LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 1:1–6:7 Five Major Offerings. Leviticus describes five major offerings, each with its own characteristics.
Burnt offerings were the most costly type of sacrifice. Unlike other offerings, none of the remains could be used for other purposes.
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 1:1–17 The burnt offering (see also 6:8–13) is the most costly offering, since it is completely burned up (except for the skin, which the priest kept). The motive for the burnt offering is not specified here, but other references to the sacrifices show that it is offered for thanksgiving, penitence, vows, and self-dedication.
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 1:3–4 The bull offered in sacrifice must be without blemish. It should have no physical defects (22:22–24) that would lessen its value and make it unworthy for presenting to the Lord (compare Mal. 1:8). lay his hand. This action probably establishes some relationship between the offerers and animal so that the animal is accepted on their behalf. shall be accepted . . . to make atonement for him. “Make atonement” seems to involve both expiation (the removal of sin) and propitiation (the appeasement of wrath). The offerings that “make atonement” are the burnt offering, the sin offering (Lev. 4:26), and the guilt offering (5:16).
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 1:5–9 Atonement is achieved through both the sacrifice and the priests who represent the Lord. Food offering is not a specific name of an offering but a more general term for what is “consumed” by the Lord in the fire. In other offerings, it is often coupled with a pleasing aroma (v. 9; compare Gen. 8:21), implying the Lord’s acceptance (Lev. 1:3–4).
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 1:14–17 Despite its small size, the burnt offering of a bird is acceptable to God. He considers it a pleasing aroma.
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 2:1–16 The grain offering (see also 6:14–23) would ordinarily be offered with a burnt or peace offering. It probably served the same purpose as the offering it accompanied.
Grain offerings. Grain was highly valued by nomads such as the Israelites, since it could not be grown in the desert. Grain offerings were thus an act of worship and thanksgiving.
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 2:1–3 The priest was to burn a handful of the offering as a memorial portion to the Lord (v. 2). The Israelites were asking the Lord to “remember” them with favor as they made their request or offered their praise.
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 2:11–13 The worshipers are prohibited from burning leaven or honey on the altar, though the text does not explain why. They could, however, season their offerings with salt, which is described as the salt of the covenant. As a preservative, salt would remind them of the permanence of their covenant relationship with the Lord (see Num. 18:19).
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 3:1–17 The peace offering (see also 7:11–36) expresses peace between an offerer and the Lord. As with the burnt offering, there are various motives for a peace offering, from petition to praise.
Peace offerings were also called fellowship offerings. They expressed peace and fellowship between the person making the offering and the Lord.
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 3:1–5 For the burnt offering, the entire animal was to be burned up; for the peace offering, only the fatty parts are to be burned. The fat in ancient Israel represented the very best part of the animal (compare the “fat of the wheat,” Num. 18:12).
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 3:6–17 Almost the same instructions are given here for the offering of a sheep or a goat.
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 3:16–17 The fat, being the very best part of the animal, was to be given to the Lord. The blood was reserved for atoning for the life of the Israelites, therefore it too must not be consumed (see notes on 17:11; 17:12).
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 4:1–5:13 The sin offering (see also 6:24–30) is for restoring one’s broken relationship with the Lord, whether that was caused by an unintentional sin (4:1–35) or by a sin of omission (5:1–13).
Sin offerings atoned for unintentional sins (4:1–35) and for sins of omission (5:1–13). The sacrificial animal was burned “outside of the camp” (4:12), rather than at the base of the altar. This foreshadowed the sacrificial death of Jesus Christ, who was crucified “outside the camp” (Heb. 13:13).
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 4:1–21 These verses show how to deal with the sins of the priest and the whole congregation. Blood is sprinkled in front of the veil that separates the Holy Place from the Most Holy Place, indicating that their sins have defiled the Most Holy Place. But since this is a regular occasion, and not the Day of Atonement (ch. 16), the blood cannot be brought into the Most Holy Place. The priest and congregation as a corporate entity bear heavier responsibility than an individual leader or layperson. Therefore, a more costly animal is required for the sacrifice.
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 4:3 The anointed priest probably refers to the high priest.
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 4:13 If the whole congregation . . . sins unintentionally. For a possible biblical example of unintentional sin, see Josh. 9:15, where Israel made a wrongful covenant with the Gibeonites, not realizing that they were being deceived. realize their guilt. See esv footnote; compare Lev. 4:22, 27; 5:2, 3, 4, 5.
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 4:22–35 The priest atones for the sin of a leader or an individual by what he does with the blood at the altar of the burnt offering (v. 25) and by burning the fat on it (v. 26). The meat is not burned outside the camp, since it will be eaten by the priests (6:24–30).
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 5:1–6 These verses describe four cases in which sinners either deliberately (v. 1) or unknowingly (vv. 2–4) fail to do something that is required. In any of these cases, once they realize their guilt, they are to confess their sin (v. 5) and bring a sin offering.
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 5:7–13 Either a lamb, two turtledoves, or two pigeons could be offered for the sin offering, depending on the sinner’s economic situation. Thus all Israelites could present an acceptable sacrifice.
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 5:14–6:7 The offenses covered by the guilt offering (see also 7:1–10) appear to be more serious than those covered by the sin offering. The sacrificial animal is more costly (a male instead of a female) and the sins are described as a breach of faith (5:15).
