Evacuations, Withdrawals and the Group Deployment Concept 1970–1974
TASK FORCE DEPLOYMENTS OUT OF THE NATO AREA – THE CVS CONCEPT – OPERATION HOLYSTONE – MALTA WITHDRAWAL – SECOND COD WAR – CYPRUS EVACUATION
FIRST SEA LORDS Admirals Hill-Norton and Pollock
SECOND SEA LORDS Admirals Lewis and Empson
MANPOWER 87,500
MERCANTILE MARINE 3,858 merchant ships
‘Gone is the traditional method of operating single ships over a wide area, and in its place is the Task Force’
(MOD, 1974)
In the early 1970s the world remained under the dark shadow of the Cold War, though there were the first few glimmers of a possible future thaw. The Strategic Arms Limitation Talks (SALT) between the superpowers had started, but there was to be a long slow process before finally Nixon and Brezhnev signed the first Strategic Arms Limitation Treaty (SALT 1) on 26 May 1972. The Soviet Union had been catching up with the USA in terms of strategic inter-continental ballistic missiles (ICBMs), whilst the USA had been pressing ahead with an anti-ballistic missile defence shield (ABM system). SALT 1 placed limits on the numbers of both nuclear strike and defensive missiles. It was greatly welcomed on both sides, which were faced with the crippling costs of nuclear missile technology, development and procurement.
The world remained a very dangerous place, and the Royal Navy, which had taken over responsibility for Britain’s vital nuclear deterrent role on 1 July 1969, maintained its contribution to the deterrent posture of the West, with at least one Polaris SSBN constantly on patrol, hidden deep in the oceans of the world.
Despite the nuclear stalemate between the superpowers, conflicts continued around the world. US involvement in the Vietnam War, following the devastating Tet Offensive of 1968, was winding down, with the 475,200 men deployed in 1969 reducing to 157,800 by 1971, and after the signing of the armistice in January 1973 only 23,500 US troops remained. Britain had steadfastly managed to avoid being involved in Vietnam.
Elsewhere Biafra surrendered in 1970, bringing to an end the bloody Nigerian civil war in Africa, whilst in 1971 civil war in Pakistan ended with East Pakistan gaining independence as Bangladesh. In 1973 the Arab oil-producing countries caused a world economic crisis by restricting supplies to demonstrate their collective power.
This was followed by a coalition of Arab states, led by Egypt in the south and Syria in the north, launching an all-out attack on Israel on 6 October 1973 (the day of the holiest Jewish festival), starting the ‘Yom Kippur’ War. The war pitted Soviet-backed Egyptian and Syrian forces against Israel supported by the West, thus threatening rapid escalation. Within three days the USSR was resupplying Egyptian forces with a whole range of weapons and two days later the USA was supplying arms to Israel. On 14 October the biggest tank battle since World War II was fought out in the Sinai Desert, with the Israelis gaining a great victory, wiping out the Egyptian 2nd Army and advancing across the Suez Canal. The UN Security Council brought about a cease-fire on 22 October. This led indirectly to NATO and Warsaw Pact countries embarking on discussions to consider ‘mutual force reductions’.
In the UK a new Conservative government under Edward Heath had come to power on 19 June 1970 in a surprising election with the lowest turn-out of voters since the war. The new government was confronted with declining production and industrial output combined with rapidly rising inflation and an ever-worsening balance of trade deficit. Industrial relations broke down, and Heath had to deal with major problems over Northern Ireland, rising unemployment, immigration, Rhodesia and negotiations for Britain to join the EEC (European Economic Community). In January 1973 the UK did finally achieve full membership of the EEC, along with Denmark and Ireland, thus completing yet another important step in Britain’s painful journey from global empire to a medium-power European country.
Negotiations with the miners and the unions broke down and led to the declaration of a state of emergency and introduction of the three-day working week on 2 January 1974. The state of emergency ended with a General Election in March 1974 and the return to power of a Labour government under Harold Wilson, but it was a minority government in an extremely difficult position, facing an economic crisis.
Defence Policy In 1970 the new Conservative government reviewed the previous Labour Party defence policy of reducing Britain’s armed forces, and in October 1970 published a supplementary statement on defence policy (Cmnd. 4521), prepared by the new Defence Secretary, Lord Carrington. The policy stated: ‘The Government is determined to restore Britain’s security to the high place it must take among national priorities and to make good as far as possible the damage of successive defence reviews.’ Its first objective was ‘to enable Britain to resume, within her resources, a proper share of responsibility for the preservation of peace and stability in the world’.1
The Navy had high hopes that the unfortunate Labour decisions to phase out aircraft carriers and withdraw from east of Suez within three years would be reversed, but sadly that did not happen, though the government did agree to maintain a military presence east of Suez. The 1972 defence estimates reinforced the UK’s commitment to NATO and to Europe, but the government also considered Britain’s interests in the Middle East and Far East. To replace the Far East Fleet, which was disbanded in October 1971, and the Anglo-Malaysian Defence Agreement, a five-power Commonwealth defence agreement was set up with Australia, New Zealand, Singapore, Malaysia and the UK known as the Five-Power Defence Arrangement (FPDA). A squadron of ships was formed under the FPDA in the Far East, referred to as the ANZUK Squadron, and the UK agreed to contribute destroyers and frigates. The first ANZUK Squadron consisted of the frigates Gurkha and Jaguar with HMAS Swan and HMNZS Otago.
The group deployment concept
(JAR)
The Group Deployment Concept Financial and political circumstances were putting immense pressures on the Royal Navy to abandon its key responsibilities in critical parts of the world east of Suez, particularly the hot spots of the Middle East and Far East. In a remarkably short-sighted way the government was forcing the Navy to limit itself to concentrating solely on its prime anti-submarine warfare commitment to NATO in the eastern Atlantic. The Naval Staff, however, were fully aware of just what an important instrument of national policy the Navy could provide in the Middle and Far East, and were reluctant to abrogate these important responsibilities. Naval forces could easily be deployed abroad in areas where a squadron of aircraft or a battalion of soldiers could not.
Accordingly the Naval Staff evolved the important strategic concept of out-of-area group deployments. This entailed assembling a powerful naval task force, or ‘group’, and deploying it out of the NATO area to carry out a series of high-level visits in politically sensitive and important areas. It would help enable the Royal Navy to protect Britain’s interests worldwide. The group would conduct exercises, both together and with other allied navies, and would gain valuable experience of operating on its own, without support, in different parts of the world.
More importantly this policy would enable Britain to exercise considerable power, reach and influence as well as providing an excellent platform on which to demonstrate modern technology and generate sales of defence equipment. It was probably the prospect of lucrative export orders that persuaded the government to approve the policy, albeit reluctantly.
The MoD press release for the Second Group Deployment stated: ‘The Royal Navy is now meeting its commitments east of the Cape of Good Hope, in South Africa, in a different way. Gone is the traditional method of operating single ships over a wide area, and in its place is the Task Force idea. This system provides a much more economical and flexible method of operating in distant waters … greater efficiency and a much higher level of training.’2
It was a brilliant concept, masterminded by Admiral Lewin as VCNS (Vice Chief of the Naval Staff) and was to set the basic pattern of naval deployments for at least several decades. The first group was planned to sail from the UK in May 1973.
The CVS Concept The other major problem faced by the Royal Navy was the phasing-out of the carriers, and the Naval Staff had been hard at work to find a solution. The ingenious compromise that emerged was the concept of the ‘through deck’ cruiser operating VSTOL (vertical short take off and landing) jet aircraft.
Experiments with VSTOL aircraft had been taking place for nearly a decade, with the first vertical landings and takeoffs being conducted on board the aircraft carrier Ark Royal in the Channel by a P.1127 VTOL (vertical take off and landing) jet aircraft in February 1963. It had been intended that the new carrier CVA-01 would be able to operate VTOL aircraft, but when the new carrier project was cancelled it was inevitable that means of getting VTOL aircraft to sea would be thoroughly explored. The result was the Invincible class CVS, the first of which, the Invincible, would be at sea in time to take part in the Falklands Campaign.
THE FLEET
In 1970 the Fleet still retained two fixed-wing aircraft carriers, Ark Royal and Eagle. Ark Royal had just been recommissioned on 25 February after being refitted with a new strengthened flight deck, catapults and arrester gear to operate her air group of heavy Phantom strike-fighter aircraft.
The light fleet carrier Centaur was being used as a depot ship but was disposed of in 1971, and Victorious had been scrapped in 1968, following a fire in refit. The light fleet carrier Hermes was taken in hand in Devonport on 1 March 1971 for conversion to a commando ship. In 1973 the first of the new‘through deck’ cruisers, the future ASW (anti-submarine warfare) command carriers, Invincible, was laid down.
