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25. For other examples, see Celeste LeCompte, “Automation in the Newsroom,” Nieman Reports, September 1, 2015, http://niemanreports.org/articles/automation-in-the-newsroom/; Shelley Podolny, “If an Algorithm Wrote This, How Would You Even Know?,” New York Times, March 7, 2015, http://www.nytimes.com/2015/03/08/opinion/sunday/if-an-algorithm-wrote-this-how-would-you-even-know.html.
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29. According to the current default setting as of the time of writing, Facebook will show you only some of these posts, which it calls Top Stories, automatically selected by its algorithms. This setting can be changed by going to the News Feed tab and selecting Most Recent instead of Top Stories. See also Victor Luckerson, “Here’s How Facebook’s News Feed Actually Works,” Time, July 9, 2015, http://time.com/3950525/facebook-news-feed-algorithm.
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50. Nadav Hochman and Lev Manovich, “Zooming into an Instagram City: Reading the Local through Social Media,” First Monday 18, no. 7 (July 1, 2013), http://firstmonday.org/ojs/index.php/fm/article/view/4711/3698.
51. Joan Serrà, Álvaro Corral, Marián Boguñá, Martín Haro, and Josep Ll. Arcos, “Measuring the Evolution of Contemporary Western Popular Music,” Scientific Reports 2, no. 521 (2012), https://doi.org/10.1038/srep00521.
52. Matthias Mauch, Robert M. MacCallum, Mark Levy, and Armand M. Leroi, “The Evolution of Popular Music: USA 1960–2010,” Royal Society Open Science, May 1, 2015, https://doi.org/10.1098/rsos.150081.
53. Academia.edu, accessed December 23, 2017, https://www.academia.edu/.
54. See also “List of Internet Phenomena,” Wikipedia, accessed September 18, 2019, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Internet_phenomena.
1. Samuel P. Fraiberger, Roberta Sinatra, Magnus Resch, Christoph Riedl, and Albert-László Barabási, “Quantifying Reputation and Success in Art,” Science 362, no. 6416 (November 16, 2018): 825–829, https://science.sciencemag.org/content/362/6416/825.
2. “The 11th International AAAI Conference on Web and Social Media,” accessed September 18, 2019, http://www.icwsm.org/2017/index.php.
3. Sandeep Junnarkar, “Bloggers Add Moving Images to Their Musings,” New York Times, February 24, 2005, http://www.nytimes.com/2005/02/24/technology/circuits/bloggers-add-moving-images-to-their-musings.html; Nitecruzr, “Using Images in Your Posts,” The Real Blogger Status (blog), October 6, 2006, http://blogging.nitecruzr.net/2006/10/using-images-in-your-posts.html.
4. Wikipedia, “DeviantArt,” accessed August 2, 2016, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DeviantArt.
5. DeviantArt, “About DeviantArt,” accessed July 25, 2016, https://about.deviantart.com/.
6. Vimeo, “Motion Graphic Artists,” accessed March 5, 2017, https://vimeo.com/groups/motion.
7. Daniela Ushizima et al., “Cultural Analytics of Large Datasets from Flickr,” in Proceedings of the Sixth International AAAI Conference on Weblogs and Social Media (Palo Alto, CA: AAAI Press, 2015), http://manovich.net/index.php/projects/cultural-analytics-of-large-datasets-from-flickr.
8. Sirion Vittayakorn et al., “Runway to Realway: Visual Analysis of Fashion,” in Proceedings of 2015 IEEE Winter Conference on Applications of Computer Vision (Waikoloa, HI: IEEE, 2015), 951–958.
9. Elena Garces et al., “A Similarity Measure for Illustration Style,” Journal ACM Transactions on Graphics 33, no. 4 (July 2014). See also the Related Works section in this paper for more relevant research.
10. Yuji Yoshimura et al., “Deep Learning Architect: Classification for Architectural Design through the Eye of Artificial Intelligence,” in Computational Urban Planning and Management for Smart Cities, ed. Stan Geertman et al. (Cham: Springer, 2019).
11. This topic is analyzed in detail in Lev Manovich, Software Takes Command, rev. ed. (London: Bloomsbury Academic, 2013).
12. In Software Takes Command, I argue that this constant evolution is the defining characteristic of computer media.
13. Schich et al., “A Network Framework of Cultural History.”
14. Twitter Developer, “Tweet Objects,” accessed March 12, 2017, https://dev.twitter.com/overview/api/users.
15. US Department of Health and Human Services, “Considerations and Recommendations Concerning Internet Research and Human Subjects Research Regulations,” for SACHRP, March 13, 2013, http://www.hhs.gov/ohrp/sites/default/files/ohrp/sachrp/mtgings/2013%20March%20Mtg/internet_research.pdf.
16. Mike Schroepfer, “Research at Facebook,” Facebook Newsroom, October 2, 2014, http://newsroom.fb.com/news/2014/10/research-at-facebook/.
17. Social Media Research Group, Using Social Media for Social Research: An Introduction, May 2016, https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/524750/GSR_Social_Media_Research_Guidance_-_Using_social_media_for_social_research.pdf.
18. Venturini Tommaso and Richard Rogers, “‘API-Based Research’ or How Can Digital Sociology and Digital Journalism Studies Learn from the Cambridge Analytica Affair,” Digital Journalism 7, no. 4 (2019): 532–540.
19. Ars Electronica, “Interactive Art +,” accessed October 1, 2019, https://ars.electronica.art/prix/en/categories/interactive-art/.
20. Benjamin Tatler et al., “Yarbus, Eye Movements, and Vision,” Iperception 1, no. 1 (2010): 7–27.
21. Alfred Yarbus, Eye Movements and Vision (New York: Plenum Press, 1967), 190.
22. Stanislav Sobolevsky et al., “Scaling of City Attractiveness for Foreign Visitors through Big Data of Human Economical and Social Media Activity,” in Proceedings of 2015 IEEE International Congress on Big Data (Santa Clara, CA: IEEE, 2015), 600–607.
23. Senseable City Lab, accessed September 18, 2019, http://senseable.mit.edu/; Spin Unit, accessed September 18, 2019, http://www.spinunit.eu/; Habidatum, accessed September 18, 2019, https://habidatum.com/.