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 6:1–7 When a person sins against his neighbor, he should make it right both with the neighbor and with the Lord (see also Matt. 5:23–26).
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 6:8–7:38 Handling of the Offerings. This section describes the proper handling, eating, and disposal of the various sacrifices and offerings described in 1:1–6:7. The sacrifices and offerings are either “holy” or “most holy” and must be treated with respect. Otherwise, the offering would not count and the offender would be punished (see 7:18, 20–21).
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 6:8–13 burnt offering. See also 1:1–17. fire on the altar shall be kept burning (6:9, 12–13). This would encourage the priests to be faithful in their duties so that worship could continue without interruption.
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 6:14–23 The initial description of the grain offering (2:1–16) describes what the worshiper does while this section focuses on what the priests do with grain offerings.
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 6:14–18 The grain offering is most holy and must therefore be eaten by holy people (the sons of Aaron) in a holy place (the court of the tent of meeting).
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 6:19–23 Since it appears that this grain offering was offered on behalf of the priests, it is not surprising that the high priest (the priest . . . who is anointed) would offer it, since he would represent the priests as a whole.
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 6:24–30 The initial description of the sin offering (4:1–5:13) indicated that meat of the offering was to be burned up when its blood had been taken into the Holy Place (4:3–21; compare 6:30). These verses explain that the remaining meat of other sin offerings (4:22–35) is to be eaten by holy people (priests) in a holy place (6:26, 29). blood . . . on a garment . . . bronze vessel. The instructions of vv. 27–28 ensure that holy blood does not leave the holy place.
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 7:1–10 This passage focuses on how the guilt offering is to be made. The earlier passage (5:14–6:7) focused on when it was to be offered.
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 7:1–7 This ritual is similar to each of the other offerings, but is not identical with any of them. As in the sin offering, the remaining flesh goes to the priest and his family.
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 7:11–36 The peace offering (see also 3:1–17) is subdivided into three types: thanksgiving in response to God’s favor (7:12, 13, 15), a vow (an offering in fulfillment of a vow; v. 16), and a freewill offering (when there is no specific obligation to make an offering; v. 16). Cut off from his people (vv. 20, 21, 25, 27) could mean that the person is isolated from the community, or it could mean that he actually dies (compare Ex. 31:14; Num. 4:18–20). On the prohibition against eating fat and blood (Lev. 7:22–27), see note on 3:16–17.
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 8:1–10:20 The Establishment of the Priesthood. The book of Exodus ends with the construction of the tabernacle (Exodus 35–40), and Leviticus 1–7 provides a manual for sacrifice in the tabernacle. Now, ch. 8 records the installation of the priesthood; ch. 9 describes the first services in the tabernacle; and ch. 10 tells about an occasion when priests did not obey the Lord’s words, and also gives instructions on worship.
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 8:1–4 Nearly one-third of the uses of the word commanded in Leviticus appear in ch. 8. As he learns of the Lord’s commands, Moses is completely obedient. entrance of the tent of meeting. That is, the entrance to the screened-off courtyard of the tabernacle.
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 8:8 On Urim and Thummim, see note on Ex. 28:30.
What were the Urim and the Thummim? Mentioned in 8:8 and in various other OT passages, the Urim and the Thummim remain a mystery to modern readers. All that is known is that they were worn on the garment of the high priest, and were used in seeking the Lord’s will on particular matters.
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 8:10–13 Anointing the tabernacle and its utensils with oil (Ex. 30:22–33) sets apart these items for holy use.
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 8:14–17 Moses presents a sin offering to purify the priesthood and the altar.
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 8:18–21 Compare Ex. 29:15–18 and Leviticus 1. Aaron and his sons dedicate themselves by offering a ram as a burnt offering. The use of this animal, which is probably costlier than a goat (compare 4:28 with 5:15, 18; 6:6), shows the greater importance of Aaron and his sons compared to the other priests.
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 8:22–29 The second ram is for the sacrifice of installation. Placing its blood on the right extremities of the priests represents total dedication and purification.
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 8:31–36 This is a meal of covenant agreement, symbolizing the bond between the Lord and his priesthood.
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 9:1–24 Now that Aaron and his sons have been ordained, ch. 9 describes the first tabernacle service. Various offerings are required, because both the priests and the people are sinful. God delivered his covenant to his people at Sinai; now he descends upon his altar to dwell with them.
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 9:1–4 The daily sacrifices in the tabernacle begin.
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 9:5–6 The purpose of this service is for the glory of the LORD to be shown both to the people and to the priests. See note on Ex. 16:7; compare Ex. 40:34–35.
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 9:7–21 First comes the atonement for the priests (vv. 7–14), and then for the people (vv. 15–21). As in other ceremonies, the atonement process moves from the removal of sinfulness (by the sin offering), to petitions and praises (the burnt offering), and finally to communion with the Lord (the peace offering).
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 9:22–24 Moses and Aaron together enter the tent. This means that the priests (represented by Aaron) will now mediate between the Lord and the people, instead of Moses.
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 10:1–3 Nadab and Abihu, the eldest of Aaron’s four sons, took censers of their own, put incense in them, and offered unauthorized fire (see esv footnote) to the Lord. That is, they did the offering in their own way instead of in the way authorized by the Lord, and for this they died. Their sin probably also involved entering—or trying to enter—the Most Holy Place (see 16:1–3, 11–17; compare Heb. 9:7) after drinking alcohol (compare Lev. 10:8–11). Aaron held his peace. He apparently agreed that God was justified in killing Nadab and Abihu for their sin.
