The ESV Global Study Bible

REVELATION—NOTE ON 11:1–14 The visions of the temple and the witnesses reassure believers of God’s protection. However, spiritual protection still allows physical suffering.

REVELATION—NOTE ON 11:1–2 John was given a measuring rod and instructed to measure the temple of God. Some think this implies that during the great tribulation the Jewish temple will be rebuilt in Jerusalem. Jewish worship will be restored there. At this midpoint of the tribulation, the Antichrist will take “his seat in the temple of God, proclaiming himself to be God” (2 Thess. 2:4). Others see the “temple” in Revelation 11 as a symbol for believers (1 Cor. 3:16–17; 1 Pet. 2:4–10; see Rev. 3:12; 21:22). They note that John must measure the sanctuary, its altar (compare Ezek. 40:2–3), and those who worship there. This “measuring” of persons also shows God’s protection and ownership. John must not measure the court outside, because the holy city will be given over to the nations. This language echoes Jesus’ prediction of Jerusalem’s destruction (Luke 21:24; compare Dan. 8:13). Thus some believe that Revelation was written before A.D. 70 and predicted that disaster. Others think that “the holy city” refers to the true church. Forty-two months (see also Rev. 13:5) is equivalent to “1,260 days” (counting 30 days to a month; see 11:3; 12:6) and “a time, and times, and half a time” (three and a half years; 12:14). This symbolizes the shortness of the church’s suffering, which lasts until Christ comes. These calculations of time echo Dan. 7:25; 12:7.

REVELATION—NOTE ON 11:3–14 Scripture requires two witnesses to confirm testimony (Deut. 19:15; Matt. 18:16). The two witnesses of Revelation may represent the saints, as the parallel between Rev. 11:7 and 13:7 suggests. They wear the sackcloth of repentance (compare Isa. 37:1–2; Jonah 3:5; Matt. 11:21) to symbolize their message. Some scholars believe these are two actual individuals who will appear at the end of history.

REVELATION—NOTE ON 11:4 two olive trees. In Zechariah’s vision, the “two olive trees” symbolized “two anointed ones” (Zech. 4:11, 14). One was a royal leader to rebuild God’s temple (Zech. 4:6–10) and the other was a high priest to lead worship in it (Zech. 3:1–5). Thus the witnesses of Rev. 11:3 represent everyone the Lamb has redeemed to serve as priests and rule as kings (1:6; 5:10).

REVELATION—NOTE ON 11:5–6 The witnesses especially fulfill the church’s prophetic role. They pour out God’s word as fiery judgment from their mouth. They announce drought as Elijah did (1 Kings 17:1). They turn waters . . . into blood as Moses did (Ex. 7:14–25).

REVELATION—NOTE ON 11:7–10 The great city that symbolically is called Sodom and Egypt is the site of the martyrs’ death and their Lord’s crucifixion. See also references to “the great city” in 16:19; 17:18; and five times in 18:10–21. In these instances “the great city” is called “Babylon,” which stands for Rome. In 11:8, however, the “great city” is Jerusalem. It is likely that John has merged Rome and Jerusalem here into one combined symbol. “The great city” is further identified symbolically (or “spiritually”; see esv footnote) as “Sodom,” a place known for its sinfulness and rebellion against God. It is also called “Egypt,” which was known for persecuting God’s people. “The great city” symbolizes every empire that rejects God and harms his church.

REVELATION—NOTE ON 11:11–14 they stood up on their feet. . . . they went up to heaven in a cloud. The two witnesses (v. 3) may symbolize the church. If so, then these verses promise resurrection (see Ezek. 37:10) and enthronement with God (see Dan. 7:13). If the witnesses are two actual individuals, then they are miraculously resurrected at this point. As in Acts 1:9, the “cloud” symbolizes the mysterious active presence of God.

REVELATION—NOTE ON 11:15–18 the seventh angel blew his trumpet. Many believe this trumpet signals Christ’s second coming. has become the kingdom of our Lord and of his Christ. The elders celebrate a future day when God and his Christ have begun their reign by judging the dead (20:11–13), rewarding their servants (21:1–7; 22:1–5), and destroying the destroyers of the earth (20:14–15).

REVELATION—NOTE ON 11:19–14:20 This vision reveals the heart of the conflict the church faces. Through his sacrificial blood, Christ (the seed of the woman) has defeated Satan (the accuser of his people). Believers’ sufferings result from Satan’s desperation because “he knows that his time is short” (12:12).

REVELATION—NOTE ON 11:19 A deeper opening of God’s temple in heaven brings the ark of his covenant into view as John peers into the Most Holy Place itself, prepared to receive visions that explain the church’s spiritual conflict.

REVELATION—NOTE ON 12:1–17 Two signs appear in heaven—a woman who gives birth, and a dragon intent on destroying her offspring. Twice John sees the dragon defeated. Both descriptions of what happens afterward describe the woman being protected in the wilderness (vv. 6, 13–17). The first vision (vv. 1–6) portrays a decisive battle at the turning point of history. Christ’s incarnation, obedience, sacrifice, and exaltation forever disqualify Satan from accusing believers (see v. 10). Some interpreters think the second vision (vv. 7–17) represents the same series of events, while others think it portrays events at the beginning of the great tribulation.

REVELATION—NOTE ON 12:1–2 The woman is a great sign in heaven. Her clothing is the sun, moon, and twelve stars. She symbolizes Israel (compare Joseph’s dream, Gen. 37:9).

REVELATION—NOTE ON 12:3 The great red dragon is “that ancient serpent, the devil and Satan” (v. 9; compare 20:2; Gen. 3:1–15). Its seven heads with seven diadems and ten horns symbolize great power (compare Dan. 7:6–7; Rev. 13:1).

REVELATION—NOTE ON 12:4 His tail swept down a third of the stars of heaven. Evil spirits (demons) who are Satan’s allies share his defeat by God’s forces (vv. 7–9). Some interpreters think this refers to the original fall of Satan. They think one-third of the angels rebelled with him (see 2 Pet. 2:4; Jude 6). The dragon’s desire to devour the woman’s child at birth recalls Gen. 3:15.