24. Todd Schneider, “A Tale of Twenty-Two Million Citi Bike Rides: Analyzing the NYC Bike Share System,” Todd W. Schneider (blog), January 13, 2016, http://toddwschneider.com/posts/a-tale-of-twenty-two-million-citi-bikes-analyzing-the-nyc-bike-share-system/.
25. Patrick Nelson, “Just One Autonomous Car Will Use 4,000 GB of Data/Day,” NetworkWorld, December 7, 2016, https://www.networkworld.com/article/3147892/internet/one-autonomous-car-will-use-4000-gb-of-dataday.html.
26. Jordan Gilbertson and Andrew Salzberg, “Introducing Uber Movement,” Uber Newsroom, January 9, 2017, https://newsroom.uber.com/introducing-uber-movement/.
27. William H. Whyte, The Social Life of Small Urban Spaces (New York: Project for Public Spaces, 1980).
28. This section summarizes arguments developed in more detail in Lev Manovich, Software Takes Command, rev. ed. (London: Bloomsbury Academic, 2013).
29. Meetup, “Meetup: About,” accessed March 11, 2017, https://www.meetup.com/about/.
30. Eventbrite, “Eventbrite: About,” accessed March 11, 2017, https://www.eventbrite.com/about/.
31. J. Clement, “Number of Monthly Active Facebook Users Worldwide as of 4th Quarter 2019 (in Millions),” Statista, January 30, 2020, https://www.statista.com/statistics/264810/number-of-monthly-active-facebook-users-worldwide/; J. Clement, “Leading Countries Based on Number of Facebook Users as of July 2019 (in Millions),” Statista, February 14, 2020, https://www.statista.com/statistics/268136/top-15-countries-based-on-number-of-facebook-users/.
1. Matthew Arnold, preface to Culture and Anarchy (1875), in Arnold: Culture and Anarchy and Other Writings, ed. Stefan Collini (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993).
2. Franco Moretti, “Conjectures on World Literature,” New Left Review 1, no. 1 (January–February 2000): 54–68, http://newleftreview.org/II/1/franco-moretti-conjectures-on-world-literature.
3. Europeana, accessed August 3, 2018, http://www.europeana.eu/portal/en.
4. Internet Archive, accessed August 3, 2018, http://archive.org.
5. Google Arts & Culture, accessed July 26, 2016, http://www.google.com/culturalinstitute/beta/search/exhibit.
6. Lev Manovich, “How to Follow Global Digital Cultures, or Cultural Analytics for Beginners,” in Deep Search: The Politics of Search beyond Google, ed. Konrad Becker and Felix Stalder (Innsbruck: Studien Verlag, 2009), 198–211, http://manovich.net/index.php/projects/how-to-follow-global-digital-cultures.
7. The very first large institutional collection that formed the core of Artstor was the slide library at the University of California, San Diego—the same university where I taught digital art and media theory since 1996. The library had over two hundred thousand slides, and they were all digitized and included in Artstor. In 2009, this was the largest single collection in Artstor. The slides were created either directly by art history faculty teaching in the Visual Arts Department or by art library staff via lists of images faculty provided. This collection is quite interesting because it reflects the biases of art history as it was taught over a few decades when color slides were the main media for teaching and studying art.
8. Manovich, “How to Follow Global Digital Cultures.”
9. The New York Public Library Digital Collections, “Photographs of the Catskill Water Supply System in Process of Construction,” accessed July 26, 2016, http://digitalcollections.nypl.org/collections/photographs-of-the-catskill-water-supply-system-in-process-of-construction.
10. The New York Public Library Digital Collections, “The Buttolph Collection of Menus,” http://digitalcollections.nypl.org/collections/the-buttolph-collection-of-menus#/?tab=about.
11. The New York Public Library Digital Collections, “Catalogue of the Chiroptera by G.E. Dobson,” accessed July 26, 2016, http://digitalcollections.nypl.org/collections/catalogue-of-the-chiroptera-by-ge-dobson.
12. Aleksandra Strzelichowska, “Maggy’s Picks: New Content in Europeana,” Europeana Blog, July 25, 2016, http://blog.europeana.eu/2016/07/maggys-picks-new-content-in-europeana/.
13. Lev Manovich, Instagram and Contemporary Image (self-published under Creative Commons License, 2017), http://manovich.net/index.php/projects/instagram-and-contemporary-image.
14. “Category: Geographic Region-Oriented Digital Libraries,” Wikipedia, accessed September 18, 2019, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Geographic_region-oriented_digital_libraries; “List of Digital Library Projects,” Wikipedia, accessed September 18, 2019, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_digital_library_projects.
15. For an overview of different sampling methods, see Sam Cook, “Sampling Methods,” Revise Sociology, May 4, 2011, https://revisesociology.wordpress.com/2011/05/04/5-sampling-methods. The longer list of methods is presented in Wikipedia, “Sampling (Statistics),” accessed August 2, 2018, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sampling_(statistics).
16. Nina Cesare, Christian Grant, Quynh Nguyen, Hedwig Lee, and Elaine O. Nsoesie, How Well Can Machine Learning Predict Demographics of Social Media Users?, ArXiv.org, February 6, 2017, https://arxiv.org/pdf/1702.01807.pdf.
17. Agustin Indaco and Lev Manovich, Urban Social Media Inequality: Definition, Measurements, and Application, ArXiv.org, July 7, 2016, https://arxiv.org/abs/1607.01845.
18. Manovich, Instagram and Contemporary Image.
19. Lydia Manikonda, Yuheng Hu, and Subbarao Kambhampati, Analyzing User Activities, Demographics, Social Network Structure and User-Generated Content on Instagram, Arxiv.org, October 29, 2014, http://arxiv.org/pdf/1410.8099v1.pdf.
20. National Gallery of Art, The Art of the American Snapshot, 1888–1978: From the Collection of Robert E. Jackson, accessed March 1, 2020, https://www.nga.gov/exhibitions/2007/snapshot.html.
21. Gallup, “Methodology Center,” accessed August 2, 2016, http://www.gallup.com/178685/methodology-center.aspx.
22. Gallup, “How Does the Gallup U.S. Daily Work?,” accessed August 2, 2016, http://www.gallup.com/185462/gallup-daily-work.aspx.