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 10:4–7 The ordained priests were forbidden to mourn the death of their rebellious family members (but see note on 21:1–4).
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 10:8–11 This is the only time in Leviticus that God speaks directly to Aaron alone. God outlines three major roles for the priesthood: (1) to distinguish between the holy and the profane, (2) to separate the clean from the unclean, and (3) to teach the people the laws of God.
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 10:9–11 Wine and strong drink are forbidden while priests are “on duty,” so that they can faithfully carry out their responsibilities. On their responsibility to teach, see also Deut. 33:10; Ezra 7:10; Neh. 8:1–12; Mal. 2:6–7.
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 10:16–20 On the final day of the installation of the priesthood, Moses discovers that Eleazar and Ithamar have not followed the regulations concerning sacrifice. Aaron argues that the events of the day have been so exceptional that it is too dangerous to perform the ritual. Moses then realizes that, though mistakes were made, Aaron has a correct fear of God’s holiness.
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 11:1–15:33 The Laws on Cleanness and Uncleanness. Chapter 11 deals with foods that are clean and may be eaten, and foods that are unclean and may not be eaten. Chapter 12 addresses cleanliness and purification after childbirth. Chapters 13–14 provide regulations concerning cleanliness in matters of fungi, skin diseases, and infections. Chapter 15 considers bodily discharges that may make a person unclean. These five chapters define what is clean and unclean for Israel in God’s sight.
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 11:1–47 The reason a particular creature is called either clean or unclean has puzzled commentators throughout the ages. Yet the purpose of these laws is clear: to help Israel, as God’s holy people, see the difference between ritual cleanness and ritual uncleanness (vv. 46–47). Seeing these differences in the ritual realm would constantly remind the people that they need to make such distinctions in the moral realm as well. Further, obeying these food laws expresses Israel’s devotion to the Lord: just as God separated the Israelites from the other nations, so they must separate clean from unclean foods (20:24–26). This is why the restrictions can be removed in Acts 10:9–28, when the Jew vs. Gentile distinction is no longer relevant in defining the people of God (see also Mark 7:18–19; Col. 2:16–23). A “clean” animal is one “permitted” as food (Lev. 11:2). See the parallel list in Deut. 14:3–21.
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 11:1–8 The laws regarding clean vs. unclean animals permit Israel to eat hoofed mammals with two functional toes, including domestic beasts such as sheep, goats, and cattle, and wild ones such as antelopes (compare Deut. 14:4–5). On the other hand a horse is not clean, because it has only one toe. What these animals eat is apparently not the basis of their cleanness or uncleanness. The camel, rock badger (hyrax), and hare are exclusively vegetarian, but they are considered unclean. The pig is the only animal in this list that is not strictly vegetarian. Many of the clean aquatic creatures (Lev. 11:9–12) are carnivorous.
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 11:9–12 The requirement of fins and scales limits the clean aquatic animals to what modern zoologists would call fish.
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 11:13–19 Almost all the unclean birds are predators and carrion-eaters (that is, they touch dead creatures and consume blood). The term translated “bird” covers a variety of creatures that fly (see esv footnote), and can include the bat.
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 11:20–23 If the winged insects have an ability to leave the ground, they are clean. For the locust and grasshopper as allowable food, compare the diet of John the Baptist (Matt. 3:4).
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 11:24–28 The law gradually introduces the theme of death as a defiling force (see “carcasses” in vv. 8, 11).
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 11:29–35 Not only are these creatures unclean for food, but touching them when they are dead will also defile a person.
The word unclean occurs more than 130 times in the OT, with half of those occurrences in Leviticus. It is not a statement about a person’s hygiene. Rather, it relates to holiness in worship and in personal conduct (see note on 11:1–47).
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 11:36–38 The water in a spring or a cistern was not contaminated by an unclean creature that fell into it. This may have been because the water in them was flowing and continuously refreshed. Or, the law may have allowed this concession because water was in such short supply in Palestine.
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 11:39–40 Even the clean animals cause defilement after they have died.
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 11:44–45 For I am the LORD. This is the first occurrence of this phrase in Leviticus, but it occurs frequently from ch. 18 on. for I am holy. Compare 19:2; 20:26; 21:8. The Lord, who is holy, calls his people to consecrate themselves and to be holy. Compare 20:7–8 and note. who brought you up out of the land of Egypt. God’s people should pursue holiness in response to his gracious actions on their behalf.
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 12:1–8 A woman who has just given birth is considered unclean because of loss of blood. Three steps are required to become clean again. The time of purification for the mother is twice as long if she gave birth to a female. This may have been because the female is potentially more unclean because of the probability of her menstruating and giving birth. Whatever the reason, this law in no way suggests that women are inferior to men.
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 12:8 lamb . . . two turtledoves. Compare 5:11; and Luke 2:24, indicating the poverty of Jesus’ parents.
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 13:1–59 Leprous disease (v. 2 and throughout ch. 13) could include many skin ailments (see esv footnote on v. 2). The basic symptoms are given in vv. 2–3. What today is called leprosy (Hansen’s disease) was unknown in the Near East at the time of Leviticus.
Leprosy. The “leprosy” mentioned in the Bible was not what is commonly called leprosy today (Hansen’s disease). Rather, it may have been a form of psoriasis or a fungal infection. Nonetheless it was highly contagious, so those who had leprosy had to follow strict rules of hygiene.