Amphibious Element The amphibious component included the commando ships Albion and Bulwark, plus Hermes, under conversion, as well as the new assault ships, Fearless and Intrepid. In addition there were six landing ships (logistic) operated by the RFA (Royal Fleet Auxiliary).
Helicopter Cruisers The cruisers Blake and Tiger had been converted to helicopter cruisers with the third, Lion, being held for spares before being scrapped in 1975.
The Escort Fleet The escort fleet included nine missile destroyers with a new class, the Type 42 Sheffield class, under construction (Sheffield was launched in June 1971). The twenty-six ships of the Leander class provided the backbone of the frigate squadrons, which totalled sixty-four ships.
The Submarine Fleet The submarine squadrons were made up of the four SSBNs (the Polaris strategic deterrent ballistic missile nuclear submarines) and seven SSNs (nuclear hunter – killer fleet submarines), with two more, Sovereign and Superb, having been launched. The Navy also had twenty-three conventional SSKs (diesel-electric submarines).
The Minesweeping Ships The minesweeping squadrons included thirty-nine coastal sweepers and twenty-four inshore minesweepers.
The aircraft carrier Ark Royal with her Phantom strike-fighter aircraft embarked
(NN)
The new Type 42 destroyer Newcastle
(RNM)
Patrol Vessels A range of patrol vessels was employed on various tasks from coastal protection to fleet training. A squadron of fast patrol boats (FPBs) was maintained at Portland for training ships in defensive tactics against FPB attack.
Fleet Air Arm The front-line aircraft operated by the Fleet Air Arm included twenty-four F-4K Phantom IIs and twenty-four Buccaneer S.2s as well as some Sea Vixen interceptors, Scimitar tankers and AEW (airborne early warning) Gannets. The helicopters included sixty Sea King ASW helicopters, 150 Wessex helicopters and ninety Wasp general-purpose helicopters.
The Ton class minesweeper Wolverton
(TT)
The Royal Marines The corps of the Royal Marines consisted of 3 Commando Brigade with 40,41,42 and 45 Commandos, supported by artillery, engineering and logistic units.
Support The Fleet was supported by the tankers and supply ships of the Royal Fleet Auxiliary, as well as various other repair, maintenance, survey and support ships.
Fleet Command The Commander in Chief Western Fleet in 1970 was Admiral Sir William O’Brien; Admiral Sir Edward Ashmore relieved him in September the following year. Admiral Sir Terence Lewin was subsequently appointed Commander in Chief in December 1973.
With the demise of the Far East Fleet at the end of October 1971, following the government policy of withdrawal from east of Suez, the Commander of the Western Fleet took overall command, becoming the ‘Commander in Chief Fleet. On 1 November 1971 Admiral Ashmore was appointed as the first Commander in Chief Fleet (CINCFLEET), commanding the entire fleet from his headquarters at Northwood, Middlesex.
Below the Commander in Chief the Fleet was divided into three flotillas of surface ships (the 1st Flotilla at Portsmouth and the 2nd Flotilla at Devonport, with the 3rd Flotilla comprising the aircraft carriers and amphibious ships). There were also two separate commands for submarines and sea training.
NATO Commands: The Commander in Chief Fleet was also the NATO Commander in Chief Channel (CINCHAN) and Eastern Atlantic Area (CINCEASTLANT). As CINCHAN he was one of the three Major NATO Commanders (MNCs), the others being SACEUR (Supreme Allied Commander Europe) and SACLANT (Supreme Allied Commander Atlantic); both the latter posts were held by senior US four-star officers.
Hermes
Centaur Class Aircraft Carrier
Hermes was the last conventional fixed-wing aircraft carrier built for the Royal Navy and served until she was sold to the Indian Navy after the Falklands Campaign. She served initially as a light fixed-wing aircraft carrier and was then converted to a commando carrier in 1971–3. She was subsequently converted to an ASW carrier in 1976 and then later adapted to operate Sea Harriers.
Launched: |
16 February 1953 |
Commissioned: |
25 November 1959 |
Displacement: |
23,000 tonnes |
Length: |
236.14m |
Propulsion: |
4 Admiralty 3-drum boilers, |
Armament: |
5 twin Bofors 40mm; |
Carrier air group up to 1970: |
12 Sea Vixen FAW2s, Buccaneer S2s, |
Carrier air group from 1980: |
Up to 28 Sea Harriers |
Complement: |
2,100 |
No. in class: |
4: Centaur, Albion, Bulwark and Hermes |
FIRST SEA LORDS
Admiral Sir Peter Hill-Norton Admiral Hill-Norton was appointed First Sea Lord in succession to Admiral Le Fanu, who was suffering from leukaemia, in July 1970. It had become, in rotation, the turn of the Navy to take the position of Chief of the Defence Staff (CDS), and the plan had been for Admiral Le Fanu to take up that appointment. Instead Admiral Hill-Norton became CDS in April 1971 having spent only nine months as First Sea Lord. He served a full three years as CDS before being appointed chairman of the Military Committee of NATO in April 1974. He then served three years with NATO before finally retiring as Baron Hill-Norton of South Nutfield in 1977. He had a reputation throughout the Navy of not being the most approachable of admirals but he certainly appears to have been in the right place at the right time.
The Portland Fast Patrol Boat Squadron
(NJBM)
Admiral Sir Michael Pollock Admiral Pollock, Controller of the Navy in 1971, relieved Admiral Hill-Norton in March and served in the appointment for three years. Michael Pollock, born in October 1916, was agunnery specialist who had been the gunnery officer of the heavy cruiser Norfolk at the Battle of North Cape and the sinking of the German battlecruiser Scharnhorst. He was awarded the DSC for his part in the battle.
In the 1950s he commanded the cruiser Newcastle and saw action in the Malayan Emergency, where his ship provided gunfire support. He then commanded in turn Vigo, Blake and Ark Royal before being appointed Assistant Chief of the Naval Staff as a rear admiral in July 1964.
He was appointed Flag Officer Submarines in December 1967 after serving as Flag Officer Second in Command Western Fleet. At the beginning of 1970 he was appointed Controller of the Navy and promoted to Admiral, but after barely a year in post he moved to relieve Admiral Hill-Norton as First Sea Lord in March 1971. He served three years before being relieved by Admiral Ashmore.
OPERATIONS AND DEPLOYMENTS, 1970–1974
In the early seventies the Royal Navy was heavily committed, maintaining defensive and deterrent patrols in key areas of the world as well as conducting major operations and deployments.
Strategic Nuclear Deterrent First and foremost the Royal Navy operated Britain’s strategic deterrent force, which consisted of the four 7,000-ton Polaris ballistic missile submarines of the Resolution class, Resolution, Renown, Repulse and Revenge. Each submarine carried sixteen Polaris missiles, with a range of 2,500 nautical miles. The SSBNs operated from their base in Faslane, on the west coast of Scotland, and deployed out on patrol into the oceans of the world to remain undetected, for months on end, within missile range of predetermined strategic targets. The submarines were assigned to NATO and controlled by CTF (Commander Task Force) 345 deep in underground bunkers below the headquarters of the Commander in Chief at Northwood outside London.
Submarine Operations in the Cold War: Operation Holystone Throughout much of the Cold War the submarine squadrons conducted many covert, dangerous and top-secret operations in the north-east Atlantic and Barents Sea as well as some missions in the Baltic and also the Mediterranean on the southern flank of NATO. Operations Holystone and Barnacle were joint US-UK intelligence-gathering missions. The Royal Navy, for its part, deployed covert missions to the Barents Sea in both the spring and the autumn each year. The British submarines on theses missions were controlled by CTF 311 operating close to CTF 345 (responsible for SSBN deployments) at the Commander in Chief’s headquarters at Northwood. For reasons of national security, nearly all of these operations are very firmly subject to the Official Secrets Act and must remain so.
STANAVFORCHAN
(RNM)
Resolution
Resolution Class SSBN
The Resolution class SSBNs with their Polaris missiles took over Britain’s strategic nuclear deterrent from the RAF in 1969 and maintained ceaseless deterrent patrols undetected in the world’s oceans until they were replaced by the Trident submarines in the mid-1990s.
Launched: |
15 September 1966 |
Commissioned: |
10 February 1967 |
Displacement: |
8,400 tonnes |
Length: |
129.5m |
Propulsion: |
1 Vickers/Rolls-Royce PWR.1 pressurised-water nuclear reactor, single shaft |
Armament: |
16 Polaris A3 missiles, |
Complement: |
143 (two crews) |
No. in class: |
4: Renown, Revenge, Repulse and Resolution |
Beira Patrol In the Indian Ocean the ongoing Beira Patrol, implementing the UN embargo on oil for Rhodesia, was carried out constantly by two frigates, supported by an RFA tanker on station, until March 1971, when it was reduced to one frigate or destroyer. By March forty-seven interceptions had been carried out since the patrol started in 1966.