23. Rachel Donadio, “Revisiting the Canon Wars,” New York Times, September 16, 2007, http://www.nytimes.com/2007/09/16/books/review/Donadio-t.html; Jan Gorak, The Making of the Modern Canon: Genesis and Crisis of a Literary Idea (London: Bloomsbury Academic, 2013).
24. Pew Research Center, “Internet User Demographics,” accessed September 25, 2016, http://www.pewinternet.org/data-trend/teens/internet-user-demographics.
25. Brand Analytics, “Статистика по источникам,” accessed September 20, 2016, https://br-analytics.ru/statistics/.
26. Statista, “Regional Distribution of Instagram Traffic in the Last Three Months as of April 2016, by Country,” accessed September 20, 2016, https://www.statista.com/statistics/272933/distribution-of-instagram-traffic-by-country/.
27. Pierre Bourdieu, Distinction: A Social Critique of the Judgement of Taste, trans. Richard Nice (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1979).
28. Frédéric Lebaron, “How Bourdieu ‘Quantified’ Bourdieu: The Geometric Modelling of Data,” in Quantifying Theory: Pierre Bourdieu, ed. Karen Robson and Chris Sanders (Dordrecht: Springer, 2009), 11–29.
29. Christine A. Knoop, Valentin Wagner, Thomas Jacobsen, and Winfried Menninghaus, “Mapping the Aesthetic Space of Literature ‘from Below,’” Poetics 56, no. 5 (June 2016): 35–49, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.poetic.2016.02.001.
30. Marc Verboord, Giselinde Kuipers, and Susanne Janssen, “Institutional Recognition in the Transnational Literary Field, 1955–2005,” Cultural Sociology 9, no. 3 (September 2015): 447–465, https://doi.org/10.1177/1749975515576939.
31. Aurélie Van de Peer, “Re-artification in a World of De-artification: Materiality and Intellectualization in Fashion Media Discourse (1949–2010),” Cultural Sociology 8, no. 4 (December 2014): 443–461, https://doi.org/10.1177/1749975514539799.
32. James E. Cutting, Impressionism and Its Canon (Lanham, MD: University Press of America, 2006).
33. Jin Yea Jang et al., “Teens Engage More with Fewer Photos: Temporal and Comparative Analysis on Behaviors in Instagram,” in Proceedings of 2016 ACM Conference on Hypertext and Social Media (New York: ACM, 2016), 71–81, https://doi.org/10.1145/2914586.2914602.
34. Manikonda, Hu, and Kambhampati, Analyzing User Activities.
35. Manikonda, Hu, and Kambhampati, Analyzing User Activities.
36. Émile Durkheim, The Rules of Sociological Method (New York: Free Press, [1895] 1982).
37. David Pierce, “Inside Spotify’s Hunt for the Perfect Playlist,” Wired, July 20, 2015, https://www.wired.com/2015/07/spotify-perfect-playlist/.
38. Franco Moretti, “Conjectures on World Literature.”
39. “The Museum of Modern Art (MoMA) Exhibition and Staff Histories,” GitHub, accessed September 18, 2019, https://github.com/MuseumofModernArt/exhibitions.
40. Cutting, Impressionism and Its Canon.
1. Ronald Fisher, Statistical Methods for Research Workers (Edinburgh: Oliver and Boyd, 1925), http://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Fisher/Methods/.
2. Theodore M. Porter, “Reforming Vision: The Engineer Le Play Learns to Observe Society Sagely,” in Histories of Scientific Observation, ed. Lorraine Daston and Elizabeth Lunbeck (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2011), 281–302.
3. Michel Foucault, Discipline and Punish: The Birth of the Prison, trans. A. M. Sheridan Smith (New York: Pantheon Books, 1977), 129. Original book published in France in 1975.
4. Jean-Francois Lyotard, “The Field: Knowledge in Computerized Societies,” in The Postmodern Condition: Report on Knowledge (Manchester, UK: Manchester University Press, 1984), 3–4. Original book published in France in 1979.
5. Museum of Modern Art, “Network Diagram of the Artists in Inventing Abstraction, 1910–1925,” MoMA December 23, 2012–April 15, 2013, http://www.moma.org/interactives/exhibitions/2012/inventingabstraction/?page=connections.
6. Michel Foucault, The Archaeology of Knowledge, trans. A. M. Sheridan Smith (London: Routledge, 2002). Original book published in France in 1969.
7. “The Museum of Modern Art (MoMA) Collection,” GitHub, accessed September 18, 2019, https://github.com/MuseumofModernArt/collection.
8. Alise Tifentale and Lev Manovich, “Selfiecity: Exploring Photography and Self-Fashioning in Social Media,” in Postdigital Aesthetics: Art, Computation and Design, ed. David M. Berry and Michael Dieter (London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2015), 109–122, http://manovich.net/index.php/projects/selfiecity-exploring.
9. Saeideh Bakhshi, David Shamma, and Eric Gilbert, “Faces Engage Us: Photos with Faces Attract More Likes and Comments on Instagram,” in Proceedings of the SIGCHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems (New York: ACM, 2014), 965–974.
10. Lisa Gitelman and Virginia Jackson, “Introduction,” in “Raw Data” Is an Oxymoron, ed. Lisa Gitelman (Cambridge: MIT Press, 2013), 3.
11. OpenStreetMap, “OpenStreetMap: About,” accessed September 19, 2019, https://www.openstreetmap.org/about.
12. Pew Research Center, accessed September 19, 2019, http://www.pewinternet.org.
13. Gallup, “How Does the Gallup U.S. Daily Work?”
14. Victor Ginsburgh and Sheila Weyers, “Persistence and Fashion in Art: Italian Renaissance from Vasari to Berenson and Beyond,” Poetics 34, no. 1 (2006): 24–44.
15. Fionn Murtagh, Origins of Modern Data Analysis Linked to the Beginnings and Early Development of Computer Science and Information Engineering, ArXiv.org, October 30, 2018, https://arxiv.org/pdf/0811.2519.pdf.
