King of Han did not take any notice, so King Xiang shot and hit him with a concealed crossbow. The King of Han was wounded and fled into Chenggao.
When King Xiang heard that the Marquis of Huaiyin had taken Hebei, had defeated Qi and Zhao, and moreover was intent on smiting Chu, he accordingly sent Long Ju to go and smite him. The Marquis of Huaiyin fought a battle with him, and Cavalry General Guan Ying smote him, inflicted a major defeat on the Chu army, and killed Long Ju. The Marquis of Huaiyin availed himself of this opportunity to set himself up as King of Qi. When King Xiang heard that Long Ju’s army had been defeated, he became afraid and sent Wu She, a man of Xuyi, to go and speak to the Marquis of Huaiyin. The Marquis of Huaiyin did not take any notice of him.
At this time Peng Yue again rebelled and caused the territory of Liang to submit, and cut off grain from Chu. So King Xiang spoke to the Marquis of Haichun, Grand Marshal Cao Jiu, and others. ‘If you carefully protect Chenggao,’ he said, ‘then if Han desires to challenge you to battle, be careful not to fight with him, and do not enable him to go east, that is all. In fifteen days I will certainly punish Peng Yue, settle the territory of Liang, and return and join you.’ So he went east and en route attacked Chenliu and Waihuang.
Waihuang did not capitulate, but fell after a few days. King Xiang was angry and ordered all the young men over the age of 15 to come to the east of the city, for he intended to annihilate them. The 13-year-old son of the steward of the Governor of Waihuang went and spoke to King Xiang. ‘Peng Yue oppressed Waihuang so powerfully that Waihuang was terrified and was consequently on the point of submission and was waiting for Your Majesty. But now that Your Majesty has arrived, if you then annihilate them, surely none of the people will turn their hearts towards you? To the east of here there are more than ten cities of the territory of Liang and they are all afraid, so none will be willing to submit.’ King Xiang thought that what he said was true, so he pardoned the people of Waihuang who were due to be annihilated. Then he went east and reached Suiyang. Hearing about this, everyone strove to submit to King Xiang.
Han actually challenged the Chu army several times to battle, but the Chu army did not sally forth. He sent men to insult them for five or six days and the grand marshal grew angry and made his soldiers cross the Si River. When the officers and men were half across, Han attacked them and inflicted a major defeat on the Chu army, and seized all the valuables of the state of Chu. Grand Marshal Cao Jiu, the chief scribe Tong Yi, and Sima Xin King of Sai all cut their throats on the bank of the River Si. (Grand Marshal Jiu had formerly been prison official of Ji and senior scribe Xin had also formerly been prison officer of Yueyang, and both men had once done Xiang Liang a favour,* and therefore King Xiang had trusted them and given them responsibility.) Meanwhile King Xiang was in Suiyang, and when he heard that the army of the Marquis of Haichun had been defeated, he led forth his army and returned. The Han army had just laid siege to Zhonglimo to the east of Xingyang but, when King Xiang arrived, the Han army, through fear of Chu, had all fled to difficult terrain.
At this time the Han soldiers were flourishing and their food was plentiful, but King Xiang’s soldiers were weary and their food was depleted. Han sent Lu Jia to parley with King Xiang. He asked for the Supreme Duke, but King Xiang did not take any notice of him. The King of Han next sent the Honourable Hou to go and parley with King Xiang, so King Xiang made a pact with Han* to divide up all under Heaven, with the area to the west of the Hong Canal to be separated off as Han and the area to the east of the Hong Canal to be Chu. When King Xiang had agreed to this, he restored the King of Han’s father, mother, and wife, and the army all cried out ‘Long life!’ The King of Han then enfeoffed the Honourable Hou as ‘the Lord who has pacified the State’. He retired and refused to see them again. (It was said that he was the most outstanding debater in the world and that wherever he resided he overturned the state, and so he was called ‘the Lord who has pacified the State’.)* After he had concluded the pact, King Xiang led his soldiers away, released them, and returned east.
Han intended to return to the west, but Zhang Liang and Chen Ping said: ‘Han has possession of the greater part of all under Heaven, and the feudal lords are all dependent on it. The Chu soldiers are weary and their food is all used up, so this is the time when Heaven is destroying Chu. The best thing would be to take advantage of such an opportunity and go on to seize it. If you let it get away now and do not attack it, this is what is called “leaving oneself worries by feeding a tiger”.’ The King of Han paid attention to them.