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 13:3 The law required unclean people to live outside the camp until they were free of disease (vv. 45–46) and to present a sacrifice as part of a cleansing ceremony (14:1–32). See Introduction: Problems in Understanding Leviticus. The purpose of this law was to prevent what is unclean from coming into contact with what is holy, which would be dangerous for the unclean person and for the whole community. The law did not imply that the unclean person was under God’s condemnation or that he or she should be excluded from the love of the community.
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 13:9–17 This is the case of a person with a severe, chronic skin condition. The patient has raw flesh, that is, it is red and oozing. His condition is easily recognizable, and therefore no quarantine is needed. The priest simply declares him ritually unclean and impure.
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 13:18–44 These rules deal with various cases of the leprous disease in relation to other common skin diseases. The priest is to determine if the condition makes the person unclean (compare 10:10–11) in order to protect the community.
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 13:45–46 The person with a skin disease is to tear his clothes, go bareheaded, and have his beard and mouth covered—all signs of mourning (compare Ezek. 24:17, 22).
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 13:47–59 leprous disease in a garment. Causes of such disease include various molds or fungi. If the disease spreads or does not go away, the owners are to burn the item. If the disease lessens, they may tear out the damaged portion and sew the item back together.
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 14:1–32 Chapter 14 explains how an unclean person who had been placed outside the camp is readmitted into the covenant community.
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 14:1–9 Cedarwood, scarlet yarn, and hyssop are used in this ritual because they all seem to have cleansing properties (see Num. 19:6). The live bird being driven into the fields may symbolize the patient’s disease being carried outside the camp of Israel.
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 14:10–20 This final series of sacrifices, focusing on cleansing at the sanctuary, restores the unclean person to full fellowship as a member of the covenant community.
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 14:21–32 For the poor, birds are substituted for the expensive large animals, and only one-third the normal amount of grain is required.
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 14:33–57 These laws regarding leprous disease in houses prepare for the time when Israel will settle in Canaan and live in houses. Houses may become infected with disease—things like mold, mildew, and fungus. These are unclean and dangerous, and must be eliminated. The priest determines the course of action.
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 15:1–33 These regulations about discharges from male and female reproductive organs emphasize the transmission of infection. No matter how it happens, the person infected is required to separate himself or herself and to undergo the purification ritual. “Unclean” is not the same as “sinful,” but rather has to do with what is permitted (compare note on 13:3). The Bible does not view the process of reproduction as evil; it is part of the original good creation. Certainly, however, the Creator of these functions has the right to tell his creatures how and when to use them.
Could a house have leprosy? The Israelites were told what to do if a house had a “leprous disease” (14:34). This most likely referred to things like mold, mildew, or fungus.
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 15:2 The word body in this verse refers to the genitals. The same word is used in v. 19 of the vagina.
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 15:16–18 The emission of semen makes a man unclean, perhaps because, like blood, it is a source of life.
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 15:19–23 A woman who is menstruating is unclean, and her uncleanness may be transmitted to others.
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 15:24 If a man has sexual relations with a woman during her menstrual period, then he is considered unclean for seven days, the same as for the woman herself. This rule may seem to conflict with 18:19 and 20:18, in which both the man and the woman are cut off from Israel. Perhaps the present rule relates to a more casual sexual act, whereas the later rules relate to a deliberate breaking of the law.
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 15:25–30 These laws address irregular or unnatural flows of blood from a female (compare Mark 5:25–34).
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 15:31–33 defiling my tabernacle. Uncleanness in the Israelite camp constantly defiles the sanctuary. This is why it needs to be cleansed on the Day of Atonement (see 16:16).
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 16:1–34 The Day of Atonement Ritual. This annual observance highlights God’s grace. Here God offers forgiveness and renewal for Israel’s worship site, priests, and people. All sins can be forgiven. This ritual reminds readers that forgiveness comes from God, whose presence is symbolized by the ark in the Most Holy Place.
The Day of Atonement was the most solemn of all Hebrew festivals, focusing on personal remorse for sin. Today it is called Yom Kippur.
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 16:1–2 Nadab and Abihu’s sin was not simply being drunk (see 10:9). They sinned when they entered (or attempted to enter) the Most Holy Place (inside the veil). See note on 10:1–3.
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 16:3–10 One of the goats offered for the people’s sin purifies the tent of meeting, while the other is to be sent away alive into the wilderness. Azazel (vv. 8, 10) may have been a proper name. Or, it may be a compound word combining “goat” with “going away.” In that case it would mean “goat that goes away” (or “scapegoat”). Either way, the goat is sent out to take sin away from Israel.
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 16:11–17 The atonement-day ritual begins with atonement for the priests (vv. 11–14) and then for the people (vv. 15–17). The cloud of incense is to protect Aaron from clearly seeing God’s presence in the Most Holy Place (see Ex. 33:20). because of their transgressions, all their sins (Lev. 16:16). “All their sins” (see also v. 21) probably refers to any sins not already atoned for through normal sacrifices.
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 16:18–19 Altar here probably refers to the altar of burnt offering.
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 16:20–22 Sending the guilt of all Israel into the desert is probably another way of cleansing the people, in addition to the prior purification of the sanctuary (vv. 3–20).