16. MongoDB, “Industries,” accessed September 28, 2016, https://www.mongodb.com/industries.
17. For an example of the alternative history that argues that conventional history misses some crucial figures, see Paul F. Lazarsfeld, “Notes on the History of Quantification in Sociology—Trends, Sources and Problems,” Isis 52, no. 2 (1961): 277–333, https://www.jstor.org/stable/228683.
18. Alain Desrosieres, The Politics of Large Numbers (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2002).
19. For historical examples, see Michael Friendly and Daniel J. Denis, “Milestones in the History of Thematic Cartography, Statistical Graphics, and Data Visualization,” 2001, accessed March 1, 2020, http://www.datavis.ca/milestones/index.php.
20. Michael Friendly and Daniel Denis, “The Early Origins and Development of the Scatterplot,” Journal of the History of the Behavioral Sciences 41, no. 2 (2005): 103–130.
21. Quoted in Garabed Eknoyan, “Adolphe Quetelet (1796–1874)—the Average Man and Indices of Obesity,” Nephrology Dialysis Transplantation 23, no. 1 (2008): 47–51, https://doi.org/10.1093/ndt/gfm517.
22. Lazarsfeld, “Notes on the History of Quantification in Sociology,” 297.
23. Émile Durkheim, Le Suicide. Étude de Sociologie (Paris: F. Alcan, 1897).
24. For a contemporary presentation and practical tutorial, see Oleksandr Pavlyk, “Centennial of Markov Chains,” Wolfram Blog, February 4, 2013, http://blog.wolfram.com/2013/02/04/centennial-of-markov-chains/.
25. Lazarsfeld, “Notes on the History of Quantification in Sociology,” 310.
26. Charles E. Spearman, “‘General Intelligence’ Objectively Determined and Measured,” American Journal of Psychology 15 (1904): 201–293.
27. Raymond B. Cattell, ed., Handbook of Multivariate Experimental Psychology (Chicago: Rand McNally, 1966).
28. L. L. Thurstone, “The Vectors of Mind,” Psychological Review 41 (1934): 1–32.
29. Neil W. Henry, “Latent Structure Analysis at Fifty,” in Proceedings of the Survey Research Methods Section (American Statistical Association, 1999), 587–592, http://www.asasrms.org/Proceedings/papers/1999_102.pdf.
30. T. W. Anderson, An Introduction to Multivariate Statistical Analysis (New York: Wiley, 1958).
31. Warren S. Torgerson, Theory and Methods of Scaling (New York: Wiley, 1958).
32. Michael Baxandall, Painting and Experience in Fifteenth Century Italy: A Primer in the Social History of Pictorial Style (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1972); Victor Burgin, The End of Art Theory: Criticism and Postmodernity (Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1986).
33. For example, see the program for the 2016 Workshop on Human Interpretability in Machine Learning, New York, June 23, 2016, https://sites.google.com/site/2016whi/.
34. For example, see Matthew D. Zeiler and Rob Fergus, Visualizing and Understanding Convolutional Networks, ArXiv.org, November 28, 2013, http://arxiv.org/abs/1311.2901.
35. Phil Schiller, quoted in Tonya Riley, “Apple’s iPhone 7 Camera Uses Machine Learning to Look for People,” Inverse, September 7, 2016, https://www.inverse.com/article/20677-iphone-7-camera-isp-phone.
36. Glenn Fleishman, “Two Cameras in iPhone 7 Plus Allow Synthetic Zoom, Soft-Focus Backgrounds,” Macworld, September 7, 2016, http://www.macworld.com/article/3117258/iphone-ipad/two-cameras-in-iphone-7-plus-allow-synthetic-zoom-soft-focus-backgrounds.html.
37. EyeEm, “EyeEm Team,” accessed September 23, 2016, https://www.eyeem.com/u/team.
38. Olga Russakovsky et al., “ImageNet Large Scale Visual Recognition Challenge,” International Journal of Computer Vision 115, no. 3 (2015): 211–252, https://doi.org/10.1007/s11263-015-0816-y.
39. See Russakovsky et al., “ImageNet Large Scale Visual Recognition Challenge.” For the details of the results from all competing teams, see ImageNet, “Large Scale Visual Recognition Challenge 2015 (ILSVRC2015),” accessed March 1, 2020, http://www.image-net.org/challenges/LSVRC/2015/results.
40. Google Cloud Platform, “Cloud Vision API,” accessed August 8, 2016, https://cloud.google.com/vision/.
41. Andrew Ng, Machine Learning Course, online course, week 6, accessed September 28, 2016, https://www.coursera.org/learn/machine-learning/home/week/6.
42. Kim Hye-Rin et al.,“Building Emotional Machines: Recognizing Image Emotions through Deep Neural Networks,” IEEE Transactions on Multimedia 20, no. 11 (November 2018): 2980–2992.
43. David G. Lowe, “Object Recognition from Local Scale-Invariant Features,” in Proceedings of the Seventh IEEE International Conference on Computer Vision, vol. 2 (Washington, DC: IEEE Computer Society, 1999), 1150–1157, https://doi.org/10.1109/ICCV.1999.790410. A good summary of the use of SIFT for object detection using the “bag of words” approach is provided in Gil Levi, “Bag of Words Models for Visual Categorization,” Gil’s CV Blog, August 23, 2013, https://gilscvblog.com/2013/08/23/bag-of-words-models-for-visual-categorization/.
44. Paul Viola and Michael Jones, “Rapid Object Detection Using a Boosted Cascade of Simple Features,” in Proceedings of the 2001 IEEE Computer Society Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition, vol. 1 (Los Alamitos, CA: IEEE Computer Society, 2001), 511–518, https://doi.org/10.1109/CVPR.2001.990517.
45. A. Huertas and R. Nevatia, “Detecting Buildings in Aerial Images,” Computer Vision, Graphics, and Image Processing 41, no. 2 (1988): 131–152.
46. Yann LeCun, Yoshua Bengio, and Geoffrey E. Hinton, “Deep Learning,” Nature 521, no. 7553 (2015): 436–444, https://doi.org/10.1038/nature14539.