Accordingly in the fifth year of Han the King of Han pursued King Xiang to the south of Yangxia, where he halted his army. Then he fixed a rendezvous with Han Xin, Marquis of Huaiyin, and Peng Yue, Marquis of Jiancheng, to attack the Chu army. But when he reached Guling the armies of Han Xin and Peng Yue were not there to meet him and Chu attacked the Han army and inflicted a major defeat on them. The King of Han went back inside his ramparts and, deepening his ditches, took up defensive positions. He spoke to Zhang Liang. ‘The feudal lords have not adhered to the pact,’ he said. ‘What shall I do about it?’ ‘The Chu soldiers are about to be defeated,’ he replied, ‘but Han Xin and Peng Yue do not yet have any territory allocated to them, so it is surely reasonable for them not to have arrived. If Your Majesty were able to join with them in dividing up the Empire, they could now at once be brought here. But if you are unable to do so at this moment, the outcome cannot yet be known. If you could grant Han Xin everything from Chen eastward right to the sea, and could give Peng Yue what lies north of Suiyang as far as Gucheng, to make sure that each is fighting for himself, then Chu will be easily defeated.’
The King of Han approved this and accordingly sent messengers to inform Han Xin and Peng Yue. ‘Combine your forces to attack Chu,’ they said. ‘When Chu has been defeated, the land to the east of Chen as far as the sea shall be given to the King of Qi, and the land to the north of Suiyang as far as Gucheng shall be given to Chief Minister Peng.’ When the messengers arrived, Han Xin and Peng Yue both reported: ‘We beg to make our soldiers advance at his moment.’ So Han Xin came from Qi and the army of Liu Jia marched together with them from Shouchun. They butchered the people of Chengfu and then came to Gaixia. Grand Marshal Zhou Yin rebelled against Chu and butchered the people of Liu with the aid of the people of Shu. He raised soldiers in Jiujiang, then followed Liu Jia and Peng Yue. They all met at Gaixia, and advanced on King Xiang.
King Xiang had encamped and built ramparts at Gaixia, but his soldiers were few* and the food was all used up. The Han army and the soldiers of the feudal states surrounded him several men deep. At night the Han army was heard on all sides singing the songs of Chu, so King Xiang said in great astonishment: ‘Has Han already got the whole of Chu? How many men of Chu there are!’ As for King Xiang himself, at night he got up and had a drink in his tent. There was a beautiful woman called Yu, whom he always favoured and took along with him, and a noble steed called Zhui, which he always rode. Thereupon King Xiang sadly sang of his regrets in a song of his own composition:
My strength plucked up mountains
And my energies overshadowed the world,
But the times were not favourable,
And Zhui will not sally forth again.
And if Zhui does not sally forth again
Alas, what can be done?
Ah Yu! AhYu!
What will become of you?
He sang several verses of the song and the beautiful woman sang in harmony with him. King Xiang’s tears streamed down, and those about him all wept, and none could raise their eyes and look up.
King Xiang thereupon mounted his horse and rode off, with 800 and more sturdy fellows riding in attendance under his banner. As soon as night fell they burst through the encirclement and escaped to the south and rode away. So at dawn the Han army became conscious of this, and Cavalry General Guan Ying was ordered to ride off in pursuit of him with 5,000 men. King Xiang crossed the Huai, and only 100 or so horsemen were capable of staying with him. When he reached Yinling, King Xiang suspected that he had lost his way, so he asked a worker in the fields, who, to trick him, told him to go left. He went left and so he got bogged down in a great marsh. For this reason the Han pursuers caught up with him. So King Xiang again led his soldiers off and went eastwards, but when he reached Dongcheng, he in fact had twenty-eight horsemen. The Han horsemen who were in pursuit were several thousand men. King Xiang considered that he could not make a getaway, so he said to his horsemen: ‘Eight years have passed from the time when I raised soldiers until now, and I myself have fought in more than seventy battles. Those whom I have confronted have been destroyed, and those whom I have smitten have submitted, and I have never once been defeated and put to flight, and so as paramount prince I have taken possession of all under Heaven. Yet now here I am finally reduced to desperate straits. This is because Heaven is destroying me. It is not because I have done anything wrong in battle. I am certainly resolved to die today, but I would like to fight some quick battles for you, my lords. I shall make a point of being victorious over them three times. For you, my lords, I shall break through the encirclement, I shall decapitate their general, and I shall cut down their banner, so that you, my lords, will understand that Heaven is destroying me, and that it is not that I have done anything wrong in battle.’
Accordingly he divided his horsemen into four groups, facing in all four directions. The Han army encircled them several deep. King Xiang told his horsemen: ‘For you gentlemen I will get that one general.’ He ordered his horsemen to gallop down in all four directions, and arranged for them to establish three positions on the east of the hill. Then King Xiang gave a great shout and galloped down. The Han army all scattered and then he decapitated one Han general. At this time the Marquis of Chiquan was General of Cavalry and he pursued King Xiang, but King Xiang glared and shouted at him, so that both the Marquis of Chiquan and his horse were startled, and they fled for several li. He and his horsemen rendezvoused, forming three different positions, and the Han army did not know which one King Xiang was in, so they divided the army into three and again surrounded them. So King Xiang rode forth and again decapitated a Han commandant and killed nearly 100 men, and when he gathered his horsemen together again, he had lost only two of them. So he said to his horsemen: ‘What about it?’ The horsemen all prostrated themselves. ‘It is just as the Great King said,’ they replied.