REVELATION—NOTE ON 12:5 The rod of iron (also 2:27; 19:15) is a shepherd’s club, used to shatter the nations like pottery (compare Ps. 2:9).

REVELATION—NOTE ON 12:6 The child’s mother fled into the wilderness. This symbolizes the church’s complete dependence on God. He protects them from the dragon’s rage (vv. 13–14; compare Ex. 16:13–18; 1 Kings 19:5–8). Some scholars think the time period symbolized as 1,260 days (or “a time, and times, and half a time”; see note on Rev. 11:1–2) began with Christ’s ascension. It will end when God allows the dragon to deceive the nations and gather them against the church (20:7–10). Others understand the “1,260 days” (three and a half years) to represent the second half of the great tribulation. They consider this the same period as the second half of Daniel’s seventieth week (Dan. 9:27). On this view, the woman’s fleeing indicates that during the great tribulation Jewish believers will be persecuted by the Antichrist and will flee into the wilderness (see note on Rev. 11:1–2).

REVELATION—NOTE ON 12:7 Michael is the archangel and guardian of God’s people (Dan. 10:13; 12:1; Jude 9). Some interpreters think Michael’s battle with the dragon marks the beginning of the “time of trouble” (Dan. 12:1), the great tribulation.

REVELATION—NOTE ON 12:8–9 The victory of Michael and the holy angels over the dragon and his allies may symbolize Jesus’ triumph on the cross (compare Col. 2:15). It may also reflect the defeat of demonic forces because of Christ’s victory at the cross. Or it may describe the original casting out of Satan and his demons from heaven (see note on Rev. 12:4). The devil (Greek) and Satan (Hebrew) describe a legal opponent, an accuser at law (see vv. 10–11). Some think he was thrown down to the earth indicates increased demonic activity on earth during the great tribulation.

REVELATION—NOTE ON 12:12 his time is short. Jesus’ death, resurrection, and ascension began “the kingdom of our God” (v. 10). These events guaranteed the end of Satan’s power.

REVELATION—NOTE ON 12:14 two wings of the great eagle. A metaphor of the exodus (see Ex. 19:4) becomes an image of God’s care for his church. a time, and times, and half a time. See note on Rev. 11:1–2.

REVELATION—NOTE ON 12:15 water like a river out of his mouth. The serpent tries to destroy the people of God (sweep her away) by lies and false teaching (compare Gen. 3:13).

REVELATION—NOTE ON 12:17 The dragon fails to destroy the Messiah (see vv. 4–5) and his mother (that is, Israel; see note on vv. 1–2). So he makes war on the rest of her offspring. Some thinks this refers to the church throughout the ages. Others think it refers to believing Israel (or the remnant in ch. 7). These include all who hold to the testimony of Jesus, all who endure in faithfulness and obedience to the gospel. The dragon’s weapon is the “beast” that emerges from the sea to wage war on the saints (13:2, 7).

REVELATION—NOTE ON 13:1–10 As the dragon stands on the seashore (12:17), a beast emerges from the sea. This beast is sometimes identified with the Antichrist (see 1 John 2:18, 22; 4:3; 2 John 7) or the man of lawlessness (2 Thess. 2:3–12). Yet the imagery of Daniel 7 that appears in the description of the beast shows that it represents not only a future individual but also present world powers that wage Satan’s war against the Lamb and his church.

REVELATION—NOTE ON 13:1–2 The beast resembles all four beasts that Daniel saw emerge from the sea before the Son of Man appeared (Dan. 7:1–8, 21). Those beasts symbolized kingdoms (Dan. 7:17, 23). This beast represents every oppressive human empire that demands absolute allegiance and enforces its demand. This includes Egypt, Assyria, Babylon, Persia, Greece, Rome, and their successors. Its 10 horns and seven heads mirror those of the dragon (Rev. 12:3), who gives the beast its great authority.

REVELATION—NOTE ON 13:3 seemed to have a mortal wound. Literally, “as slain to death.” Rome represented the beast in John’s day. It seemed to have been mortally wounded by Nero’s suicide (A.D. 68) and the civil chaos that followed. It experienced a “resurrection” in the reigns of Vespasian and his sons Titus and Domitian. During Domitian’s reign (A.D. 81–96), Nero’s persecution of the church also revived. Many interpreters think this verse also predicts a future remarkable recovery of the Antichrist from a deadly wound.

REVELATION—NOTE ON 13:4 Who is like the beast? The worshipers’ question echoes Israel’s praise of the Lord after the exodus (Ex. 15:11). This reinforces the beast’s claim to divine honors.

REVELATION—NOTE ON 13:5 was given . . . was allowed. See note on 9:1. The beast speaks haughty and blasphemous words, like the horn (king) on the fourth beast in Daniel’s vision (Dan. 7:20, 25). forty-two months. See note on Rev. 11:1–2; also 12:6, 14.

REVELATION—NOTE ON 13:6 The identification of God’s dwelling as those who dwell in heaven confirms that the sanctuary in 11:1 symbolized the worshipers in it. Likewise, the “holy city” is the Lamb’s church-bride (21:2, 9–27).

REVELATION—NOTE ON 13:8 written before the foundation of the world in the book of life of the Lamb who was slain. Before creation and by grace alone, God chose individuals to be redeemed by Christ’s death (see Eph. 1:4–14; and note on Eph. 1:11). God’s book of life appears in Ex. 32:32–33; Dan. 12:1; Luke 10:20; Rev. 3:5; 17:8; 20:15. The parallel expression in 17:8 shows that “before the foundation of the world” refers to “written” rather than to “slain.”

REVELATION—NOTE ON 13:11–18 A second beast rises out of the earth to recruit worshipers for the first beast. He gathers people using lying words and miracles. In John’s day, the imperial cult in the Roman province of Asia encouraged worship of the emperor as divine savior and lawgiver.