47. The paper that started the trend of using deep networks for image classification is Alex Krizhevsky, Ilya Sutskever, and Geoffrey E. Hinton, “ImageNet Classification with Deep Convolutional Neural Networks,” Advances in Neural Information Processing Systems 25 (New York: AMC, 2012), 1097–1105, http://papers.nips.cc/paper/4824-imagenet-classification-with-deep-convolutional-neural-networks.
48. Krizhevsky et al., “ImageNet Classification with Deep Convolutional Neural Networks.”
49. The fact that certain data types are very popular has to do with the history of computer use in research and industry. Many algorithms were developed to analyze certain types, while other possible types did not receive the same attention. For each of the data types in my list, there are now common methods of analysis, corresponding algorithms, and various data formats. For example, spatial data can be represented as coordinates, as shapefiles, or in other ways.
1. Peter M. Broadwell, David Mimno, and Timothy R. Tangherlini, “The Tell-Tale Hat: Surfacing the Uncertainty in Folklore Classification,” Journal of Cultural Analytics, February 8, 2017, https://doi.org/10.31235/osf.io/a7dp8.
2. Ted Underwood, Understanding Genre in a Collection of a Million Volumes, Interim Performance Report Digital Humanities Start-Up Grant, Award HD5178713, December 29, 2014, https://figshare.com/articles/Understanding_Genre_in_a_Collection_of_a_Million_Volumes_Interim_Report/1281251.
3. “The Museum of Modern Art (MoMA) Exhibition and Staff Histories,” GitHub, accessed September 18, 2019, https://github.com/MuseumofModernArt/exhibitions.
4. Wikipedia, “Statistical Data Type,” accessed August 15, 2016, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Statistical_data_type.
5. The literature on the introduction of metric time systems and their contribution to the rationalization of work and life is vast. See, for example, E. P. Thompson, “Time, Work-Discipline, and Industrial Capitalism,” Past & Present, no. 38 (December 1967): 56–97; Jonathan Martineau, Time, Capitalism, and Alienation: A Socio-Historical Inquiry into the Making of Modern Time (Chicago: Haymarket Books, 2016).
6. Stanley S. Stevens, “On the Theory of Scales of Measurement,” Science 103, no. 2684 (June 7, 1946): 677–680.
7. Affectiva, “Metrics,” accessed September 18, 2019, https://developer.affectiva.com/metrics/.
8. Clement Greenberg, “Avant Garde and Kitsch,” Partisan Review (1939): 34–49.
9. Roman Jakobson, “Verbal Communication,” Scientific American 227 (1972): 72–80.
10. Marta J. Hardman, “Why We Should Say ‘Women and Men’ Until It Doesn’t Matter Anymore,” Women and Language 22, no. 1 (1999): 1–2.
11. Rensis Likert, “A Technique for the Measurement of Attitudes,” Archives of Psychology 22 (1932–1933): 5–55, https://legacy.voteview.com/pdf/Likert_1932.pdf.
12. Maximilian Schich et al., “A Network Framework of Cultural History.”
13. Lev Manovich, “There Is No Software,” in Nam June Paik Reader: Contributions to an Artistic Anthropology, ed. Youngchul Lee and Henk Slager (Seoul: NJP Art Center, 2009), 26–29.
14. For a discussion of nineteenth-century debates about the meaning of the average and different types of averages, see Alain Desrosières, “Averages and the Realism of Aggregates,” in The Politics of Large Numbers: A History of Statistical Reasoning (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1998), 67–102.
15. On the change in phone designs from functional to highly aesthetic, see my 2007 article: Lev Manovich, “Information as an Aesthetic Event,” Receiver 17, http://manovich.net/index.php/projects/information-as-an-aesthetic-event.
16. James Peckham, “Huawei P20 and P20 Pro Colors: What Shade Should You Buy?,” TechRadar, March 27, 2018, https://www.techradar.com/news/huawei-p20-and-p20-pro-colors-what-shade-should-you-buy.
17. Huawei, “Huawei P20,” accessed October 1, 2019, https://consumer.huawei.com/en/phones/p20/.
18. Paul Goldberger, “On Madison Avenue, Sometimes Less Is Less,” New York Times, October 27, 1996, http://www.nytimes.com/1996/10/27/arts/on-madison-avenue-sometimes-less-is-less.html.
19. John Pawson, Calvin Klein Collections Store, Johnpawson.com, accessed June 1, 2017, http://www.johnpawson.com/works/calvin-klein-collections-store.
20. Walter Isaacson, “How Steve Jobs’ Love of Simplicity Fueled a Design Revolution,” Smithsonian Magazine, September 24, 2012, https://www.smithsonianmag.com/arts-culture/how-steve-jobs-love-of-simplicity-fueled-a-design-revolution-23868877/.
21. Ted Gibson and Bevil R. Conway, “The World Has Millions of Colors. Why Do We Only Name a Few?” Smithsonian Magazine, September 19, 2017, https://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/why-different-languages-name-different-colors-180964945/.
22. Lev Nusberg, “Cybertheater,” Leonardo 2 (1969): 61–62, https://monoskop.org/images/a/af/Nusberg_Lev_1969_Cybertheater.pdf.
23. Hadley Feingold, “Sculptural Fashion: Volume, Structure, and the Body,” Textile Arts Center (blog), January 15, 2018, http://textileartscenter.com/blog/sculptural-fashion-volume-structure-and-the-body.
24. Tor D. Wager, Lauren Y. Atlas, Martin A. Lindquist, Mathieu Roy, Choong-Wan Woo, and Ethan Kross, “An fMRI-Based Neurologic Signature of Physical Pain,” New England Journal of Medicine 368 (2013): 1388–1397.
25. Jeffrey Bardzell, “Interaction Criticism: An Introduction to the Practice,” Interacting with Computers 23 (2011): 604–621.
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29. On progress in neurocinema (the field of measuring brain reactions to films), see Aalto University, “Nolan Film ‘Memento’ Reveals How the Brain Remembers and Interprets Events from Clues,” Medical Press, February 22, 2018, https://medicalxpress.com/news/2018-02-nolan-memento-reveals-brain-events.html.
30. Kevin Gray and Barry Gills, “South–South Cooperation and the Rise of the Global South,” Third World Quarterly 37, no. 4 (2016): 557–574.