Gibraltar One frigate remained on station inside the Straits of Gibraltar to deter any moves by Spanish authorities against the naval base and the local community.
Northern Ireland Off the coast of Northern Ireland regular surveillance and anti-smuggling patrols were maintained by MCMVs (mine counter-measures vessels) whilst Royal Marines of 42 and 45 Commandos carried out internal security duties.
Antarctica Endurance with Naval Parties 8901 and 8902 protected British interests in the Falkland Islands and South Georgia.
Persian Gulf In the Persian Gulf patrols were maintained by frigates and by the seven Ton class minesweepers of the 9th MCM (Mine Counter-Measures) Squadron. Duties involved stopping and searching dhows and vessels to deter arms smuggling, slavery, piracy and infiltration by subversive elements. In 1971 it was decided to withdraw the 9th MCM Squadron from the Persian Gulf, and in September ships of the squadron began to return to the UK.
Hong Kong In Hong Kong the five MCMVs of the 6th MCM Squadron, which had been formed in September 1969, maintained guardship duties. They were reinforced by frigates and destroyers deployed from Singapore from time to time. The ships were replaced in October 1971 by five converted Ton class minesweepers, Wolverton, Beachampton, Wasperton, Yarnton and Monkton, specially adapted for patrol duties in Hong Kong.
At the beginning of September 1970 the Hong Kong garrison was reinforced by 40 Commando for a period of two weeks until political tension eased. On 24 April 1973 the Cathedral class air direction frigate Chichester was deployed to Hong Kong as the permanent guardship, supporting the patrol craft of the Hong Kong Squadron.
West Indies The frigates Jupiter and Sirius were operating in the Caribbean at the beginning of 1970 and on 21 April they were ordered to Trinidad when riots broke out following an army mutiny. At the same time the ocean liner ss Orsova was chartered by the MoD to evacuate refugees from the area. Jupiter stood by, liaising with the US COMPHIBRON 12 (Commander Amphibious Squadron 12) whilst Sirius was diverted to help quell an uprising in the Cayman Islands. By the end of the month order had been restored and the frigates stood down, although they were required in the following month to rescue kidnapped fishermen from Cuba (the fishermen had been kidnapped by Communist activists).
The frigate Chichester converted as the Hong Kong Guardship
(NN)
Kotlin Class Soviet destroyer shadowing a carrier
(NN)
Whilst the rest of the year remained calm, the following year the frigate Bacchante was on station and was required to intervene in brief cases of public disorder in Antigua in February and in Bermuda in March. In January of that year Royal Marines from 41 Commando had to be deployed to the Bahamas on exercise Fettle for three weeks to counter Cuban terrorists on the islands of William and Billy. Later in the year Glamorgan and Phoebe provided conference facilities in Bermuda for talks between the Prime Minister and the President of the USA. In 1972 Royal Marines from 40 Commando had to be sent to the Bahamas to combat terrorist attacks.
NATO Assignments The Royal Navy continued to assign ships to the standing NATO naval squadrons. A frigate or destroyer was permanently assigned to the Standing Naval Force Atlantic (SNFL), and also, as required, to the new NAVOCFORMED (Naval on Call Force Mediterranean). In addition, on 11 May 1973 a new standing naval force was established in the Channel as STANAVFORCHAN, which was formed from MCMVs under the command of CINCHAN (the UK major NATO commander at Northwood). Initially the squadron consisted of three MCMVs, from the UK, the Netherlands and Belgium.
The Dangerous Ark Royal Incident, 9 November 1970 A dangerous Cold War incident occurred at sea in the Mediterranean on 9 November 1970. The aircraft carrier Ark Royal was taking part in the major two-week exercise Lime Jug 70.
Whilst she was conducting flying operations, as part of the exercise, she was being closely shadowed by a Soviet Kotlin class SAM (surface-to-air missile) destroyer, the Bravyy. At that stage of the Cold War it was normal for Soviet warships and Elint intelligence ships to monitor NATO naval activity at dangerously close ranges.
At one stage in the early evening, during flying operations, the Soviet destroyer suddenly closed in at speed and attempted to cut straight across the bows of Ark Royal. The carrier sent emergency warning signals and went full astern in a desperate attempt to avoid the Russian warship. The two ships collided and the bows of Ark Royal struck the Russian destroyer astern, rolling it over and wrecking the whole of the after section of the ship.
The destroyer managed to right itself, but seven Russian seamen were washed overboard. The frigate Yarmouth conducted a search for the missing Russian sailors and four were saved. It was a serious incident but fortunately not as fatal as the loss of the Voyager in a similar accident some six years earlier.
The dangerous incident led to a high-level meeting with Admiral Gorshkov in Moscow to consider means of reducing such risks. At first Gorshkov was silent, listening to the complaints about dangerous manoeuvres performed by Soviet forces. He is then reputed to have produced a photograph of a Royal Navy Buccaneer jet aircraft passing under the anchor cable of a Soviet Don class submarine tender, anchored in the Bay of Sirte. It was then agreed that in future, signals would be exchanged before close-quarters manoeuvres were attempted.3
Head-on view of the bows of Ark Royal at speed
(NN)
The Nuclear Submarine Dreadnought at the North Pole, 3 March 1971 The Royal Navy achieved a notable success on 3 March 1971 when the nuclear submarine Dreadnought became the first RN submarine to surface at the North Pole. On reaching the Pole she had to search for nine hours using sonar, periscope, upward-looking echo sounder and floodlights before she could break through the ice, which was fifteen feet thick when she emerged. Spending seven days under the ice and surfacing six times, she sustained only minor damage during her 1,500-mile voyage under the Arctic.4
The Persian Gulf: Operation Bracken and Task Force 318, November 1971 On 1 November 1971 Task Force 318 was established for Operation Bracken to protect British interests and ensure a safe evacuation of British bases in the Persian Gulf. The powerful Task Force consisted of the aircraft carrier Eagle and the commando carrier Albion with 40 Royal Marine Commando embarked, escorted by the guided missile destroyer Glamorgan and the frigates Scylla, Arethusa, Achilles, Argonaut and Gurkha with RFA support ships and tankers.
Most of the ships, including Eagle, had been in the Far East. The air squadrons from Eagle had performed a fly-past off Singapore to commemorate the withdrawal of British forces from the naval base and the carrier had then participated in exercise Curtain Call in the Malacca Strait. On completion of that exercise the ships of the Task Force assembled to form Task Force 318 and to carry out training off Penang. The Task Force then steamed west across the Indian Ocean, via Gan, through the Straits of Hormuz and into the Gulf. Glamorgan was detached from Task Force 318 on 25 November and departed for Bermuda to provide facilities for a high-level conference between Britain and the USA. The remaining ships of the Task Force supported Operation Bracken, and the aircraft from Eagle provided air cover. The operation continued throughout December.
A powerful carrier task force
(NN)
Submarine Concept of Operations
In the early 1970s, when the Soviets were launching one new nuclear submarine every three weeks, Flag Officer Submarines (FOSM) began to develop a concept of operations that was to revolutionise the way in which our own submarines were programmed and operated.
In essence, instead of almost exclusively playing the “loyal opposition” in national and NATO exercises, the aim was to give all our nuclear and diesel attack submarines frequent time in contact with their potential adversaries in order to enhance our own capabilities and to provide that essential but undefined element of threat that is inherent in submarine operations – so that an enemy, when considering options for action in any given scenario, would always have to consider the possibility that a Royal Navy submarine might be in close contact, possibly with a firing solution on its attack computer.
To establish and support these operations, a centre was set up in the ‘bunker’ at the Northwood Fleet Headquarters, where all the essentials for successful control of submarine operations were available – access to real-time all-source intelligence, secure communications between the headquarters and individual boats, water management (rather akin to air traffic control), proximity to political decision making and not least submarine watch keeping expertise on a 24/7 basis. Thus, in 1977, Flag Officer (Submarines) moved most of his staff from what had been its traditional home at Fort Blockhouse at Gosport and set up shop at Northwood.
The starting point of the concept was to define the contributions to be made by our submarines in all the various scenarios ranging from ‘peacetime’ up to all-out nuclear war. From this, it was possible to develop training and equipment procurement priorities and to measure the effectiveness of our submarine force. Recognising that the only RN platforms capable of detecting, classifying and tracking Soviet submarines were our own submarines, and that the major threat to NATO and the UK was that posed by them, our submarines were routinely programmed to intercept and ‘trail’ Soviet submarines, including ballistic missile firers, en route to their Atlantic and Mediterranean patrol areas. Also, to monitor Soviet surface forces on their deployments out of area. And in addition covertly to gather intelligence, a task for which submarines are uniquely suited, close to the Barents Sea bases of the Northern Fleet as well as in the open oceans.