Thereupon King Xiang intended to go east and cross over the River Wu. The headman of the River Wu area, who was waiting with a moored boat, spoke to King Xiang. ‘Although the area east of the Yangtze is small,’ he said, ‘it forms a territory of 1,000 li square, and has a population of several hundred thousand, and is therefore suitable to be ruled by a king. I would like the Great King to hurry up and cross over. At the moment only your servant has a boat, but when the Han army arrives, there will be no means of getting across.’ King Xiang smiled. ‘Since Heaven is destroying me,’ he said, ‘what shall I go across for? Moreover I crossed the river and went west together with 8,000 young men from east of the Yangtze, and if I now return without a single man, although their fathers and elder brothers would make me their king because they felt pity, how could I bear to look them in the face? Even if they did not mention it, would I alone not feel shame in my heart?’ Still addressing the headman, he said: ‘I know that you, sir, are a venerable person. I have ridden this steed for five years. He has no match among those he has confronted, and he once journeyed 1,000 li in a single day. I cannot bear to kill him and so I bestow him upon you.’ And so he ordered his horsemen all to dismount and proceed on foot and join battle brandishing short weapons. Several hundred men of the Han army were killed by Xiang Yu alone. He also suffered more than ten wounds on his body. When he looked round and saw the Han cavalry marshal Lü Matong, he said: ‘Are you not my old friend?’ Lü Matong faced him and pointed him out to Wang Yi. ‘This is King Xiang,’ he said. King Xiang then said: ‘I hear that Han has placed a reward of 1,000 jin and 10,000 households on my head, so I will do you a favour.’ Accordingly he cut his throat and died. Wang Yi picked up his head, and the rest of the horsemen trampled each other trying to get at King Xiang, and twenty or thirty killed each other. In the end cavalry attendant Yang Xi, cavalry marshal Lü Matou, and the palace gentlemen Lü Sheng and Yang Wu each got one of his limbs. And when the five men fitted his body together, it was all right. Therefore his lands were divided into five: Lü Matou was enfeoffed as Marquis of Zhongshui, Wang Yi was enfeoffed as Marquis of Duyan, Yang Xi was enfeoffed as Marquis of Chiquan, Yang Wu was enfeoffed as Marquis of Wufang, and Lü Sheng was enfeoffed as Marquis of Nieyang.
After King Xiang died, the territory of Chu all fell to Han, except that the people of Lu alone did not submit. So Han led forth the soldiers of the Empire and intended to butcher them, but because of the fact that they had preserved propriety and righteousness and would die a noble death for their lord, they accordingly took King Xiang’s head and showed it in Lu, so that the fathers and elder brothers of Lu surrendered. In the beginning King Huai of Chu had enfeoffed Xiang Yu as Duke of Lu and, when it came to the time of his death, Lu was the last to submit, and therefore King Xiang was buried at Gucheng with the ceremony of a Duke of Lu. The King of Han started the mourning for him and, having wept for him, he departed.
All the branches of the Xiang family were not put to death by the King of Han. Indeed he enfeoffed Xiang Bo as Marquis of Sheyang. The Marquis of Tao, the Marquis of Pinggao, and the Marquis of Xuanwu were all of the Xiang family, but they had the surname Liu* bestowed upon them.
The Grand Historiographer said: ‘I heard from Master Zhou that Shun’s* eyes had double pupils, and I have also heard that Xiang Yu had double pupils too. But Yu was surely not an offshoot of his? How sudden was his rise! When Qin failed in its government, Chen Sheng was at the head of the troubles, and powerful men and local heroes rose up like swarms of bees and competed with each other in incalculable numbers. But although it was not the case that Xiang Yu had the tiniest scrap of land, he took advantage of his skill to rise up from among the dykes and fields, and after three years he commanded five feudal lords* and destroyed Qin. He divided up all under Heaven and enfeoffed kings and marquises, and government emanated from Xiang Yu, who was entitled the Supreme King. Although his status was not maintained until the end, there has never existed such a position since recent antiquity. But when he turned his back on the passes and cherished Chu, drove out the Righteous Emperor, and set himself up, the resentful kings and marquises revolted against him, and things became difficult. He boasted of his own achievements and military offensives, stuck with determination to his own private wisdom, and did not take antiquity as his model. He spoke of the traditions of supreme kingship, but he intended to control all under Heaven by force. But after five years he finally lost his kingdom. When he died at Dongcheng, he still did not wake up and lay the responsibility for his mistakes on himself. Thus surely he was deluded to bring in the words: “Heaven is destroying me, and it is not anything I have done wrong in the use of soldiers.” ’