31. Martin Muller, “In Search of the Global East: Thinking between North and South,” Geopolitics, October 2008, 1–22, https://doi.org/10.1080/14650045.2018.1477757.
32. Tuvikene, quoted in Wladimir Zbignev, “Theorizing Cities from/with a Global East,” Connections, September 14, 2018, https://www.connections.clio-online.net/event/id/termine-38138.
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35. Geoffrey C. Bowker and Susan L. Star, Sorting Things Out: Classification and Its Consequences (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2000), https://www.ics.uci.edu/~gbowker/classification/. Emphasis in original.
36. Johan Bollen, Herbert Van de Sompel, Aric Hagberg, Luis Bettencourt, Ryan Chute, Marko A. Rodriguez, and Lyudmila Balakireva, “Clickstream Data Yields High-Resolution Maps of Science,” PLOS ONE 4, no. 3 (2009), https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0004803; Katy Börner, Richard Klavans, Michael Patek, Angela M. Zoss, Joseph R. Biberstine, Robert P. Light, Vincent Larivière, and Kevin W. Boyack, “Design and Update of a Classification System: The UCSD Map of Science,” PLOS ONE 7, no. 7 (2012), https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0039464.
37. Katy Börner at al, “Design and Update of a Classification System: The UCSD Map of Science.”
38. Richard Klavans and Kevin Boyack, “Toward an Objective, Reliable and Accurate Method for Measuring Research Leadership,” Scientometrics 82 (2010): 539–553.
39. Michel Foucault, Les mots et les choses: Une archéologie des sciences humaines (Paris: Éditions Gallimard, 1966).
40. Software Studies Initiative, “ImagePlot Visualisation Software,” 2011, accessed March 1, 2020, http://lab.softwarestudies.com/p/imageplot.html.
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43. Van Gogh Museum, “Arles 1888–1889,” accessed July 31, 2016, vangoghmuseum.nl.
44. For additional examples, see Lev Manovich, Style Space: How to Compare Image Sets and Follow Their Evolution, 2011, accessed March 1, 2010, http://manovich.net/index.php/projects/style-space.
45. Franco Moretti, Graphs, Maps, Trees: Abstract Models for a Literary History (London: Verso, 2005). See also “Pamphlets,” Stanford Literary Lab, accessed September 18, 2019, https://litlab.stanford.edu/pamphlets/.
46. Ted Underwood and Jordan Sellers, “The Emergence of Literary Diction,” Journal of Digital Humanities 1, no. 2 (2012), http://journalofdigitalhumanities.org/1-2/the-emergence-of-literary-diction-by-ted-underwood-and-jordan-sellers/; Ted Underwood, Michael L. Black, Loretta Auvil, and Boris Capitanu, “Mapping Mutable Genres in Structurally Complex Volumes,” arXiv.org, September 18, 2013, https://arxiv.org/abs/1309.3323; Ted Underwood, “The Life Cycles of Genres,” Cultural Analytics 1 (May 23, 2016), http://culturalanalytics.org/2016/05/the-life-cycles-of-genres.
47. Lev Manovich, One Million Manga Pages, 2010 research report, March 1, 2020, http://lab.softwarestudies.com/2010/11/one-million-manga-pages.html.
48. Jeremy Douglass, William Huber, and Lev Manovich, “Understanding Scanlation: How to Read One Million Fan-Translated Manga Pages,” Image and Narrative (Winter 2011), http://manovich.net/index.php/projects/understanding-scanlation. For history of the OneManga site, see http://fanlore.org/wiki/OneManga, accessed October 26, 2016.
49. Nanjing University of the Arts, “Disciplines,” accessed December 28, 2018, http://en.nua.edu.cn/2639/list.htm.
50. The New School, “Undergraduate Academics,” accessed December 28, 2018, https://www.newschool.edu/academics/undergraduate/.
51. Mehrdad Yazdani, Jay Chow, and Lev Manovich, “Quantifying the Development of User-Generated Art during 2001–2010,” PLOS One, August 7, 2017, http://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0175350.
52. Eugene Garfield, “Citation Indexes for Science: A New Dimension in Documentation through Association of Ideas,” Science 122, no. 3159 (1955): 108–111, https://doi.org/10.1126/science.122.3159.108.
53. Tim Ingham, “World’s Top 5 Music Publishers Now Control 11 Million Songs,” Music Business Worldwide, May 25, 2015, https://www.musicbusinessworldwide.com/top-5-publishers-now-control-11m-songs/.
54. Kim Albrecht, “Cultural Development in Movie History,” Culturegraphy, accessed September 18, 2019, https://www.culturegraphy.com/extras/findings/.
55. Kim Albrecht, “Cultural Development in Movie History.”
56. Albrecht, “Cultural Development in Movie History.”
57. Nadav Hochman and Lev Manovich, “A View from Above: Exploratory Visualizations of the Thomas Walther Collection,” in Object:Photo. Modern Photographs: The Thomas Walther Collection 1909–1949, ed. Mitra Abbaspour, Lee Ann Daffner, and Maria Morris Hambourg (New York: Museum of Modern Art, 2014), 1–6, http://www.moma.org/interactives/objectphoto/assets/essays/Manovich_Hochman.pdf.
58. Gallup, Gallup Global Wellbeing: The Behavioral Economics of GDP Growth (Washington, DC: Gallup, 2010), http://www.gallup.com/poll/126965/gallup-global-wellbeing.aspx.
59. Jean-Paul Benzécri, L’Analyse des Données, vol. 2, L’Analyse des Correspondances (Paris: Dunod, 1973). Correspondence analysis is available in various statistical software environments, including R.
60. Weibo, accessed August 12, 2016, http://d.weibo.com/.
61. Mitch Joel, “We Need a Better Definition of ‘Native Advertising,’” Harvard Business Review, February 13, 2013, https://hbr.org/2013/02/we-need-a-better-definition-of.
62. Presentations during Advertising Week NYC 2016, New York, September 26–30, 2016.
63. Andrew Bosworth, “What’s the History of the Awesome Button (that Eventually Became the Like Button) on Facebook?,” Quora, October 17, 2014, https://www.quora.com/Whats-the-history-of-the-Awesome-Button-that-eventually-became-the-Like-button-on-Facebook.