REVELATION—NOTE ON 13:11 The second beast resembles the Lamb, but his lying words expose his real nature. He is like a dragon (see 12:15; 16:13–14; 19:20).

REVELATION—NOTE ON 13:13 making fire come down from heaven. The false prophet (the second beast) does a miracle similar to Elijah’s to make people believe the first beast is divine (see 1 Kings 18:38; 2 Kings 1:10; Rev. 8:7; 11:5).

REVELATION—NOTE ON 13:14–15 Idols “have mouths but cannot speak” (Ps. 115:5). Thus the impression that the first beast’s image has breath and might even speak is likely some kind of miracle worked by demonic power yet still subject to God’s sovereign control (it is allowed).

REVELATION—NOTE ON 13:16–17 marked on the right hand or the forehead. The Israelites wore God’s law on their hands and foreheads. They did this to show God’s authority over their thoughts and actions (Deut. 6:8). The beast’s mark and the seal of God on believers’ foreheads (see Rev. 7:3; 14:1; compare also Ex. 28:36–38; Ezek. 9:4) do not have to be physical features, though they may be that. Both symbolize spiritual control.

REVELATION—NOTE ON 13:18 The number of the beast is 666. This number of a man may contrast with divine completeness (symbolized by seven).

REVELATION—NOTE ON 14:1–15:8 The vision sequence leading to the seven last plagues (which will be described as “bowls” of God’s wrath, 16:1–21) opens and closes with scenes of a heavenly choir singing praise to God (14:1–5; 15:2–4). Between these anthems, John sees three angels who announce impending judgment (14:6–13) and three who order and execute harvests (14:15–20). At the center, between the three announcing angels and the three harvesting angels, John sees a seventh figure, “one like a son of man,” gathering his grain from the earth (14:14). Despite the beast’s cruel persecution (ch. 13), these visions (like those in chs. 7 and 10–11) provide reassurance that God and the Lamb rule, and that martyrs are already celebrating victory.

REVELATION—NOTE ON 14:1 Mount Zion. Fulfilling Ps. 2:6, the Lamb stands on God’s holy hill in heaven. name. A token of possession and protection by God, promised to every conqueror in the spiritual war (Rev. 3:12). 144,000. See notes on 7:1–17; 7:4–8; 7:9.

REVELATION—NOTE ON 14:3 The new song celebrates God’s triumph over sin through the Lamb (5:9; 15:3). God’s prior victories were also celebrated in new songs (Ps. 98:1). The song belongs only to those who have experienced the Lamb’s redemption (Ps. 107:1–3). This is another indication that 144,000 represents those who have been redeemed rather than an actual number (see notes on Rev. 7:1–17; 7:4–8; 7:9).

REVELATION—NOTE ON 14:4–5 have not defiled themselves with women, for they are virgins. Soldiers often avoided having sex during the wars God commanded (see Deut. 23:9–11; 1 Sam. 21:5). The 144,000 (Rev. 14:3) represent believers of both sexes who die in faith and are gathered as firstfruits for God, foreshadowing a greater harvest.

REVELATION—NOTE ON 14:8 Another angel announces that Babylon is fallen (echoing Isa. 21:9). Babylon was the greatest power of its day. Babylon conquered Judah. In John’s day, Rome was the nation with “dominion over the kings of the earth” (Rev. 17:18) that oppressed Christ’s people (17:6). Yet Revelation’s “Babylon” transcends Rome, since its fall comes at the end of history (15:1; 16:17–19). the passion of her sexual immorality. Babylon the prostitute represents the temptations of material wealth and pleasure. These things tempt the people into serving something other than the Lord.

REVELATION—NOTE ON 14:9–11 the smoke of their torment goes up forever and ever. Hell is eternal. The wicked do not cease to exist when they die.

REVELATION—NOTE ON 14:14–20 Two reapers appear in heaven, sharp sickles in hand. Angels emerge from the temple with God’s order to “Put in your sickle, and reap.” First “one like a son of man” gathers the grain of the earth. Then an angel gathers grapes from the earth’s vine. These will be crushed in the “winepress of the wrath of God.”

REVELATION—NOTE ON 14:14 One like a son of man, seated on the cloud and wearing a golden crown (compare Dan. 7:13–14; Rev. 1:7, 13) is Jesus, the Lord of the harvest. He sowed the gospel (Matt. 13:37) and will return to harvest it.

REVELATION—NOTE ON 14:15–16 The harvest of the earth probably is the Son of Man gathering believers (compare Matt. 13:30).

REVELATION—NOTE ON 14:17–20 The second harvest involves cutting grape clusters from the vine and crushing them in God’s winepress. This pictures the destruction of the wicked (compare Joel 3:12–13). trodden. The Lord will trample nations that have trampled God’s holy city, just as Isaiah promised (Isa. 63:1–6). Their blood is shed outside the city (probably Jerusalem), where all unclean things belong (see Rev. 21:27).

REVELATION—NOTE ON 15:1–16:21 The seven “last” plagues, envisioned as “bowls full of the wrath of God” are poured out on earth. Some believe these bowls represent future global judgments. They will occur at the end of the great tribulation period and end in the battle of Armageddon (16:14–16).

The Seven Benedictions

Blessed is the one who reads aloud, hears, and keeps the words of this prophecy	1:3
Blessed are the dead who die in the Lord	14:13
Blessed is the one who stays awake, keeping his garments on	16:15
Blessed are those who are invited to the marriage supper of the Lamb	19:9
Blessed and holy is the one who shares in the first resurrection	20:6
Blessed is the one who keeps the words of the prophecy of this book	22:7
Blessed are those who wash their robes	22:14

REVELATION—NOTE ON 15:1–8 Believers celebrate God’s victory (vv. 1–4). Then God completes his judgment of rebellious people (vv. 5–8).

REVELATION—NOTE ON 15:1 another sign in heaven. These angels begin the completion of God’s triumph in the destruction of his enemies.

REVELATION—NOTE ON 15:2–4 The harps of God and the song of the Lamb is music created by God’s redeemed people. They conquered the beast by holding fast to their faith even when threatened with death (12:11). sea of glass. See note on 4:6–8.