Occasional judicious ‘leaks’ of results of operations against the Soviets resulted in them developing general awareness of the Royal Navy’s superiority, but without ever having details of exact capabilities, or times and locations when they had been under surveillance. Intelligence gathering patrols were conducted in the close approaches to the Soviet Northern Fleet bases in the Barents Sea and provided unique data, often gathered at very close quarters – yet undetected – on the latest Soviet platforms and weaponry, unobtainable from any other collection source. Trails and surveillance of Soviet forces out of area could last for weeks, even months, so that ‘in-contact’ time – one of the prime objectives of the Submarine Concept of Operations – became almost routine for our crews, enhancing their expertise and confidence across the board and making the Royal Navy’s most significant single contribution to the successful outcome of the Cold War.
Captain John Speller OBE, RN
Withdrawal from Malta with Bulwark in Grand Harbour, Malta
(NN)
Third Indo-Pakistan War, 23 November – 17 December 1971 In October 1971 Pakistan and India continued hostilities and engaged in artillery exchanges across the border. On 21 November India launched a major offensive to destroy the Pakistani guns, and two days later the Third Indo-Pakistan War began.
A state of emergency was declared and Britain prepared naval contingency plans at the beginning of December for the evacuation of British nationals from East Pakistan. Albion, escorted by Gurkha and Arethusa, was detached from Task Force 318, and the three formed a powerful naval task group. Albion embarked Sea King helicopters of 826 NAS (Naval Air Squadron) from Eagle, and the squadron was then ordered to head for the Bay of Bengal.
On 3 December the Pakistani Air Force launched air strikes on Indian air bases, copying the Israeli tactics in the Six-Day War, but failed to destroy the Indian Air Force. The next day the Indian Army attacked East Pakistan.
On 11 December Albion, flying large white ensigns, with a big Union Jack painted on the flight deck, and supported by the frigates Arethusa and Gurkha, steamed north into the Bay of Bengal closing into the coast of East Pakistan. Gurkha detached and headed further north into the East Bay of Bengal whilst Albion and Arethusa then sailed south-west, standing off the coast. Then on 16 December East Pakistan surrendered and the new state of Bangladesh was proclaimed.
As the security situation eased the Task Group was withdrawn from the Bay of Bengal and headed back to the Gulf to rejoin Operation Bracken.
Withdrawal from Malta, 21 December 1971 – 28 March 1972 On 24 December 1971 the Prime Minister of Malta, Dom Mintoff, issued an ultimatum for the withdrawal of all British forces from the island. A small naval task force was quickly formed off the coast consisting of the helicopter cruiser Blake and the commando carrier Bulwark with an escort of frigates, including Euryalus, Bacchante and Ashanti. 41 Commando was deployed ashore guarding key points. The Task Force remained off the island during the winter and then withdrew at the end of March. Bulwark, with 41 Commando embarked, had to return to Malta on 6 July to standby for further disturbances, but fortunately the situation eased without the necessity of landing the Royal Marines ashore.
British Honduras, 26 January – 7 February 1972 In January 1972 British Honduras was threatened with invasion by Guatemalan troops massed on her border. At the time the aircraft carrier Ark Royal was out in the Atlantic en route to rendezvous with ships of the US Navy for joint exercises. She was promptly diverted and ordered south-west to the area. The guided missile destroyer London and the frigates Dido and Phoebe were also ordered to the Caribbean at speed.
On 26 January Ark Royal launched a pair of Buccaneer strike aircraft from 809 Naval Air Squadron, at extreme range. The jets closed into the coast and then roared in very low over the Honduran capital in a most powerful display of force before returning 1,250 miles to Ark Royal. It was a very effective demonstration of force projection by the Royal Navy and served to reduce the threat of invasion. Nevertheless Phoebe was ordered to remain on stand by off the coast of British Honduras for a further week and was then withdrawn on 7 February.
The Second Cod War, 1 September 1972 – 8 November 1973
On 1 September 1972 the Icelandic government started to enforce a new fifty-mile fishing limit, extended from the twelve-mile territorial limit. Despite this, British and German trawlers continued to fish in the disputed waters. Icelandic gunboats started to harass trawlers inside the new fifty-mile limit, and on 2 September the gunboat Aegir chased sixteen trawlers out of the disputed waters. On 7 September the Royal Navy instituted a special patrol with a frigate, Aurora, and RFA Blue Rover on the edge of the disputed waters, just outside the fifty-mile limit, in readiness to protect British trawlers.
Warp Cutters This time the Icelandic gunboats started to use special warp cutters designed to sever the trawlers’ warps (trawling lines). These cutters had been developed but not used during the First Cod War. On 12 September the gunboat Aegir cut the warps of the trawlers Lucinda and Wyre Victory. Seven days later Aurora entered the zone, but it was on a rescue mission to assist an Icelandic fishing boat, Jon Eiriksson, which was on fire. Aurora managed to rescue the crew, though the trawler sank whilst under tow. A short while later the gunboat Odinn cut the warps of the trawlers Kennedy and Wyre Captain.
In October the frigates Palliser and Achilles were on patrol on the edge of the area and further incidents took place. In one incident the gunboat Odinn opened fire on the Wyre Vanguard. From the end of October and into November the frigates Phoebe, Berwick, Falmouth and Juno took turns on patrol. Then in December the frigates Jaguar, Apollo and Rhyl were deployed, in turn, to the area. Over the course of the year there were eleven incidents, but none involved Royal Navy warships, which remained outside the disputed waters.
In January 1973 the frigates Lowestoft, Yarmouth and Berwick took turns on patrol. The gunboats cut more warps, and on 18 January eighteen warps were cut. In response to requests from the fishermen for close support a large fast defence tug, the Statesman, was chartered and sent to the area, arriving on station on 22 January. The following day the volcano Eldfell, on the island of Heimaey, erupted and the Icelandic gunboats withdrew to assist in evacuating the island. They were away until 5 March, when they returned to harass trawlers and resume warp cutting (twenty warps were cut in March). The frigates continued to patrol outside the fifty-mile limit, leaving the chartered defence tugs in direct support of the trawlers. At the end of March there were two shooting incidents when the gunboat Aegir opened fire on the trawlers Brucella and St Leger in separate actions.
Trawlers under the protection of Royal Navy frigates in the Second Cod War
(NN)
In April and May the number of shooting incidents increased, with eight in April and four at the beginning of May. By this time many trawlers had had warps cut, and on 17 May British trawlers withdrew from the disputed area. They refused to fish in the area unless they were given direct support in the disputed waters by frigates. Up to 17 May there had been fifty-nine incidents but none involved Royal Navy warships, which showed the remarkable restraint exercised by the British government at that stage.
The Royal Navy Goes In On 19 May the British government gave way to pressure to send warships into the disputed area, deploying the frigates Plymouth, Cleopatra, Lincoln, Jupiter and Scylla at various times in the vicinity. The three defence vessels in the disputed area, Statesman, Irishman and Englishman, came under naval command. The British trawlers returned inside the fifty-mile limit to fish. Action was not long in coming, and on 26 May the gunboat Aegir opened fire on the trawler Everton. After firing blanks the Aegir switched to firing shells into the hull of the trawler. With some of the shots hitting below the waterline, the Everton started to sink. The frigate Jupiter (commanded by Commander Slater) was soon on the scene to render assistance, sending over engineers and salvage equipment including powerful pumps. Fortunately Jupiter was able to save the sinking trawler.
In June and July the frigates Scylla, Jaguar, Ashanti, Leopard, Charybdis, Falmouth, Lincoln, Gurkha, Arethusa, Berwick, Argonaut and Andromeda took turns in the area. The first collision with a frigate occurred on 1 June when the gunboat Aegir collided with Scylla. Incidents with warp cutting and the firing of warning shots continued throughout the summer, with the frigates frequently frustrating the attempts by the gunboats to arrest British trawlers.
On 17 July Aegir collided with Lincoln, and two days later Odinn collided with Arethusa. Then in August the gunboat Albert collided with the defence vessel Lloydsman, and a week later Odinn collided with Andromeda. At the end of the month Aegir collided with Apollo, with one fatality on board the gunboat. In September incidents continued, with warps being cut, and on 10 September Thor collided with Jaguar.
NATO Pressure In September the Secretary-General of NATO, Joseph Lunns, went to Reykjavik to heal a growing rift between NATO and Iceland. Iceland was a vital link in the strategic GRIUK gap (Greenland-Iceland-Faeroes-UK gap), straddling the Soviet Northern Fleet’s route into the North Atlantic. Whilst talks took place in NATO, incidents at sea continued with warp cutting and harassment. On 22 September Aegir collided with Lincoln, and an Icelandic television crew filmed the event. Following the incident the Icelandic government threatened to break off diplomatic relations with Britain if warships and defence vessels were not withdrawn from the fifty-mile limit by 3 October. The UK decided to pull back, and the frigates and defence vessels were withdrawn from the disputed area on that day.