64. Bart de Langhe, Philip M. Fernbach, and Donald R. Lichtenstein, “Navigating by the Stars: Investigating the Actual and Perceived Validity of Online User Rating,” Journal of Consumer Research 42, no. 6 (2016): 817–833.
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2. Robert Venturi, Denise Scott Brown, and Steven Izenour, Learning from Las Vegas: The Forgotten Symbolism of Architectural Form (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1977). Emphasis in original.
3. Bruno Latour, “Tarde’s Idea of Quantification,” in The Social after Gabriel Tarde: Debates and Assessments, ed. Mattei Candea (London: Routledge, 2010), 116.
4. Eric Rodenbeck, keynote lecture at O’Reilly Emerging Technology 2008 conference, March 4, 2008.
5. “Interview: Fernanda Viégas and Martin Wattenberg from Flowing Media,” Information Aesthetics, May 7, 2010, https://flowingdata.com/2010/05/13/interview-fernanda-vigas-and-martin-wattenberg/.
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8. Helen C. Purchase, Natalia Andrienko, T. J. Jankun-Kelly, and Matthew Ward, “Theoretical Foundations of Information Visualization,” in Information Visualization: Human-Centered Issues and Perspectives, ed. Andreas Kerren, John T. Stasko, and Jean-Daniel Fekete (Berlin: Springer, 2008), 46–64.
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10. For example: “In contrast to scientific visualization, information visualization typically deals with nonnumeric, nonspatial, and high-dimensional data.” Chaomei Chen, “Top 10 Unsolved Information Visualization Problems,” IEEE Computer Graphics and Applications 25, no. 4 (2005): 12–16.
11. Fernanda B. Viégas, Martin Wattenberg, and Kushal Dave, “Studying Cooperation and Conflict between Authors with History Flow Visualizations,” in Proceedings of the SIGCHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems, April 2004, 575–582, https://doi.org/10.1145/985692.985765.
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18. Several definitions of information visualization from the recent literature are available at “Information Visualization,” InfoVis Wiki, accessed September 27, 2019, https://infovis-wiki.net/wiki/Information_Visualization.
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21. Michael Friendly and Daniel J. Denis, Milestones in the History of Thematic Cartography, Statistical Graphics, and Data Visualization, 2001, accessed March 1, 2020, http://www.datavis.ca/milestones/.
22. Historical data is from Friendly and Denis, Milestones in the History of Thematic Cartography, Statistical Graphics, and Data Visualization.
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29. One important case that does not fit my analysis is the use of different tones or colors to represent terrain elevation and relief in printed topographic maps already common in the eighteenth century. In these maps, tone or color codes quantitative data rather than categories.
30. Wikipedia, “Tag Cloud,” accessed July 18, 2016, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tag_cloud.
31. As an example, open-source data visualization software Mondrian 1.0, running on my 2009 Apple PowerBook laptop with a 2.8 GHz processor and 4 GB of RAM, took approximately seven seconds to render a scatter plot containing one million points.
32. Many additional examples of direct visualization can be found in the field of motion graphics: film and TV titles and graphics, commercials, and music videos. In many motion graphics, text or images are animated to create dynamically changing, meaningful patterns made from these media objects.
33. Brendan Dawes, “Cinema Redux,” 2004, accessed March 1, 2020, http://brendandawes.com/projects/cinemaredux.
34. Ben Fry, “Traces,” 2009, accessed March 1, 2020, https://fathom.info/traces/.
35. I have created a few visualizations that show a whole book in a single image. See http://www.flickr.com/photos/culturevis/sets/72157615900916808/; http://www.flickr.com/photos/culturevis/sets/72157622994317650/. To display the whole text of Tolstoy’s Anna Karenina in the smallest font that can be read, I had to make a 14,000 × 6,000 pixels image—well beyond current screen resolutions.
36. Roberta Smith, “Art in Review; Mark Hansen and Ben Rubin—‘Listening Post,’” New York Times, February 21, 2003, https://www.nytimes.com/2003/02/21/arts/art-in-review-mark-hansen-and-ben-rubin-listening-post.html.
37. To see Manual Lima’s taxonomy of network display methods, select “filter by method” from the “Filter by:” dropdown,” accessed March 1, 2020, www.visualcomplexity.com/vc/.
38. Latour, “Tarde’s Idea of Quantification.”
39. Wikipedia, “Synechdoche,” Wikipedia, accessed July 18, 2016, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Synecdoche.
40. Stefanie Posavec, Writing without Words, 2008, accessed March 1, 2020, http://www.stefanieposavec.com/writing-without-words; Martin Wattenberg, The Shape of Song, 2001, accessed March 1, 2020, http://www.bewitched.com/song.html.
41. Lev Manovich, “Data Visualization as New Abstraction and Anti-Sublime,” SMAC! 3 (2002): n.p. (San Francisco, 2002), http://manovich.net/index.php/projects/data-visualisation-as-new-abstraction-and-anti-sublime.
42. David L. Small, Rethinking the Book (PhD thesis, MIT, January 1999), https://acg.media.mit.edu/projects/thesis/DSThesis.pdf.
43. Ben Fry, Valence, 2001, accessed March 1, 2020, http://benfry.com/valence/.
44. W. Bradford Paley, TextArc, 2002, accessed March 1, 2020, http://wbpaley.com/brad/projects.html.
45. Frank van Ham, Martin Wattenberg, and Fernanda B. Viégas, “Mapping Text with Phrase Nets,” IEEE Transactions on Visualization and Computer Graphics 15, no. 6 (2009): 1169–1176, https://doi.org/10.1109/TVCG.2009.165.
46. Software Studies Initiative, “Image_Graphr Outputs,” Flickr, accessed September 18, 2019, https://www.flickr.com/photos/culturevis/sets/72157617847338031/.
47. Wayne Rasband, ImageJ, accessed September 20, 2019, https://imagej.nih.gov/ij/.
48. Lev Manovich, “Cultural Analytics Visualizations on Ultra High Resolution Displays,” Software Studies Initiative, December 24, 2008, http://lab.softwarestudies.com/2008/12/cultural-analytics-hiperspace-and.html.