REVELATION—NOTE ON 15:3–4 The song of Moses celebrated Israel’s exodus from Egypt (Ex. 15:1–18). Now the song of the Lamb tells of a greater redemption of a new kingdom of priests (Rev. 5:9–10). A later “song of Moses” praised the Lord whose ways are just (Deut. 32:1–43; especially v. 4). The King of the nations will be feared, glorified, and worshiped by all nations (Ps. 86:9) for his righteous acts of judgment (Ps. 98:2).

REVELATION—NOTE ON 15:5 the tent of witness in heaven. See note on Heb. 8:1–2.

REVELATION—NOTE ON 15:6 pure, bright linen. A preview of the holy beauty of Christ’s bride (19:7–8).

REVELATION—NOTE ON 15:8 God’s glory was so intense that no one could enter the sanctuary. No one can until the seven plagues . . . were finished (see v. 1).

REVELATION—NOTE ON 16:1–21 The first four bowls inflict plagues on the earth, sea, rivers and springs, and sun (compare 8:7–12). The destruction poured out from the bowls is total (contrast 9:4–5, 18). The end has come.

REVELATION—NOTE ON 16:2 When the first bowl is poured out on the earth, it afflicts the earth’s inhabitants, who bear the beast’s mark, with painful sores. This is like the sixth plague on Egypt (compare Ex. 9:8–12; Deut. 28:27, 35).

REVELATION—NOTE ON 16:3 The second bowl turns the waters of the sea into blood (compare Ex. 7:21). All sea life will die.

REVELATION—NOTE ON 16:4–7 With the third bowl, rivers and springs (sources of drinking water) will be turned to blood. “It is what they deserve,” declares the angel . . . of the waters. The angel refers to those who shed the blood of saints and prophets (see 17:6). altar. See 6:9.

REVELATION—NOTE ON 16:8–9 Instead of darkening the sun (see 8:12), the fourth bowl will intensify its heat.

The Seven Bowls of Wrath (16:2–21)

The complete, unrestrained expression of God’s wrath

Bowl	Area Affected	Reference	Result
Bowl 1	earth	16:2	sores on the beast’s worshipers
Bowl 2	sea	16:3	blood and death
Bowl 3	rivers and springs	16:4–7	blood to drink
Bowl 4	sun	16:8–9	burning heat
Bowl 5	beast’s throne	16:10–11	palpable darkness
Bowl 6	Euphrates River	16:12–16	gathering for the battle
Bowl 7	air	16:17–21	earthquake shattering the great city

REVELATION—NOTE ON 16:10–11 Darkness was the ninth plague on Egypt (Ex. 10:21–29). The refusal to repent (compare Rev. 9:20–21; 16:9) shows the depth of human sinfulness. It also shows the justice of eternal punishment (20:3–15).

REVELATION—NOTE ON 16:12–14 The drying up of the great river Euphrates allows Satan’s armies to gather. Unclean spirits emerge as frogs (compare Ex. 8:2–11).

REVELATION—NOTE ON 16:15 Jesus calls for spiritual vigilance. This echoes his challenge to the satisfied churches of Sardis and Laodicea (ch. 3).

REVELATION—NOTE ON 16:16 Armageddon means “Mount Megiddo” in Hebrew. In ancient Israel, Megiddo was a plain, not a mountain. It was also the site of some key battles (Judg. 5:19; 2 Kings 23:29). In the symbolic geography of John’s visions it represents the global combat zone (see Rev. 20:9). The final conflict between Christ and Satan will be fought there.

REVELATION—NOTE ON 16:17–21 “It is done!” This declaration affirms that God has completed his plan (10:7). His wrath against evil is finished (15:1, 8). His kingdom is fully come (11:15). A great earthquake will shatter the great city, where Jesus was crucified and his martyrs were murdered (11:7–10). It is Babylon the great, which rules the “kings of the earth” (17:18). Human civilization will end when the Lord comes with lightning, rumblings, and peals of thunder (11:19). This is the earthquake predicted in the sixth seal (6:12–17).

REVELATION—NOTE ON 17:1–19:10 An extended vision describes the fall of Babylon. This event was announced by an angel (14:8) and portrayed in the seventh bowl (16:18–19). The city appears as a female prostitute (17:1–6). Then an angel explains the meaning of the woman and the beast on which she sits (17:7–18). Finally, a series of voices comment on her fall (18:1–19:10). The “great prostitute” and “Babylon the great” (chs. 17 and 18) are the same. Both portray the beast’s empire.

REVELATION—NOTE ON 17:1–15 Babylon’s expensive clothing and jewelry symbolize her wealth. Her name, “mother of prostitutes and of earth’s abominations” (v. 5), represents the desire of godless societies for sensual pleasure. Her becoming drunk on the blood of the saints, and the beast on which she sits, symbolize the pursuit of wealth, pleasure, and power.

REVELATION—NOTE ON 17:1 Many waters symbolizes the many peoples and nations Babylon rules (vv. 15, 18).

REVELATION—NOTE ON 17:2 Sexual immorality and spiritual infidelity are connected (2:20–23; Ezek. 16:15–43).

REVELATION—NOTE ON 17:3 carried me away in the Spirit. The Holy Spirit gave John a prophetic vision like Ezekiel experienced (Ezek. 3:12; 11:24). wilderness. A place of spiritual protection (see Rev. 12:6, 14) and physical difficulty. The beast of ch. 13 is now a scarlet beast on which the woman sits. Some understand this to be the Antichrist, who supports Babylon.

REVELATION—NOTE ON 17:4 Both prostitute and bride are adorned in gold, jewels, pearls, and fine linen (compare 18:16; 19:8; 21:18–21). Babylon’s clothing is expensive purple and scarlet. The bride’s is bright, pure white. The prostitute symbolizes the appeal of a worldly economic system driven by wealth and pleasure (18:11–19). golden cup. Compare Jer. 51:7.