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 16:23–25 Aaron leaves his Day of Atonement clothes inside the Holy Place because they are holy, not to be worn for the normal priestly activity.
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 16:26–28 The person who handles the Azazel-goat is defiled because of contact with the uncleanness that the goat bore.
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 16:29–34 On the tenth day of the seventh month (Tishri, that is, September/October), the Israelites and the strangers living among them are to afflict themselves (v. 29; literally, “humble their souls”). This term is connected with fasting and prayer (Ps. 35:13; Isa. 58:3).
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 17:1–16 The Handling and Meaning of Blood. Chapter 17 deals with the handling of sacrificial animals, beginning with a reminder that the blood of slain animals should be brought to the sanctuary (vv. 3–4). Following these instructions prevents ongoing idolatry (v. 7) and emphasizes that the blood of a sacrificial animal is the “life” that takes the place of the offerer’s death (vv. 11–14). Animal blood is not to be used by Israel as it was used among the pagans of the time.
Were the Israelites vegetarians? During their wilderness journey, the Israelites seldom ate the meat of large animals. It was eaten only on special occasions.
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 17:1–9 If a person slaughters an animal for sacrifice either in the camp or outside the camp (v. 3) and does not bring the blood to the sanctuary (v. 4), that act is practically the same as human murder (though not identical to it). The purpose of the rule is to prevent the people’s idolatry in worshiping the goat demons (v. 7). Anyone who violates the prohibition is to be cut off from his people (v. 9).
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 17:10 Eats any blood probably refers to eating meat that still has the blood in it (compare Gen. 9:4; Deut. 12:23).
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 17:11 and I have given it. The Hebrew reads literally, “And I, I have given it.” This underscores the action of the Lord himself in granting the means of atonement. It is his gracious gift. makes atonement by the life. That is, by the life of the animal, which ransoms the life of the offerer from the deserved judgment of the Lord.
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 17:12 Therefore. Because the Lord has set aside the blood for the unique role of atonement (v. 11), the Israelites and all sojourners are prohibited from partaking of it.
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 17:15–16 dies of itself . . . is torn by beasts. A person who eats from these animals is unclean, probably because the animals that have died in these ways have not had their blood drained properly.
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 18:1–22:33 The Call to Holiness. This section applies the principle of holiness (19:1–2) to various aspects of Israelite life. Chapter 18 considers sexual behavior and how Israel is to act differently from the pagan nations. Chapters 19–20 apply the idea of holiness in various ways. The manner in which the people treat the land, their neighbors, their parents, and all other things is to be distinct. Holiness is to affect every area of Israelite life. Chapters 21–22 deal with the holiness of the priesthood.
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 18:1–30 The rules from ch. 18 onward aim to lead the people to holiness, although the term “holy” or “holiness” is not mentioned in ch. 18. The minimal requirement for holiness is to not act like the Egyptians or Canaanites. The actions prohibited in this chapter are representative examples. They do not address every possible situation in life.
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 18:5 if a person does them, he shall live by them. The person who responds rightly to God’s grace (“does”) will enjoy life under God’s pleasure (“shall live”). Compare Deut. 4:1; 8:1; Neh. 9:29; Ezek. 20:11; John 15:10.
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 18:6–18 These laws prohibit sexual relations (approach . . . to uncover nakedness), and therefore marriage, between people who are too closely related, either by blood (mother, sister, granddaughter, aunt) or by marriage (stepmother, stepsister, stepdaughter, stepgranddaughter, sister-in-law, daughter-in-law, aunt by marriage). No mention is made of the daughter, probably because this prohibition was already well known in the laws of other cultures. The rules enforce a distinction between family affection and erotic love, which protects the well-being of the community.
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 18:18 you shall not take a woman as a rival wife to her sister. Polygamy violates the creation ideal (Gen. 2:24), and polygamous marriages in the Bible are generally unhappy ones (e.g., Gen. 29:30–30:2; 1 Sam. 1:2–7).
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 18:19 Leviticus offers no explanation for this law. Unlike most of the other sexual laws of this chapter, such as those concerning adultery and homosexuality, this law is not repeated in the NT. In view of 15:19–24, the concern is probably the man’s ceremonial uncleanness.
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 18:20 This prohibition follows from the seventh commandment (Ex. 20:14) and is universally applicable. make yourself unclean with her. Although not all uncleanness is sin, all sin makes a person unclean.
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 18:21 This refers to the cult of Molech (2 Kings 23:10; Jer. 32:35). The precise nature of the offering of children to this pagan god is uncertain. It may be that they are being given to the cult of Molech to train to be temple prostitutes, and that is why this passage is listed in a section dealing with sexual prohibitions. On the other hand, Roman authors describe the practice of sacrificing babies by fire, and this may indeed refer to this horrific custom.
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 18:22 You shall not lie with a male as with a woman. This prohibits all male homosexual activity (compare 20:13; also note on Rom. 1:26–27). Such activity is utterly at odds with the creation ideal (see note on Gen. 2:23–24).
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 18:24–30 All the listed offenses are declared to be an outrage to the Lord. They defile the offender and the land.
Abomination describes a behavior or action that is utterly repulsive and detestable to God. The offenses listed in 18:24–30 defile not only the person who committed the act but the entire land.
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 19:1–37 The Lord strongly commands the people (including the priests) to become holy in their practice, as he is holy (v. 2). They do this by observing all the following negative and positive commandments.