The frigate Jupiter (Commander Slater) stands by a trawler
(JCKS)
The frigate Falmouth (Commander Giles) refuelling
(NN)
Defence vessels on patrol in the disputed area
(NN)
Frigates and the defence vessels continued to patrol outside the fifty-mile limit until finally on 13 November an agreement was signed between Britain and Iceland. The agreement limited British fishing by small trawlers to an annual quota of 130,000 tons whilst large trawlers would remain outside the fifty-mile limit for a period of two years.5
Submarine ‘Intruder’ Incident in the Clyde Area, December 1972 At the end of December 1972 a Soviet submarine was believed to be in the sensitive Clyde area. Indications had been picked up by SOSUS6 intercepts, and the nuclear submarine Conqueror was sailed to search for the intruder. Conqueror hunted in the area, listening with her sonar in the passive mode, and picked up the Soviet submarine, which she then identified as a Victor class nuclear fleet submarine. Conqueror was able to track the Soviet submarine until finally it withdrew from the area. It was the first known penetration of the Clyde area by a Soviet submarine, and following the incident procedures were developed to deal with any future intruders.7
Sea Day ‘Sally Forth 73’, 24 July 1973 At the beginning of July 1973 ships gathered off the coast of Scotland for the annual two week Joint Maritime Course exercise (JMC 168). On its completion the ships, including Ark Royal, Devonshire, Fife, Kent, Bristol and a host of destroyers, frigates and MCMVs, gathered at Rosyth and off the Forth estuary for a ‘sea day, Operation Sally Forth 73, on 24 July. The Secretary General of NATO, Dr Lunns, and Lord Carrington witnessed the event. They also watched a Harrier VTOL demonstration. Several Soviet warships and intelligence gatherers shadowed the exercises and watched the sea day manoeuvres at very close quarters.
First Group Deployment (TG 317.1), 8 June – 21 December 1973
Early in May 1973 ships for Task Group 317.1 gathered in Portsmouth to prepare for an out-of-area deployment to the Far East. This was to be the first of the new concept of out-of-area group deployments by the Royal Navy. The Task Group was under the command of Rear Admiral Dick Clayton, FOF2 (Flag Officer 2nd Flotilla), flying his flag in the helicopter cruiser Tiger, with the Sea King helicopters of 826 NAS embarked. The escorts included the Leander class frigates Hermione and Dido and the Type 12 frigate Rhyl. The fleet tanker RFA Tidespring and the replenishment ship RFA Regent supported the group. The nuclear submarine Dreadnought also accompanied the group for part of the deployment.
The Task Group Sails Task Group 317.1 sailed from Portsmouth on 8 June 1973 and formed up in the Channel before proceeding west for Portland. A Dutch frigate also accompanied the group as it continued west out into the Atlantic, altering course south to head for Gibraltar. The Task Group conducted shake-down exercises in the Bay of Biscay and then called into Gibraltar for a brief three-day visit.
On to Cape Town The group sailed from Gibraltar on 18 June and continued south, bound for Cape Town. During the passage south the opportunity was taken to conduct ASW exercises with Dreadnought and the Sea King helicopters. Arriving in Cape Town on 2 July, the group spent a week preparing for the next leg and a heavy exercise programme. Finally it headed back out to sea on 9 July and shaped course, round the Cape of Good Hope and on into the Indian Ocean.
The Far East Once at sea the group conducted exercise Sanex with units of the South African Navy, mostly a series of ASW exercises over three days, before saying farewell to their South African hosts and steaming north-east across the Indian Ocean. Ten days later the Task Group arrived off the coast of Malaysia and took part in exercise Penangex, a five-day joint maritime exercise in the Andaman Sea.
Singapore On completion of the exercise the group transited through the Malacca Strait and entered Singapore on 27 July for a two-week period of maintenance in the naval base. The opportunity was also taken for rest and recreation before the next exercise schedule.
The Task Group takes part in close-quarters exercises
(JAR)
Exercise Greenlight The Task Group sailed from Singapore on 13 August and rendezvoused with the US Navy for the Anglo-US naval exercise Greenlight. It was a fairly intense exercise programme, with most ships closed up at action stations for long periods of time, as the main force was under almost continuous air, surface and sub-surface threat. After the exercise the squadron proceeded to Olongapo for postexercise briefing and analysis as well as a short break.
Guam The group then sailed on to Manila for a short break in the Philippines before steaming on east to the US naval base at Guam in the Marianas. A serious engine-room breakdown in the flagship meant that Tiger remained in Guam whilst other ships of the group carried out visits to other ports, including Rabaul and Manus Island. Finally, with her defects rectified, Tiger sailed from Guam on 24 September and headed south-west for Singapore. The passage schedule was devoted to a series of exercises, including ASW exercises with Dreadnought, culminating in exercise Grass Snake, a nuclear submarine hunting and tracking exercise.
Tiger leading the group deployment
(JAR)
Singapore The ships of the group arrived in Singapore naval base on 5 October for a two-week maintenance period prior to the home leg of the deployment. Finally on 23 October the Task Force Group sailed out of Singapore naval base for the long return passage back to the UK.
Diego Garcia The group steamed west across the Indian Ocean, stopping briefly at Diego Garcia, a small atoll in the Chagos Islands, on 30 October. Lieutenant Commander Richard Baker RNR, the BBC newscaster, was serving in Tiger for his annual reserve training, and he took the opportunity to fly in a Sea King to the small, uninhabited Danger Island and claim it for the British Crown. The Task Group then steamed west-southwest to Mauritius arriving on 6 November for three days before heading on down to Cape Town.
Cape Town After a week in Cape Town the group sailed on 24 November for exercise Capex, a four-day ASW exercise with the South African Navy. The start of the exercise was delayed as two South African Buccaneer aircraft, due to conduct air strikes on the group, crashed into the sea, and an exhaustive search recovered only one body. The exercise was resumed and provided useful experience in hunting the small French-built Daphne class submarines of the South African Navy. On completion of the exercise the ships sailed into the naval base at Simonstown on 30 November for the post-exercise ‘wash up’ (debrief).
Homeward Bound After a final weekend in Cape Town the Task Group bade farewell and sailed on 3 December for the three-week homeward passage to the UK. Whilst in South Africa the group had heard dramatic stories about life in the UK with power cuts and petrol rationing, and wondered what they would find on their return. The group sailed steadily north through the warm waters of the South Atlantic and finally, after crossing the Bay of Biscay, arrived in the Channel. On altering course east Tiger disembarked the helicopters of 826 NAS on 20 December to return to their base at RNAS (Royal Naval Air Station) Culdrose in Cornwall. The ships of the Task Group sailed on and entered Portsmouth naval base the next day to complete their seven-month deployment to the Far East. The success of the First Group Deployment validated the concept and encouraged the Naval Staff to plan subsequent deployments.
The Fleet Assembly, 15 February 1974 In the middle of February 1974 ships of the fleet started to arrive in the Caribbean and headed for the British Virgin Islands. FOF1, Vice Admiral Raikes, flew his flag in the helicopter cruiser Blake, and she led other ships of the flotilla in to anchor off Virgin Gorda. The guided missile destroyers Kent and Devonshire followed her in.
The commando carrier Bulwark and the amphibious assault ship Fearless, with an escort of frigates and destroyers, arrived and anchored close by. Within the space of two days there were fourteen ships anchored off Virgin Gorda, including Bacchante, Brighton, Whitby, Nubian and Torquay and RFAS Resource, Tidepool and Orangeleaf. The submarine Narwhal also joined the ships at anchor.
On Friday 15 February the First Sea Lord, Admiral Sir Michael Pollock, arrived and flew his flag in Bulwark. Shortly afterwards the ships weighed anchor and sailed out to sea before forming up into divisions. The fleet, led by Narwhal, then steamed past Bulwark with decks lined to cheer Admiral Pollock, the outgoing First Sea Lord. On completion the ships formed up in their divisions and turned to pass down on either side of Bulwark followed by a fly-past of Sea King, Wessex and Wasp helicopters.
It was an impressive sight, and on completion of the assembly Admiral Pollock sent a personal message to the fleet: ‘Thank you for a most marvellous send off.’
Task Group 317.1: Deployment to the Far East, January–October 1974
Task Group 317.1 On 17 December 1973 the guided missile destroyer Fife in the naval base at Portsmouth, was transferred to the 2nd Flotilla at Devonport. She prepared to deploy to the Far East as the flagship of Rear Admiral Dick Clayton, FOF2. Admiral Clayton was to lead Task Group 317.1 on a nine-month out-of-area deployment to Australia and the Far East. The Task Group consisted of the ships of the Second Frigate Squadron, the Leander class frigates Scylla, Apollo, Ariadne, Danae and Argonaut and the Rothesay class frigate Londonderry. The store support ship RFA Tarbatness accompanied the group.