REVELATION—NOTE ON 17:6 drunk with the blood of the . . . martyrs of Jesus. The wealthy and powerful rulers kill Jesus’ followers (13:15–17).

REVELATION—NOTE ON 17:8 beast . . . was and is not and is to come. It had received a terrible wound yet came back to life (13:12–14). about to rise from the bottomless pit (see 11:7) and go to destruction. The beast’s power to persecute Christians is limited. His future violence will also be limited (see 19:19–21; 20:7–10).

REVELATION—NOTE ON 17:9–11 The city of Rome rests on seven mountains (or seven hills). In prophetic imagery, mountains symbolize the place of power (Jer. 51:24–25; Dan. 2:35, 44–45). The beast’s seven heads symbolize both mountains and kings. This shows his power over people whose names are not in the book of life. The dragon and beast’s “time is short” (Rev. 12:12), for the beast goes to destruction.

REVELATION—NOTE ON 17:12–14 The beast’s ten horns, symbolizing ten kings, probably represent all of the earth’s kings. They are deceived and gathered by the dragon and the beast for a final rebellion against the Lamb and an assault on his called and chosen and faithful followers (see 16:14; 19:19–21; 20:7–10).

REVELATION—NOTE ON 17:16–19:10 The military power that supports Babylon’s pursuit of pleasure will destroy its wealth and social order. This will distress those who idolized and profited from its wealth. But this will delight believers, who have suffered its violent attacks.

REVELATION—NOTE ON 17:16–17 The partnership of prostitute and beast will end. Armies will destroy the economic system it once supported. The beast and its allies strip the prostitute naked. They devour her flesh and burn her up with fire (compare Ezek. 16:39–41). God uses his enemies to carry out his purpose.

REVELATION—NOTE ON 17:18 The great city is Rome, which had dominion over the kings of the earth.

REVELATION—NOTE ON 18:1–19:10 Several speakers explain how the beast and the kings desert the prostitute.

REVELATION—NOTE ON 18:1–3 Fallen, fallen. Compare Isa. 21:9. Babylon’s fall will turn the great city into a wilderness inhabited by every unclean spirit, bird, and beast.

REVELATION—NOTE ON 18:4 The prophets often asked the OT Israelites to come out of (be different than) the cultures where they were exiled (Isa. 52:11; Jer. 51:6–9, 45). Such separation was equally relevant to the NT church and it remains so today (2 Cor. 6:14–18; 1 Pet. 2:11–12).

REVELATION—NOTE ON 18:6 God is just. He will pay (Babylon) back as she herself has paid back (see Ex. 21:23–25). The double portion (see Isa. 40:2; Jer. 16:18) of punishment is for the violence she inflicted on the saints (Rev. 19:2).

REVELATION—NOTE ON 18:7–8 Babylon’s boast, I sit as a queen, I am no widow will be silenced in a single day (compare Isa. 47:7–9).

REVELATION—NOTE ON 18:9–20 Laments come from kings, merchants, and sailors who profited from Babylon’s power and wealth.

REVELATION—NOTE ON 18:12–13 The prostitute symbolizes all corrupt economic systems. Even human souls are reduced to cargo. They are traded as slaves to provide cheap labor for greedy merchants.

REVELATION—NOTE ON 18:20 Everyone in heaven (saints and apostles and prophets) rejoice in God’s judgment of Babylon (compare 12:12).

REVELATION—NOTE ON 18:24 God will judge Babylon and the beast for shedding the blood of his prophets and saints (see 6:10; 11:8; 17:6).

REVELATION—NOTE ON 19:1–2 A great multitude from every nation (see 7:9–10) praises God for his just judgment of the prostitute who murdered the saints. Hallelujah comes from a Hebrew term for “praise Yahweh.”

REVELATION—NOTE ON 19:3 smoke . . . goes up forever and ever. Symbolizes permanent judgment. The heavenly praise of God (Hallelujah!) for this judgment reflects the evil done by “the great prostitute” (v. 2).

REVELATION—NOTE ON 19:4 The worship offered by the elders and living creatures links this celebration with the vision of God and the Lamb in 5:8–10. Amen expresses confident certainty (John 10:7) or strong agreement (1 Cor. 14:16).

REVELATION—NOTE ON 19:6 The next voice is like that of a great multitude, many waters, and mighty peals of thunder. It comes from a great crowd in heaven (compare 14:2). The Almighty is praised for establishing his unchallenged reign at Christ’s return (see 1 Cor. 15:24).

REVELATION—NOTE ON 19:7–8 The prostitute has been destroyed. Now the Lamb’s pure Bride is announced. it was granted. Her gown of righteous deeds is her groom’s gift (compare Isa. 61:10; Rev. 6:11; 7:14). On the church as bride of Christ, see 21:2, 9; 22:17; 2 Cor. 11:2; Eph. 5:25–27.

REVELATION—NOTE ON 19:9–10 Those invited to the marriage supper of the Lamb are believers who belong to his beloved bride, the church. This “marriage supper of the Lamb” was predicted in Isa. 25:6–9; Matt. 22:1–14; 25:10; 26:29. John is twice corrected (“You must not do that!”) for trying to worship the angel (see Rev. 22:8–9). John is commanded to worship God alone. This confirms the deity of Jesus, the Lamb who is rightly worshiped (see 5:8–14).

REVELATION—NOTE ON 19:11–20:15 An opening up of heaven (compare 4:1; 11:19; 15:5) introduces visions that symbolize the last battle between Christ and the forces of evil. This passage fulfills the promise of Christ’s return to reign on earth.

REVELATION—NOTE ON 19:11–21 The climactic battle for which the dragon, the beast, and the false prophet gathered the earth’s kings (16:13–16) is introduced with a description of Christ the victor (19:11–16), then with a grim “dinner invitation” forecasting the battle’s outcome (vv. 17–18). Finally, the conflict occurs (vv. 19–21).

REVELATION—NOTE ON 19:11 The rider of the white horse is already victorious. White is the color of victory (see note on 3:4–5). The rider’s titles, Faithful and True, identify him as Jesus, the faithful and true witness (1:5; 3:14).