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 19:1–4 The term holy means “set apart, unique, and distinct.” Human holiness means imitating God, becoming and acting like him.
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 19:9–10 Caring for one’s neighbor and helping provide for the poor and the sojourner displays holiness. On the other hand, harvesting right up to the edge of one’s land may suggest selfishness. (For an example of this law being obeyed, see Ruth 2.)
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 19:11–18 Holiness requires that a person keep the Word of God, especially the Ten Commandments.
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 19:17 To hate in one’s heart is prohibited. Instead one should reason frankly with his neighbor (compare Prov. 27:5–6). lest you incur sin because of him. This may mean that the person who refuses to reason with his neighbor, helping him see his sin, would share in the guilt of his sin. It might also mean that a failure to “reason frankly” will result in bitter feelings that will overflow into sinful action.
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 19:18 The instruction of v. 17 is heightened: you shall love your neighbor as yourself. This is a fundamental principle of God’s law.
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 19:19 Two different kinds of domesticated animals are not to be crossbred, and two types of cloth are not to be woven together. Ceremonial holiness requires that things stay in their proper sphere, just as Israel must observe its separation from the nations (20:22–26).
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 19:20–22 The idea of holiness should govern sexual relations. Fair judgment must be made in legal matters pertaining to adultery and promiscuity.
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 19:23–25 Forbidden literally means “uncircumcised.” As a child is not to be circumcised before the eighth day, so the fruit on a tree is not to be harvested until after the third year.
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 19:26–31 These are all practices of the Canaanites. Holiness requires Israel not to act like the ungodly in any area of life.
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 20:1–6 Worshipers of Molech ought to be stoned to death (v. 2). If that is not done, the Lord himself will cut them off (vv. 4–5; see note on 7:11–36). The Lord carries out the same punishment upon those who consult mediums and necromancers (20:6) in order to communicate with the spirits of the dead.
Beards. Art from Bible times often shows Israelite men with full, rounded beards. This set them apart from the Egyptians and Romans, who were generally clean-shaven. Other peoples living in Palestine would cut or clip their beards. The Israelites were forbidden to do so, perhaps to show their commitment to God in a pagan culture (19:27).
Private sin, public action. Though sexual immorality is often considered a private matter, it was not dealt with privately in ancient Israel. The Israelites understood that people’s religious and moral behavior affected the lives and well-being of their families and neighbors. Therefore, the community as a whole was responsible for carrying out the punishment for sexual sin.
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 20:7–8 The Lord sanctifies the Israelites by making them his holy people, set apart to be his own. Now he calls on them to consecrate themselves and be holy (dedicate themselves to holiness in practice); see note on 11:44–45.
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 20:9 anyone who curses his father or his mother. Cursing one’s parents is the exact opposite of “honoring” them (Ex. 20:12; 21:17; compare Prov. 20:20).
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 20:10–20 This section includes the punishments for each of the sexual activities prohibited in ch. 18: capital punishment (20:10–16), exile (vv. 17–18), or barrenness (vv. 19–21).
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 20:17 sees her nakedness. A euphemism for having sexual relations.
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 20:22–26 A land flowing with milk and honey is a common scriptural description of Canaan (Ex. 13:5; Num. 13:27; etc.).
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 20:27 In v. 6, the one who consults a necromancer or a medium was to be put to death. In this verse, the necromancer or the medium is to be put to death. Why this verse appears here in the text is puzzling. It may be because the act receives capital punishment, as do most of the other activities of the section.
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 21:1–24 Stricter rules of holiness are required of priests because they work directly with the holy objects of the sanctuary.
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 21:1–4 Ordinary priests are prohibited from contact with the dead, except in the case of their closest relatives. (The rules for high priests are given in vv. 10–15; see note.) his virgin sister. The assumption is that, once she marries, she is not regarded as one of his closest relatives, but comes under the care of her husband and his clan (see Gen. 2:24).
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 21:5–6 Priests were prohibited from making bald patches on their heads, shaving off the edges of their beards, or making cuts on their body (compare 19:27–28). These are pagan mourning and burial practices. Israelite priests oversee the worship, and no Canaanite ritual is to enter the priestly system.
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 21:7–8 The wife of a priest must be a woman of high moral character. She may not be a prostitute, because that is a defiling profession. She must not have been divorced. Even though divorce is allowed in the OT (see note on Deut. 24:1–4), a broken marriage falls short of the creation ideal, which the priests are to embody (compare Mal. 2:1–9).
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 21:10–15 The high priest is subject to stricter holiness regulations than the ordinary priest. While an ordinary priest may marry a widow, the high priest must marry a virgin (vv. 13–14). (Perhaps this is to ensure that all the children in his home are his own.) The high priest may not participate in any mourning or burial activities (vv. 10–12; compare note on vv. 1–4). This is to keep him from any uncleanness that he might bring into the inner parts of the sanctuary.
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 21:16–20 No priest who has a blemish may approach to offer sacrifices. The same requirement applies to sacrificial animals. Both the priest and the animal are to exemplify holiness and completeness (see 22:17–25).
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 21:21–24 for I am the LORD who sanctifies them (v. 23c). Although “them” might refer to the priests with physical defects (vv. 17–23a), more likely it refers to my sanctuaries (v. 23b). While “my sanctuaries” matches the plural “them,” the references to the priests with physical defects are all singular.