Outward Leg The ships sailed from the UK early in the New Year and headed south for the warmer weather. After a brief call at Gibraltar the group set course for South Africa and sailed on down to the Cape, conducting exercise training en route. The ships of the Task Group enjoyed a very welcome break in Simonstown and Durban before sailing into the Indian Ocean and setting course north-east. A visit was paid to Mombasa, and several frigates carried out turns on Beira Patrol, whilst other frigates headed for the Gulf and a visit to Bandar Abbas.
ADEX On 20 February Fife accompanied by several frigates arrived in Gan, where Admiral Clayton transferred his flag to the guided missile destroyer Norfolk. The group then sailed for Singapore for a two-day visit before departing on 28 February for Hong Kong. Out at sea the group conducted a series of ‘ADEX’ (air defence exercises) where they were subjected to repeated fast attacks from low-flying Hunter jets flown by the Singapore Air Force.
AMP On arrival in Hong Kong at the beginning of March the group had a three-week AMP (assisted maintenance period) assisted by the base staff HMS Tamar. Fife left Hong Kong on 27 March and sailed for Subic Bay in the Philippines prior to carrying out live Sea Slug missile firings on the US Navy range facilities.
Exercise Spring Board After an Easter break in Singapore the group took part in exercise Spring Board, in which they were subjected to attacks from Exocet missile-armed Malaysian FPBs (fast patrol boats). It provided a useful demonstration of the Exocet weapon system. The missile system was eventually to be fitted to a number of the Leander class frigates including Danae and Argonaut. Having returned to Singapore in April, Admiral Clayton transferred his flag back to Fife.
Australia The Task Group sailed from Singapore on 19 April and headed south-east for a series of visits to Australia and New Zealand and to carry out an ambitious programme of exercises with the Royal Australian Navy and the Royal New Zealand Navy. On 24 June Scylla visited Possession Island and took part in the commemoration ceremonies marking the 200th Anniversary of the original landing by Captain James Cook. Towards the end of June the Task Group steamed back north, splitting up for a round of visits to various countries. Fife returned to Singapore, where Admiral Clayton transferred his flag to the Juno on 2 July, whilst Scylla proceeded to Hong Kong for a brief refit in the dockyard.
Exercises Fife sailed two weeks later bound for Djakarta for a five-day visit before commencing exercises with the Indonesian Navy, again testing defence measures against attacks from missile-armed fast patrol boats. On completion of the exercise Fife, escorted by Argonaut and Onslow, sailed through the Malacca Strait for Penang and entered Penang harbour. On departing from Penang on 6 August Fife and her escorts rendezvoused with the rest of the Task Group to take part in exercise Penangex, a series of air-defence and anti-submarine exercises.
Homeward Leg On completion of the exercises Fife detached from the group and sailed west to Diego Garcia to embark Admiral Clayton on 14 August. The rest of the Task Group also set course west across the Indian Ocean for the return leg of the deployment. On the return passage, visits were paid to Gan, Diego Garcia, Mauritius and the Seychelles before the Task Group called into Cape Town and Durban at the end of August. On departing from South Africa on 12 September the Task Group set course north for the homeward passage and after a brief call into Gibraltar finally arrived back in Plymouth on 4 October.
Operation Rheostat I, 7 April – 31 October 1974 At the beginning of 1974 the Egyptian government requested assistance in clearing the Suez Canal of war debris. Operation Rheostat I was initiated, and on 20 March 1974 an MCM task group of Wilton, Bossington and Maxton, supported by Abdiel, sailed from the UK. The MCM Squadron transited the Mediterranean and arrived in the canal region on 7 April. The MCM group joined with US and French MCMVs in the area, and commenced clearance operations. It was a slow task, but eventually the canal was cleared by the end of October. Bossington had left earlier for Gibraltar, and the rest of the MCM Squadron returned to the UK on 22 November.
Cyprus Emergency, 15 July – 30 September 1974 On 15 July 1974 the Cypriot government of Archbishop Makarios was overthrown by EOKA (Ethniki Organosis Kuprion Agoniston), a radical terrorist group of Greek Cypriots backed by the Athens military junta in mainland Greece. Britain had to rescue Archbishop Makarios. Five days later Turkish forces invaded Cyprus, establishing beachheads in the north to protect the Turkish Cypriots, and as they penetrated further south severe fighting broke out between Greek and Turkish forces. The Turks then occupied Nicosia. Britain convened a conference in Geneva to resolve the crisis but without success, and on 13 August Turkish reinforcements landed and partitioned the island.
Britain assembled a powerful task force in the eastern Mediterranean, with the aircraft carrier Hermes and the guided missile destroyers Devonshire and Hampshire. Hermes embarked 41 Commando from Malta and sailed directly to Cyprus. The Task Force was escorted by the frigates Andromeda, Brighton and Rhyl and supported by RFAS Regent and Olwen with RFAS Gold Rover and Olna standing by. The submarine Onslaught was also deployed to the area. The frigate Ajax was sent out to the eastern Mediterranean to relieve Devonshire and was soon hard at work with Rhyl evacuating 250 British passport holders stranded in the occupied port of Famagusta.
Royal Marines prepare to evacuate personnel from Cyprus
(NN)
Ships and Units Engaged in the Cyprus Evacuation
HM ships Hermes, Devonshire, Hampshire, Andromeda,
Argonaut, Brighton, Rhyl, Ajax, Onslaught
RFAS Regent, and Olwen
40 and 41 Commandos Royal Marines
Arriving off the coast of Cyprus, Hermes landed the Royal Marines of 41 Commando. 40 Commando, which was the ‘Spearhead Battalion, standing by for rapid deployment from the UK, was flown out direct to the Sovereign Base Area of Cyprus to reinforce 41 Commando. Its presence helped contain the violence, preventing the mass migration of Cypriots, fleeing north and south, from turning into a massacre. Over 200,000 families were displaced, most of them Greek. The British forces were also able to rescue and evacuate refugees and British nationals. The Task Force was finally withdrawn from the eastern Mediterranean at the end of September.
Second Group Deployment, 17 September 1974 – 11 June 1975
The ships of the Second Group Deployment, Task Group 317.2 (TG 317.2), assembled in Portsmouth in early September 1974 for a deployment to the Far East via the Cape of Good Hope.8 They were under the command of Rear Admiral Henry Leach, FOF1, flying his flag on board the helicopter cruiser Blake. The group consisted of five frigates, Diomede, Leander, Achilles, Falmouth and Lowestoft. An SSN, Warspite, and Stromness, Olna and Green Rover RFA support ships were attached to the Task Group.
The Task Group Sails After a brief period of weapon trials in the Channel with Blake embarking the Sea King helicopters of 820 NAS, the Task Group sailed from Portsmouth on 17 September 1974. It headed down the Channel and then set course south-west across the Bay of Biscay, conducting shake-down exercises en route.
Cape Town The ships called in at Gibraltar for a brief two-day visit before sailing again on 23 September and heading due south. Whilst on passage south the group conducted a series of ASW exercises with Warspite before arriving off the Cape on 14 October.
The squadron then called into the South African naval base at Simonstown, close to Cape Town, and fired a national salute. In harbour the ships spent a week carrying out maintenance and repairs whilst the ships’ companies took the opportunity to visit South Africa and enjoy the lavish hospitality that was offered.
Media Attention Unfortunately the visit generated a certain amount of unfavourable media attention at a time when relations with South Africa were strained over her support for Rhodesia. The Naval Staff attempted to brief the press on the difference between an ‘operational visit’ (such as the Group Deployment) and a ‘good will’ diplomatic visit, with political overtones, which the Task Group visit was most certainly not. The front-page photographs of ratings on the beaches of South Africa with young bikini-clad girls had also not been well received by families and girlfriends in the UK.
Group deployment exercises in the South Atlantic
(JAR)
Warspite surfaces during an ASW exercise with Task Group 317.2
(JAR)
End of Visits to South Africa When the group sailed on 21 October the government decided that for political reasons there would be no more visits to South Africa by the Royal Navy for the foreseeable future. With the Suez Canal still closed this created a severe strategic handicap for the deployment of naval forces to the Middle East and Far East.
Exercise Midlink After rounding the Cape of Good Hope, the Task Group steamed into the Indian Ocean and set course north-east for a rendezvous with the Indian Navy for the major maritime exercise in the Middle East, exercise Midlink. En route ships reinforced the Beira Patrol and visited Mombasa at the beginning of November, before sailing on towards Karachi.
In the middle of the Indian Ocean the frigate Falmouth caught fire, as a result of an electrical defect, and very quickly the blaze spread, engulfing the whole centre section of the ship in a raging fire. The nearest frigates closed in spraying the ship whilst fire-fighting parties on board fought bravely to bring the fires under control. When the fires were extinguished it became clear that the central section of the ship had been severely damaged, but nevertheless the ship was able to proceed under her own steam and participate in the various exercises. Whilst the frigate continued with the planned programme, arrangements were made for her repair in the Far East.