REVELATION—NOTE ON 19:12–16 The horse’s rider (v. 11) is the Son of Man. He has eyes . . . like a flame of fire and a sharp sword (see notes on 1:14; 1:16). His many diadems (crowns signifying royalty) show his supremacy as King of kings and Lord of lords. He is named the Word of God, for he is the greatest revelation of the Father (John 1:1, 14; Heb. 1:1–2). He also has a name written that no one knows but himself. The greatness of the Son of God can never be fully known (on “name,” see note on John 1:12–13).

REVELATION—NOTE ON 19:14 The armies of heaven ride white horses, sharing the victory of the Lamb (see 12:11; 15:2).

REVELATION—NOTE ON 19:15 with a rod of iron. See note on 12:5. Because he operates the winepress of God’s wrath, Jesus’ robe is covered in his enemies’ blood (compare Isa. 63:1–6).

REVELATION—NOTE ON 19:17–18 The angel’s invitation for birds to pick corpses clean at the great supper of God reflects an OT covenant judgment (Deut. 28:26). It also echoes Ezekiel’s prophetic word against Gog and Magog, who oppressed his people (Ezek. 39:17–20; see Rev. 20:8).

REVELATION—NOTE ON 19:20 The beast and the false prophet, like the great prostitute, represent corrupt individuals and institutions.

REVELATION—NOTE ON 19:21 The rest are “the kings of the earth and their armies” (v. 19). Only the Lamb and his army will survive this battle.

REVELATION—NOTE ON 20:1–6 These verses, the last of three “interludes” in Revelation (see note on 7:1–17), are among the most controversial in the book. Scholars disagree about the meaning of the “thousand years.” The three main views are: (1) Premillennialists believe Christ will return “pre” [before] the millennium. They think this thousand years (or millennium) is a future time of great peace and justice. They usually consider this to be a literal 1,000-year period that will begin when Christ returns to reign on earth. He will be King, and resurrected believers will reign with him. (2) Postmillennialists believe that Christ will return “post” [after] the millennial period. They think that before Christ returns to earth the gospel will spread and triumph. Societies will be transformed. Peace and justice will reign on earth for a thousand years (or for a long period of time). After this, Christ will return for the final judgment. (3) Amillennialists hold an “a” [non-literal] millennial view. They think this thousand years is the same period as this present church age. They believe there will be no future “millennium” before Christ returns for the final judgment. Each of these views is within the framework of historic Christian orthodoxy.

The “Bookends” of Biblical Theology

God’s ultimate purpose in redemptive history is to create a people to dwell in his presence, glorifying him through numerous varied activities and enjoying him forever. The story begins with God in eternal glory, and it ends with God and his people in eternal glory. At the center stands the cross, where God revealed his glory through his Son.

The biblical story of redemption must be understood within the larger story of creation. First Adam, and later Israel, was placed in God’s sanctuary (the garden and the Promised Land, respectively), but both Adam and Israel failed to be a faithful, obedient steward, and both were expelled from the sanctuary God had created for them. But Jesus Christ—the second Adam, the son of Abraham, the son of David—was faithful and obedient to God. Though the world killed him, God raised him to life, which meant that death was defeated. Through his Spirit, God pours into sinners the resurrection life of his Son, creating a new humanity “in Christ.” Those who are “in Christ” move through death into new, re-embodied life and exaltation in God’s sanctuary, there to enjoy his presence forever.

The “bookends” concept of biblical theology illustrates that in the third-to-last chapter of the Bible (Revelation 20) God removes his enemies—Satan, death, and evil—that entered the story line in the third chapter of the Bible (Genesis 3), thus completing the story of redemption. The last two chapters (Revelation 21–22) don’t simply restore the first two chapters (Genesis 1–2); they go beyond them to a world that is fully ordered and holy, in which God is fully present with his people, completing the story of creation. (Chapter divisions in the Bible are, of course, human contributions, not divinely inspired.)

The “Bookends” of Biblical Theology

REVELATION—NOTE ON 20:1–3 The dragon will be bound with a great chain and thrown into the bottomless pit, which will be shut and sealed. This symbolizes God’s restriction of Satan’s ability to inflict harm for a long but set period. The nature of this binding of Satan is important to the three millennial views. Premillennialists read this as predicting a complete removal of Satan from the earth during a millennium of social righteousness, international peace, and physical well-being. Christ will reign on earth during this time. Postmillennialists also think this will be a future peaceful millennium, but that Christ will not return until the end of that time. Amillennialists argue that this refers to the gospel’s spread among all nations during the present age. They also think it symbolizes God restraining the church’s enemies until just before Christ’s return (see 2 Thess. 2:3–8).

REVELATION—NOTE ON 20:4–5 I saw thrones, and seated on them were those to whom the authority to judge was committed. Premillennialists argue that “coming down from heaven” (v. 1) and the reference to “the nations” (v. 3) show that these “thrones” are on earth (during Christ’s millennial reign). Amillennialists argue that the echoes in these verses from Daniel’s vision (compare Dan. 7:9, 22) indicate the thrones are in heaven. John sees the souls of those who had been beheaded . . . and those who had not worshiped the beast. These are the faithful believers who came to life. Premillennialists think deceased believers will experience bodily resurrection at the beginning of the millennium, and that is what is meant by this is the first resurrection. Amillennialists think “they came to life” and “the first resurrection” means their souls entered into the presence of God in heaven after they died. Their deaths were their victory over the dragon and beast (Rev. 12:11; 15:2). They will be given new bodies at the final resurrection (20:12–15). Some postmillennialists agree with the amillennial view of “the first resurrection.” Other postmillennialists think it refers to the future victory of Christianity in the world after its earlier persecution. and reigned with Christ for a thousand years. Premillennialists think this means that these resurrected believers will assist with Christ’s thousand-year reign as righteous King over the whole earth. Amillennialists think this means deceased believers are “reigning” with Christ from heaven now. Postmillennialists see it as a future triumph of Christianity in the world.