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 22:1–3 The heavy responsibility demanded of the priests is seen in the phrase cut off from my presence, which is more severe than the ordinary formula “cut off from his people” (19:8; 20:5) which describes the punishment for laymen. The priest is exiled from the service in the tabernacle (that is, in God’s presence).
The eating of holy things. Only priests and their families were allowed to eat the meat from sacrifices. Servants who were members of the household could also partake of the offerings, but hired laborers could not do so.
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 22:4–9 For the background of these rules, see 11:1–47; 13:1–59; 15:1–33; and 17:15. Contracting uncleanness is certain, but when purification has been made, one can eat the holy offering. If purification is not made and the offering is eaten, the offender gives up his life.
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 22:10–16 Priests and their families survived on food from donations to the tabernacle. The priests are to guard the holy food so that those not authorized to do so may not eat of it (vv. 15–16).
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 22:17–25 Animals with defects are considered unholy and incomplete, and are not to be offered to the Holy One.
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 22:29–30 A thanksgiving sacrifice was a type of peace offering (compare 7:15). on the same day (see also 7:15). This stricter rule could suggest that this offering was especially sacred or important.
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 23:1–25:55 Holy Times. These chapters address holiness in relation to time.
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 23:1–44 This chapter presents the calendar for feasts in Israel (compare Ex. 23:10–19; 34:18–26; Numbers 28–29; Deut. 16:1–17; see chart). Keeping this calendar sets Israel apart from all the surrounding nations.
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 23:1–3 During the appointed feasts, people are to meet with the Lord. The Sabbath is a day of solemn rest and the basis for all the following feasts. The day is also one of holy convocation, or public assembly for worship (vv. 2, 4, 7, 21).
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 23:4–8 The Passover is also called the Feast of Unleavened Bread. See Ex. 12:1–20; Luke 22:1.
The Sabbath principle is seen in each of these feasts, which are intended to express the divine-human relationship. Each feast requires (1) cessation from ordinary work and (2) dedication to the Lord by means of offerings.
| Feast | Reference | General time of year | Specific time of year | Modern equivalent | Significance |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Sabbath | 23:3 | Weekly | 7th day | Saturday | Creation |
| Passover | 23:4–8 | Spring | 14th of first month (Abib) | March/April (Easter) | Salvation |
| Firstfruits | 23:9–14 | Spring | 16th of first month (Abib) | March/April (Easter) | Dedication |
| Weeks | 23:15–21 | Spring | 1st of third month (Sivan) | Pentecost | Dedication |
| Trumpets | 23:23–25 | Fall | 1st of seventh month (Tishri) | September | Solemn assembly; spiritual preparation |
| Day of Atonement | 23:26–32 | Fall | 10th of seventh month (Tishri) | September/October | Redemption |
| Booths | 23:33–36 | Fall | 15th–22nd of seventh month (Tishri) | September/October | Joyful remembrance of the Lord’s historic guidance |
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 23:9–14 For laws relating to the firstfruits, see Ex. 23:15 and 34:18–20. The feast celebrates the harvest as a blessing from God to his people.
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 23:15–22 The Feast of Weeks is also called the “Feast of Harvest” (Ex. 23:16) and “the day of the firstfruits” (Num. 28:26). In the NT it is called “Pentecost” (Acts 2:1). This celebration recognizes the Lord as provider of the harvest, who deserves the first of all produce.
The Feast of Weeks is known in the NT as Pentecost (Acts 2:1). It was a celebration honoring the Lord as provider of all crops and as the One who deserved the firstfruits of those crops.
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 23:23–25 At the Feast of Trumpets, trumpet blasts and a solemn assembly call the people to prepare for the most sacred month of the Hebrew calendar. It also marks the end of one agricultural year and the beginning of another. Following the Babylonian exile, Jews celebrated this day as Rosh Hashanah, or New Year’s Day.
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 23:26–32 During the Day of Atonement, the people are to humble themselves (see note on 16:29–34) and not do any work. Otherwise, they will be cut off from their people.
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 23:33–36 The Feast of Booths was a weeklong feast celebrating the people’s salvation from Egypt.
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 23:37–44 These six appointed feasts are to help the people worship the Lord and remember his work on their behalf. Verses 39–44 return to discuss the Feast of Booths.
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 24:1–9 These verses may have been a reminder not to forget the daily tabernacle activities in between the annual festivals described in ch. 23.
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 24:5–9 The twelve loaves symbolize the 12 tribes of Israel as they stand in God’s presence. In Ex. 25:30 the loaves are called “the bread of the Presence.” New loaves are to be set out on each Sabbath.
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 24:10–23 These verses are an example of the laws in Israel that arose in response to specific situations.
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 24:10–12 The command against misusing God’s name (Ex. 20:7; 22:28) is mentioned again. The Exodus passages did not specify a penalty.
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 24:13–16 let all who heard him lay their hands on his head. This may have been done to pass onto the one who cursed the guilt of all who had heard his curse and had thus become defiled. Or, it may have been done simply to indicate who it was that had uttered the curse.
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 24:17–23 fracture for fracture, eye for eye, tooth for tooth. This proverbial phrase means “the punishment must fit the crime” (compare Ex. 21:18–19). The law was intended for judges in a court of law; it was not intended as a way for individuals to “take the law into their own hands.”
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 25:1–7 The practice of allowing no organized farming in the seventh year clearly benefits the soil. It also recognizes that all produce belongs to God and that he gives it freely to his people.