The frigate Falmouth (Commander Giles)
(JAR)
Ships of the group then rendezvoused off Karachi and took part in exercise Midlink from 19 to 29 November. Midlink was the annual exercise of CENTO (the Central Treaty Organisation, an alliance established in 1955 and comprising the UK, USA, Pakistan, Turkey, Iraq and Iran). It was a large-scale exercise involving fifty ships, and the Commander in Chief Fleet, Admiral Lewin, took the opportunity to visit the Task Group during the exercise.
Base Visits On completion of the exercise the ships visited Karachi for a post-exercise debrief before sailing on east, some to the naval base at Singapore for a week’s maintenance and some to Hong Kong, arriving on 21 December for Christmas and the end of the year. Falmouth was taken in hand in Hong Kong for extensive repairs to her fire damage.
War in Dhofar, 1965–1975
For nearly ten years a little-known war was fought in the Dhofar, a region of Oman, bordering the Yemen. It was between Communist-backed guerrillas and the forces of the Sultan of Oman, the SAF (Sultan’s Armed Forces). It was a war of strategic importance as the coast of Oman bordered the vital oil route from the Gulf. Other dissident groups in neighbouring Arab countries also watched it closely. During the war Royal Marine officers as well as British army officers were regularly loaned or seconded to the Sultan of Oman to command SAF troops. Naval officers were also seconded to command positions in the Sultan of Oman’s Navy (SON). Fast patrol boats of the SON guarded the coast.
It was a hard struggle and it was not until 1970, as the Sultan was losing, that the British government decided to provide arms and equipment, including helicopters and artillery. The fighting was hard but two successful operations, Jaguar and Leopard, were mounted in 1972. These were followed by a hard-fought battle at Marbat on 19 July 1972. A small SAS (Special Air Service) team managed to defend the town and fort at Marbat against hordes of tribesmen, just long enough for relief forces to be flown in by helicopter. It was a heroic defence and proved a turning point in the war. 9
Operation Simba In an operation in June 1973 two RFA vessels, Sir Lancelot and Stromness, provided assistance to the SAF in support of Operation Simba. The SAF had taken a strategic position at Sarfait in Operation Simba but were hard pressed, being surrounded by rebel forces and under heavy fire from repeated rocket and mortar attacks. RFA Stromness provided a helicopter base as relief supplies and ammunition were flown in to Sarfait, enabling the SAF to consolidate their position.
The war dragged on for five years before the SAF finally won. It was a vicious war with numerous skirmishes and hard-fought engagements, but it provided many Royal Marines with invaluable experience that they were able to put to good use in subsequent campaigns. Five Royal Marines were killed during the war.
Northern Ireland
Operation Banner At the beginning of 1970 British forces, with the Royal Navy and Royal Marines in support, continued to be deployed in Northern Ireland under Operation Banner. Anti-smuggling patrols were maintained constantly off the coast of Northern Ireland to intercept arms shipments.
Operation Grenada Seven patrols were conducted during 1970, and the following year it became necessary to establish a permanent patrol under the codename Operation Grenada. The Ton class minesweeper Nurton carried out the first patrol, with the task of intercepting and stopping all smuggling of arms and personnel into or from Northern Ireland.
Operation Interknit At the end of the year it was necessary to establish a permanent patrol in Carlingford Lough, codenamed Operation Interknit, to prevent terrorist activities in the area. The vessels Alert (A510) and Vigilant (.A382) carried out the patrol. In the course of 1973 thirty-five patrols were conducted under Operation Grenada, and in 1974 this total increased to forty-five plus a further two patrols conducted by RFA vessels.
On 1 June 1970 45 Commando, Royal Marines, part of Britain’s Strategic Reserve, was deployed from its base at Stonehouse Barracks, Plymouth, to Belfast for internal security duties; this was to be the first of many tours of duty in the Province.
On 31 August they were relieved by 41 Commando, Royal Marines, but they were to be back again for a month in August 1971. Then again they were back in Belfast on 17 October and stayed this time until 18 February 1972, though during that time 42 Commando reinforced them from 28 October to 18 January.
‘Bloody Sunday’ It was on Sunday 30 January 1972 that a disastrous shooting outbreak at an illegal civil rights demonstration in Londonderry resulted in the deaths of thirteen people and the wounding of a further thirteen. In the confused situation British troops, deployed on riot control duties, believed they had been fired on and returned fire with deadly effect, causing the casualties. The incident became known as ‘Bloody Sunday’ and put back the slender hopes of any easy peaceful solution being found to the troubles in Northern Ireland. The incident became the subject of various protracted enquiries without any clear firm findings being forthcoming. Four months later 45 Commando were back in the Province from 10 June to 28 July. 40 Commando arrived on 14 June and 42 Commando on 27 July.
Operation Motorman, 31 July 1972 On 31 July 1972 a major operation, codenamed Operation Motorman, was launched in a concerted drive to clean up the dangerous ‘no-go’ areas in Londonderry and West Belfast. West Belfast was completely controlled by the Provisional Irish Republican Army and had become known as the ‘Wild West’. Nearly 22,000 British troops, including two armoured battalions, were engaged in the operation, which was a complete success with minimum casualties. Four landing craft manned by Royal Naval personnel and Royal Marines were used to convey British Army units, and bulldozers, up the River Foyle and deep into Londonderry. Rapid action by determined forces defeated the terrorists, and by the end of the day there were no ‘no-go’ areas left anywhere in Northern Ireland. The Royal Marines sustained twenty-one casualties, including two killed.
40, 42 and 45 Commandos continued to deploy to Northern Ireland for internal security duties, gaining valuable anti-terrorist experience. In 1973 40 and 42 Commandos sustained fourteen casualties, including three killed, and in 1974 42 and 45 Commandos took ten casualties, with three being killed.
The ex-submarine depot ship Maidstone was deployed to Belfast as a prison ship and base. Eventually she was withdrawn, and the Royal Naval detachment, under SNONI (Senior Naval Officer Northern Ireland), was based in Moscow Camp, Belfast, with a jetty and workshop.
Humanitarian Operations
Channel Rescue On 8 September 1970 the MV St Brenden caught fire in the Bristol Channel. The destroyer Cavalier was sent to help and on arrival managed to bring the fires under control. The next day the destroyer took the St Brenden under tow and managed to tow her safely to Milford Haven.
St Kitts Ferry Disaster In 1970 there was a disaster in St Kitts when the ferry foundered. The frigate Sirius was very quickly on the scene and managed to rescue a hundred people. For her swift action in saving so many lives Sirius was awarded the Wilkinson Sword of Peace.
Operation Burlap In the wake of violent cyclones in East Pakistan a task group of ships comprising the maintenance and repair ship Triumph, the assault ship Intrepid, the survey ship Hydra and the landing ship (logistic) RFA Sir Galahad, with 3 Commando Brigade, was formed on 19 November 1970. The Task Group provided a great deal of humanitarian assistance and relief work as part of Operation Burlap. After three weeks of extensive emergency relief work the operation was completed on 11 December.
Mount Soufriere In November and December 1971 the frigates Berwick and Phoebe provided emergency relief work in St Vincent following a minor eruption of Mount Soufriere. The relief operation was completed on 8 December.
Rescue Operation off Durban On 21 April 1972 the Liberian tanker ss Silver Castle was on fire off Durban. The frigate Lowestoft was en route from Simonstown and immediately proceeded at full speed to assist the stricken tanker. The frigate fought the blaze and managed to bring the fires under control before towing her to safety.
The Rescue of Crew from the Carnation On passage to Penang, between 22 and 27 July 1973, the nuclear submarine Dreadnought rescued thirty-five crewmen from the stricken merchant vessel Carnation, which had been in a collision with the Anchor Ansen.10
Rescue On 19 September 1972 the frigate Aurora went to the aid of an Icelandic fishing boat, the mv Jon Eiriksson, which was on fire. Aurora managed to rescue the crew of five successfully from the blazing ship.
SHIPS, SUBMARINES, AIRCRAFT AND WEAPONS
Chevaline Project Towards the end of the 1960s Britain was concerned with the threat to the Polaris deterrent posed by advances in ABM (anti-ballistic missile) defence systems. The superpowers were developing systems which could threaten the technical credibility of a limited Polaris missile strike.
Instead of purchasing the new US Poseidon strategic missile system Britain worked on a project, codenamed Antelope, to improve the penetrative capability of the existing Polaris system. Politically it was less sensitive to develop an existing weapons programme rather than seek Parliamentary approval to purchase a whole new expensive weapon system from the USA.