REVELATION—NOTE ON 20:6 second death. The wicked are returned to bodily existence and condemned for their evil deeds. They will be cast into the lake of fire forever (vv. 12–15).

REVELATION—NOTE ON 20:7–10 Satan’s release after the thousand years will free him to deceive the nations and to gather them for the last battle. Amillennialists see this as the same battle as the one described in 16:13–16 and 19:17–21. Premillennialists see this as a separate, later battle. The gathered armies are called Gog and Magog, titles of Israel’s pagan oppressors, who would be destroyed by fire . . . from heaven (Ezek. 38:22; 39:6) and eaten by birds (Ezek. 39:1–6, 17–20; Rev. 19:17–18, 21). The saints are attacked by enemies as countless as the sand of the sea (see 12:17), but God will protect them.

REVELATION—NOTE ON 20:11–15 All the dead will be raised from the grave and the sea, to be judged either by their deeds recorded in “the books” (v. 12) or by God’s gracious registration of their names in the Lamb’s “book of life” (v. 12; see note on v. 13). This judgment was announced in 11:18.

REVELATION—NOTE ON 20:12 The dead, great and small include God’s saints (11:18; 19:5) and the beast’s worshipers (13:16; 19:18). Books recording their deeds will be opened (Dan. 7:10). The books will provide the evidence on which each is judged (Rom. 2:6–11). another book, the book of life. See note on Rev. 20:13; see 3:5; 13:8; 17:8; 20:15; 21:27.

REVELATION—NOTE ON 20:13 The sea, Death, and Hades (the realm of the dead; 6:8) will give up their dead as all people return to bodily existence to be judged. they were judged . . . according to what they had done. Unbelievers will be rightly condemned for their sins (20:15). Believers, whose names are in the “book of life” (vv. 12, 15), will enter into “a new heaven and a new earth” (21:1) because they are redeemed by “the Lamb who was slain” for their sins (1:5; 13:8). Their recorded deeds give evidence of their trust in Christ and are the basis for determining their rewards (see notes on 1 Cor. 3:14–15; 2 Cor. 5:10; Rev. 22:12–16).

REVELATION—NOTE ON 20:14 Death, the last enemy, will be destroyed when Christ returns and resurrects believers (1 Cor. 15:23–26).

REVELATION—NOTE ON 21:1–22:5 The destruction of death will lead to the renewal of the entire created order. It will become the perfect home in which the Lamb will live forever with his bride, the people he has redeemed through his atoning death.

REVELATION—NOTE ON 21:1 Then I saw a new heaven and a new earth. The removal of the first heaven and earth eliminates evil. Sin and suffering and death will not exist. This fulfills Isa. 65:17; 66:22. Scholars differ, however, as to how much and in what way the “first heaven and the first earth” will pass away and be changed into something new. They discuss whether this represents an entirely new creation or a “renewed” creation that has some continuity with the old order. It seems that “new” is best understood here as something that has been transformed in a fundamental way, rather than as a fresh creation. By comparison to what is coming to an end, the new cosmic order is radically different. It is a place where “righteousness will dwell” (2 Pet. 3:13). There God “will wipe away every tear from their eyes” (Rev. 21:4; compare Isa. 25:8 and Rev. 7:17) and “death shall be no more” (21:4; compare Isa. 25:8 and 1 Cor. 15:26). There “the creation itself will be set free from its bondage to decay” (Rom. 8:21) and all that is “perishable” will be raised and transformed into a glorious new “imperishable” reality (1 Cor. 15:42–43). There the redeemed will rejoice in the eternal presence of “God and the Lamb” (Rev. 14:4; 22:1–5). The sea was no more refers to the source of earthly rebellion (13:1; Dan. 7:3).

REVELATION—NOTE ON 21:2 the holy city, new Jerusalem (compare Heb. 12:22–24). The church redeemed by Jesus Christ will be adorned as a bride.

REVELATION—NOTE ON 21:3 He will dwell with them. The greatest blessing of heaven will be constant fellowship with God himself. The goal of God’s covenant, “God with us” (Isa. 7:14, esv footnote; Matt. 1:23), will be achieved. his people . . . their God. See Lev. 26:11–12; Ezek. 37:27.

REVELATION—NOTE ON 21:4 God will wipe away every tear and put an end to death, mourning, and pain (see Isa. 25:8; 65:19–20). He will reverse the curse that entered the world through human sin (Gen. 3:14–19).

REVELATION—NOTE ON 21:6 It is done! The destruction of God’s enemies (16:17) and the salvation of his saints are both completed. the Alpha and the Omega. First and last letters of the Greek alphabet (see 1:8; 22:13). The Lord is the one who “begins” and “ends” all things (Isa. 41:4; 44:6). The spring of the water of life flows from the throne of God and the Lamb (Rev. 22:1). This is a throne of grace (Heb. 4:16) because here the thirsty drink without payment, by God’s free gift (Isa. 55:1).

REVELATION—NOTE ON 21:7 The one who conquers. God has made promises to conquerors (2:7, 11, 17). These are summed up in this assurance that the new heaven and earth are their heritage as God’s children. he will be my son. This promise was made to David’s descendants (2 Sam. 7:14). It was fulfilled in Jesus (Heb. 1:5). It also includes those who belong to him (Gal. 3:26). On “son,” see note on Gal. 3:26.

REVELATION—NOTE ON 21:8 second death. Judgment awaits those who renounce their faith in Christ. sorcerers. On ancient magic, see note on Acts 13:6.

REVELATION—NOTE ON 21:9–22:5 An angel with one of the seven bowls helps John see the bride, the wife of the Lamb. She is the holy city Jerusalem. Some take this as a literal description of this new city. Others understand it as symbolic of life in heaven.

REVELATION—NOTE ON 21:12–14 The city’s high wall and twelve gates symbolize absolute protection. The gates bear the names of Israel’s twelve tribes, and the Lamb’s twelve apostles are named on the wall’s foundations (Eph. 2:20), signifying the unity of OT and NT believers.