An eye for an eye? This law (24:19–20) was not meant to encourage personal revenge. Rather, it set a limit to the penalties in cases of personal injury. In other words, “let the punishment fit the crime.”
Listen for the trumpet! Once every 50 years, the Israelites were to observe the Year of Jubilee. They would know it was time for the special year to begin when they heard the sound of a trumpet (25:9). The Hebrew word for Jubilee is related to a term that means “ram’s horn.”
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 25:8–12 Jubilee was a year of release and liberty (v. 10), when people were to return to their ancestral property. Israelites who had sold themselves as servants were to be released and sent home. This provided a periodic restoration of the means to earn a living for each family in an agrarian society. The jubilee did not equalize all possessions in Israel, however, since possessions such as cattle and money were not reallocated. The land was to lie fallow for two years in a row: the forty-ninth year (sabbatical year) and the fiftieth year (jubilee). This law prohibited the creation of large estates, which would have reduced many Israelites to being tenants on their ancestral land (see Isa. 5:8).
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 25:13–17 The price of property must be calculated in terms of how many years have passed since the jubilee, since it is not the property itself that is being sold but the amount of crops that can be harvested before the next jubilee. Since all the Israelites eventually return to their inherited land, the act of selling agricultural land essentially means leasing it (but see vv. 29–31 for land that could be sold permanently). The instruction you shall not wrong one another (vv. 14, 17) relates to the economic oppression of the poor and needy (compare 19:33).
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 25:23–24 The land is the Lord’s, and the Israelites are strangers and sojourners. They are tenants, essentially.
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 25:25–28 If an Israelite is forced to sell his land, the land can be brought back to the family in one of three ways: (1) a close relative, called a kinsman-redeemer, buys it; (2) the one who sold it can buy it back; or (3) it is returned at the jubilee.
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 25:35–38 Israelites are to show mercy to one another because they have received mercy from God.
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 25:39–46 A poor Israelite may have sold himself to a fellow Israelite. His right to return to his house at the jubilee means he has sold just his labor, and not his status as a free Israelite.
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 25:47–55 The sojourner is required to keep the laws of Israel while residing in the land.
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 26:1–46 Blessings and Curses. Covenant documents include a list of consequences. Verses 1–13 display the blessings if Israel obeys the covenant; vv. 14–39 pronounce curses for disobedience.
Like any modern-day agreement between two parties, God’s covenant with Israel involved certain conditions. There were blessings for those who kept the covenant (26:1–13) and punishment for those who broke it (26:14–46).
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 26:1–2 Faithfulness to God and keeping the Sabbath are at the heart of Israelite law.
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 26:3–13 If the Israelites are faithful to the Word of God, then they will be blessed with abundance, a visible sign of the Lord’s presence.
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 26:18 Sevenfold means “fully” or “completely.”
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 26:27–33 if in spite of this you will not listen. The retribution for continued rebellion includes a horrific lapse into cannibalism and the destruction of the religious centers, the cities, and the land. The Lord’s wrath is actually carried out by the people’s enemies.
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 26:34–39 When the people are punished by being pushed out of the land, the land will benefit by having rest (compare 25:2–7). The verb enjoy is a personification: the land will be purified and recover its holiness.
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 26:40–46 If the people repent, God will deliver them from exile and restore them to the Land of Promise. uncircumcised heart. Although the Israelites are circumcised in the flesh, their unbelieving, disobedient hearts are actually like the hearts of the pagan peoples.
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 27:1–34 Vows and Dedication. This final chapter describes means of redemption relating to vows made to the Lord. The material appears to be an appendix to the book because it does not fit smoothly with the previous content. This does not mean the chapter was added later. It was probably placed at the end to emphasize the importance of funding the sanctuary.
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 27:1–8 In Israel, a man may make a vow to the Lord, offering himself or a member of his family to serve the Lord. This pledge entails service in the sanctuary. Because non-Levites cannot serve on the temple grounds, a person may be freed from this service by making a payment to the sanctuary.
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 27:9–13 One of the vows a man can make is to donate a clean animal to the sanctuary. No substitution of the animal is permitted once the animal has been donated. A person may also contribute an unclean animal. It will not be sacrificed, but the priests may sell it and use the money for the sanctuary.
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 27:16–25 Dedicating land to the Lord is divided into two cases: inherited land (vv. 16–21) and purchased land (vv. 22–25). Since the land belongs to the Lord anyway, only the crops can be donated to the Lord. (In practice, this means donating them to the priests.) The rules of the jubilee year apply to these donations (vv. 17–18; see 25:15–16). If the donor does not redeem the land at jubilee, then he forfeits the land to the priesthood.
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 27:26–27 The firstborn already belongs to the LORD (Ex. 13:2; 34:19–20).
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 27:28–29 A devoted thing was something “set apart” or “set aside” for God’s purposes. It could not be ransomed or “redeemed for other purposes.”
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 27:30–33 The tithe is already the Lord’s. This law allows the rules for ordinary vows to govern the tithes as well (see vv. 9–13).
LEVITICUS—NOTE ON 27:34 The phrase on Mount Sinai appeared in 25:1 and 26:46, giving the impression that just chs. 25–27 were spoken on Mount Sinai. But the range of meaning of commandments probably includes “rules and statutes” (compare 26:14–15), which suggests that this verse refers to the entire content of Leviticus.