AWRE (the Atomic Weapons Research Establishment) developed the project in great secrecy, and in 1972 the government agreed the ‘Super Antelope’ programme. The Royal Navy would have preferred to move to the next-generation Poseidon system rather than modifying the older Polaris system. The modifications to Polaris would make the missile heavier, thus reducing its range. With a reduced range British SSBNs would have to operate closer to the Soviet coast, making them more vulnerable to Soviet submarines and ASW forces. AWRE estimated that the ‘Super Antelope’ programme would be considerably cheaper than procuring Poseidon from the USA. In 1972 the superpowers agreed to limit ABM systems, thus reducing the threat to Polaris. At the same time President Nixon was pushing ahead with the Trident missile system, the third-generation nuclear deterrent, and it was thought that Britain might be able to skip a generation by keeping an updated Polaris system operational in the meantime. Super Antelope, renamed Chevaline, was then refined and accepted by the government in early 1974.
The government also set up a study to review the options for replacing the Polaris submarine force when it came to the end of its scheduled life in the mid-1990s. This study pleased the RAF with the prospect of possibly wresting back the responsibility for the nation’s strategic deterrent force, but disappointed it by very firmly recommending a submarine-launched ballistic missile system as by far the best means of maintaining the strategic deterrent. When Labour came to power in the same year it initiated a defence review but agreed to stand by the Chevaline decision and maintain the nuclear deterrent.
Swiftsure Class It was found that using nuclear submarines was the best means of hunting and destroying other submarines, particularly SSBNs, and in 1973 the first of the new Swiftsure SSKNs (nuclear hunter-killer submarines) were under construction, with Swiftsure being completed that year and Sovereign the following year. They were an updated and much improved Valiant class. Although at 4,500 tons dived they were very slightly smaller than the Valiant class and with one torpedo tube fewer, they were faster and quieter and could dive to greater depths. They also had a much improved sonar fit.
Towed Array Sonar
The introduction of towed-array (TA) sonar in the mid 1970s revolutionised antisubmarine warfare against the Soviets. First fitted to SSBNs for self-protection it was successively fitted to SSNs and then ASW frigates. The TA not only enhanced detection ranges by several factors of magnitude because of a dramatic reduction in self-noise of the searching platform, its wide aperture allowed exploitation of the lower frequency (narrowband) noises emanating from opposition submarines’ pumps and other rotating machinery. In order to exploit the greater ranges being achieved, there was an explosion of R&D investment in Target Motion Analysis (TMA), beam-forming and signal processing techniques.
Commander Jeff Tall OBE, RN
Director of the Royal Naval Submarine Museum
An ASW Sea King
(DD)
The County Class Anti-Surface Missile System The County class guided missile destroyers did not prove quite as effective as they were designed to be. The four later ships were fitted with the improved Seaslug II missile system but it gave them only a limited anti-surface role and it was decided not to fit the four earlier County class ships with the system. Seaslug was a beam-riding system, with the missile riding up a radar beam locked on to the target. The main problems with Seaslug II as an anti-surface system were due to ground clutter, with wave interference impeding the missile guidance radar at low level.
During the maritime air defence exercise Highwood, in December 1971, three of the County class missile destroyers were ‘sunk’ or severely ‘damaged’ by ships acting as Russian missile destroyers. In 1973 Norfolk was fitted with the much more effective Exocet anti-surface missile system (see below). The system was fitted in place of the second 4.5in gun turret. Glamorgan, Antrim and Fife were to be fitted in turn with the Exocet system.
Firing an Exocet surface-to-surface missile from a frigate
(NP)
Exocet Missile System In 1970 it was planned to procure the French Exocet surface-to-surface missile system to help cover the reduction in the Navy’s surface capability, consequent on the decision to phase out the carriers. The system was ordered in 1972 and was to be fitted in four of the County class guided missile destroyers, as mentioned above, and frigates.
Sea King Helicopter In 1970 the Westland Sea King allweather ASW helicopter entered service with the Royal Navy. It was the British built version of the robust Sikorsky helicopter, which had been in service with the US Navy for nearly ten years, and was powered by two Rolls Royce engines. It was an extremely successful helicopter and would serve the navy for well over three decades.
PERSONNEL MATTERS
End of the ‘Tot’ The traditional daily ‘tot’ of rum, ‘up spirits’, was finally abolished in August 1970. It was considered that with modern complex high-technology equipment and weapon systems to be operated it made no sense to give men strong spirits at midday. In compensation, bars for senior rates were introduced, though these were supervised. A sailors’ fund (the ‘Tot’ Fund) was set up with a grant of £2.7 million to provide amenities, which were not a proper charge to the defence vote and therefore had to be purchased with non-public funds. The abolition of the ‘Tot’ was a sensitive subject and was even debated in Parliament but its demise was inevitable.
Two Dolphins In 1970 approval was granted for qualified officers and men of the Submarine Service to wear the distinctive two dolphins badge on the left breast of their uniforms.
Sub Lieutenant Wales rn joins the Leander class frigate Minerva
(NN)
Constrain The concept of centralising and consolidating training into fewer and more efficient training establishments, known as Project Constrain, was introduced in 1970. Training was rationalised into three main branch groups, Operations, Weapons Engineering, and Marine and Hull Engineering. A fourth group covered the rest, including Supply and Secretariat, Regulating, Divisional and Leadership, and Seamanship. The project achieved efficiencies but resulted in the closing of some of the old long-established schools, including HMS Vernon (the TAS school) and Whale Island (the home of naval gunnery).
Iveston Incident In July 1970 an embarrassing incident occurred on board the minesweeper Iveston in Ullapool, which attracted a lot of unfavourable media attention. Five ratings conducted a ‘sit-down protest’ and had to be arrested. They were eventually dismissed from the Service but the incident acted as a reminder in the fleet of the need to preserve good order and discipline.
Prince Charles In 1971 HRH the Prince of Wales joined the Royal Navy at Britannia Royal Naval College, Dartmouth, as Acting Sub Lieutenant Wales rn. His first appointment was to the Leander class frigate Minerva in the West Indies. Thirty years later he was to become Patron of the White Ensign Association as a vice admiral.
The PWO Concept By the late 1960s it was apparent that operations officers, with their individual specialist area (gunnery, communications, navigation, TAS (torpedo and anti-submarine warfare), etc), were too narrowly specialised for the conduct of modern naval warfare. This was particularly true in a fast-moving multi-threat environment. In 1968 Admiral Ashmore proposed that seamen officers should discontinue their specialist training in favour of a broader warfare specialisation. Against much opposition from traditionalist officers the concept, known as the PWO (Principal Warfare Officer), was introduced in April 1972.
THE WHITE ENSIGN ASSOCIATION
The demand for the services of the White Ensign Association continued to grow in the 1970s. In April 1970 new pay codes for the Navy were announced, and the Commander Far East Fleet, concerned that all his ratings were then paying income tax and should be saving about £10 a month, invited the Association to visit the Far East and tour the ships providing presentations and advice. A programme of fifteen lectures was carried out.
In 1971 the Association was invited to provide regular lectures for the Staff Course and for the Senior Rates Leadership Course. Association presentations were also added to the curriculum of the Royal Naval College at Dartmouth.
In 1972 the World War II veteran cruiser Belfast was gifted to the Imperial War Museum and moved to a berth in the Pool of London adjacent to the Tower of London. The following year it was agreed that the offices of the White Ensign Association would be moved on board from their offices in the City. This was a most appropriate move as Belfast was granted the right to continue to fly the White Ensign. The Royal Marine Band of the Commander in Chief played at a reception onboard, which the Association held in June.
The last Rum Issue on board the assault ship Intrepid in the Far East in 1970
(RNM)
In 1973 Sir John Prideaux succeeded Mr David Robarts as President of the Association and Captain Henry relieved Commander Lamb as the Manager.
The White Ensign
In the early 17th Century the Fleet was divided into three squadrons, Red, Blue and White in that order of seniority, sailing under English ensigns of each colour. By 1653 squadron seniority had become Red, White and Blue, and in 1702 a large red cross was placed on the White Ensign to differentiate it from the plain white French ensign of that time. After British political union in 1707, the Union Flag replaced St George’s Cross in the canton of the three ensigns. Following the union with Ireland in 1801 the red diagonals of St Patrick’s cross were added to the Union Flag and the three ensigns took their modern form.
At the Battle of Trafalgar in 1805 Nelson, Vice Admiral of the White Squadron, ordered all his fleet to wear the White Ensign, including ships from other squadrons. In 1864 the long outdated squadron system was abandoned and the entire Royal Navy adopted the White Ensign. The Merchant Navy was given the Red Ensign and the Blue Ensign was reserved for civilian manned government ships. In the late 1960s the Royal Australian Navy, Royal New Zealand Navy and Fijian Naval Forces each adopted their own version of the RN’s White Ensign. In the 21 st century the Royal Navy and Royal Marines continue to sail and to serve under the White Ensign.
Captain Malcolm Farrow OBE, RN
President of the Flag Institute