49. Humanities+Digital Visual Interpretations Conference: Aesthetics, Methods, and Critiques of Information Visualization in the Humanities, Arts, and Social Sciences, conference at Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts, May 22–22, 2010, https://www.iri.centrepompidou.fr/evenement/humanitiesdigital-visual-interpretations-conference-2010/.
50. It is possible, however, that our interactive interfaces with visualizations are effective precisely because they do provide certain reduction functions. I am thinking in particular about the zoom command. We zoom into direct visualizations such as Time covers to examine the details of particular covers. We zoom out to see the overall trends. When we do that, the images are gradually reduced in size, eventually becoming small color dots.
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8. For more details, see Steve Stemler, “An Overview of Content Analysis,” Practical Assessment, Research & Evaluation 7, no. 17 (2001), http://PAREonline.net/getvn.asp?v=7&n=17.
9. Calvin N. Mooers, The Theory of Digital Handling of Non-Numerical Information and Its Implications to Machine Economics (Boston: Zator Co., 1950).
10. Mooers, The Theory of Digital Handling, 1–2. Emphasis added.
11. Calvin N. Mooers, Scientific Information Retrieval Systems for Machine Operation: Case Studies in Design (Boston: Zator Co., 1951), 3.
12. Mooers, The Theory of Digital Handling, 2. Emphasis added.
13. Vannevar Bush, “As We May Think,” Atlantic Monthly, July 1945, http://web.mit.edu/STS.035/www/PDFs/think.pdf.
14. Today, scientists do not keep up with research by moving from references in one article to other articles and sites; instead, they search giant databases and depositories of science publications and data, such as ACM, arXiv, IEEE, PubMed, ProQuest, Web of Science, ScienceDirect, and many others. And because science publishing is highly structured, with articles and conference papers including subject categories, keywords, overviews of related research with many citations, and ID numbers, all being generated automatically for each new publication, the database paradigm works quite well.
15. These features correspond to the Instagram UI as of March 2019. The interface can change in the future: new functions can be added and older ones altered.
16. This description applies to versions of these applications and apps as of March 2019.
17. Lev Manovich, Moritz Stefaner, Mehrdad Yazdani, Dominikus Baur, Daniel Goddemeyer, Alise Tifentale, Nadav Hochman, and Jay Chow, Selfiecity, a website and custom interactive app, 2014, and Selfiecity London, a website and custom interactive app, 2015, http://selfiecity.net/ and http://selfiecity.net/london/; Daniel Goddemeyer, Moritz Stefaner, Dominikus Baur, and Lev Manovich, On Broadway, interactive artwork for touch display, 2014, http://on-broadway.nyc.
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22. For discussion of computer vision adoption in photography services and phone cameras, see Lev Manovich, AI Aesthetics (Moscow: Strelka Press, 2018).
23. Clarifai, “Models,” accessed September 20, 2019, https://clarifai.com/models.
24. David Ramli and Shelly Banjo, “The Kids Use TikTok Now Because Data-Mined Videos Are So Much Fun,” Bloomsburg BusinessWeek, April 17, 2019, http://www.bloomberg.com/news/features/2019-04-18/tiktok-brings-chinese-style-censorship-to-america-s-tweens.
25. Mehrdad Yazdani and Lev Manovich, “Predicting Social Trends from Non-photographic Images on Twitter,” in Proceedings of the 2015 IEEE International Conference on Big Data (Washington, DC: IEEE Computer Society, 2015), 1653–1660.
26. Miriam Redi, Damon Crockett, and Lev Manovich, “What Makes Photo Cultures Different?,” in Proceedings of the 24th ACM International Conference on Multimedia (New York: ACM, 2016), 287–291.
27. Yale Digital Humanities Lab, “Neural Neighbors: Capturing Image Similarity,” accessed October 1, 2019, https://dhlab.yale.edu/projects/neural-neighbors/.
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29. Benoît Seguin, Making Large Art Historical Photo Archives Searchable (Lausanne: EPFL, 2018), https://infoscience.epfl.ch/record/261212?ln=en.
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9. Hall, “Encoding/Decoding.”
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16. Ferreira and Rasband, ch. 28, sec. 6 (“Stacks”) in ImageJ User Guide.
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1. Lev Manovich, AI Aesthetics (Moscow: Strelka Press, 2018).
2. The concept of “cultural techniques” has been mostly used in recent German media theory. See Geoffrey Winthrop-Young, Ilinca Irascu, and Jussi Parikka, eds., “Cultural Techniques,” special issue, Theory, Culture & Society 30, no. 6 (November 2013).
3. Nicolas Truong and Nicolas Weill, “A Decade after His Death, French Sociologist Pierre Bourdieu Stands Tall,” Guardian, February 21, 2012, https://www.theguardian.com/world/2012/feb/21/pierre-bourdieu-philosophy-most-quoted.
4. The term cultural omnivore was developed by American sociologist Richard Peterson. See Richard Peterson, “Understanding Audience Segmentation: From Elite and Mass to Omnivore and Univore,” Poetics 21, no. 4 (1992): 243–258.
5. Minsu Park et al., “Understanding Musical Diversity via Online Social Media,” in Proceedings of the Ninth International AAAI Conference on Web and Social Media (Oxford: AAAI Press, 2016), 308–317, http://www.aaai.org/ocs/index.php/ICWSM/ICWSM15/paper/view/10570.
6. See, for example, Jordan DeLong, “Horseshoes, Handgrenades, and Model Fitting: The Lognormal Distribution Is a Pretty Good Model for Shot-Length Distribution of Hollywood Films,” Digital Scholarship in the Humanities 30, no. 1 (2015): 129–136.
7. Franco Moretti, Atlas of the European Novel: 1800–1900 (London: Verso, 1998), 150.
8. Agustin Indaco and Lev Manovich, Urban Social Media Inequality: Definition, Measurements, and Application, arXiv.org, July 7, 2016, https://arxiv.org/abs/1607.01845.
9. Inna Kizhner et al., “The History and Context of the Digital Humanities in Russia,” paper presented at the Digital Humanities 2018 conference, Mexico City, June 26–29, 2018, https://dh2018.adho.org/the-history-and-context-of-the-digital-humanities-in-russia.
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