REVELATION—NOTE ON 21:15–17 measuring rod of gold. See Ezek. 40:3. The city’s length and width and height are equal, having a cubic shape like the Most Holy Place in the OT sanctuary (1 Kings 6:20; Ezek. 41:4). Since the entire city is the Most Holy Place (the place of God’s presence), there is no temple in it (Rev. 21:22). The length, width, and height of the city (12,000 stadia, or 1,380 miles [2,221 km]) and the width of the city wall (144 cubits) are multiples of 12. This may indicate the literal dimensions of the city or it may symbolize the city’s perfection.

REVELATION—NOTE ON 21:18 Pure gold may be literal gold that shows the bride’s priceless value and purity, or it may simply be symbolic.

REVELATION—NOTE ON 21:19–21 The 12 jewels correspond to those engraved with the names of Israelite tribes on the high priest’s breastplate (Ex. 28:17–20). They also resemble stones associated with Eden (Ezek. 28:13–14).

REVELATION—NOTE ON 21:22 its temple is the Lord God . . . and the Lamb. Jesus himself is the tent and temple in which God lives among his people (John 1:14; 2:19–21).

REVELATION—NOTE ON 21:23 God the Father is the source and Christ is the mediator of the bride’s radiant light (her truth and purity). See Isa. 60:19–20.

REVELATION—NOTE ON 21:24–27 bring their glory into it. Compare Isa. 60:3–5. The city’s gates will never be shut because there are no opponents left to threaten it.

REVELATION—NOTE ON 22:1–2 The river of the water of life and the tree of life recall Eden before the fall into sin (Gen. 2:8–10; 3:22–24; see Rev. 2:7). It also echoes Ezekiel’s vision of a future glorious temple (Ezek. 47:1–12; see Zech. 14:8). Refreshment and life flow from the throne of God and of the Lamb, carried by the Holy Spirit, as Jesus promised (John 4:10–14; 7:38–39; see also Isa. 44:3; Ezek. 36:25–27). Believers have this life-giving water even now (Rev. 7:17; 22:17), but its fullness awaits the new heaven and earth. This ever-flowing river portrays an unending stream of abundant blessings and joy. The healing of the nations occurs through the destruction of death (20:14; see Ezek. 47:12).

REVELATION—NOTE ON 22:3 anything accursed. Earth was cursed for Adam’s sin (Gen. 3:17). Guilt, strife, struggle for survival, sickness, sorrow, and death resulted. In the new creation, these will not remain (Rev. 21:4). God’s throne will make the entire city a temple (21:22). There his servants will worship him as his priests.

REVELATION—NOTE ON 22:4 Moses could not see the Lord’s face and live (Ex. 33:20–23; 34:29–35). Yet God’s redeemed people will see his face. His name . . . on their foreheads sealed them as his protected property through history’s turmoil and trials (Rev. 3:11–12; 7:2–8; 14:1).

REVELATION—NOTE ON 22:5 Since night has been banished (see 21:25), God’s servants will bask in light from God’s radiant glory and truth (see 21:23–24). In union with Jesus their king, believers will worship as priests and reign as kings over the new earth forever and ever (5:10).

REVELATION—NOTE ON 22:6–21 Epilogue. John reaffirms the truthfulness of the revelation he received. He pronounces blessing on those who keep its words, and promises that Jesus will soon return.

REVELATION—NOTE ON 22:6–7 These words are trustworthy and true. The truthfulness of God’s word is affirmed seven times in the last two chapters of Revelation (21:5; 22:6, 7, 9, 10, 18, 19). Blessed is the one who keeps the words of . . . this book. See 1:3 and note.

REVELATION—NOTE ON 22:8–9 Human beings must not worship even the angels who inflict the last plagues (15:1; 21:9). Angels are fellow servants. God alone must be worshiped. Since the Lamb is rightly worshiped (5:8–14), he is God.

REVELATION—NOTE ON 22:10–15 John must not “seal” his prophecy as Daniel did his (Dan. 12:4, 9). Unlike Daniel’s prophecy, the fulfillment of John’s visions was “near” to his first-century readers. It remains near today.

REVELATION—NOTE ON 22:11 Let the evildoer still do evil . . . and the righteous still do right. Patterns of behavior, whether controlled by unbelief or by faith, will eventually be irreversible (compare Dan. 12:10).

REVELATION—NOTE ON 22:12–16 Christ will come to repay each one for what he has done. He will reward each faithful servant and punish each unbeliever. Recompense (“wages,” “reward”) indicates degrees of reward and punishment (see Luke 12:47–48).

REVELATION—NOTE ON 22:13 the Alpha and the Omega, the first and the last. See note on 21:6.

REVELATION—NOTE ON 22:14–15 Blessed. The final of the seven benedictions of Revelation (see chart) is for those who wash their robes in the conscience-cleansing blood of the Lamb (7:14; Heb. 9:14). They have access to the tree of life within God’s city. Outside the gates in eternal torment will be everyone who loves Satanic falsehood, sensuality, and murder (compare Rev. 21:8, 27).

REVELATION—NOTE ON 22:16–17 As promised in 1:1, Jesus has given his revelation through his angel and through John to his churches for their comfort and warning.

REVELATION—NOTE ON 22:16 the root and the descendant of David. Jesus is both David’s “son” and his Lord (5:5; Isa. 11:1, 10; Mark 12:35–37). bright morning star. See note on Rev. 2:26–28.

REVELATION—NOTE ON 22:17 God invites the spiritually thirsty to take the water of life without price. It is freely provided by God’s grace (21:6; Isa. 55:1).

REVELATION—NOTE ON 22:18–21 I warn is the same verb as testifies in v. 20. No human may add to or take away from God’s words. Doing so brings the plagues described in this book (compare Deut. 4:2; 12:32; also Deut. 18:20–22). When Jesus testifies once more, Surely I am coming soon, his church responds, Come, Lord Jesus! (compare 1 Cor. 16:22).

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The Seven Benedictions

The Seven Bowls of Wrath (16:2–21)

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The “Bookends” of Biblical Theology

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