Doctors treating soldiers during World War Two began to notice that their patients had different reactions to the same kinds of wounds: some asked for more pain medication than others. For some their injuries translated into an attitude of ‘Hooray! I survived and I’m going home!’ For others it was: ‘Now I’m a cripple and will never amount to anything.’ Unsurprisingly, it was usually the latter, more depressed, group that needed more pain medication. From these experiences, the doctors began to appreciate that a person’s general mind-set about injury or illness played a crucial role in the amount of pain he or she experienced.1
Since those days, scientists now reckon that a positive mental attitude could be one of the key elements to curbing – even possibly reversing – the pain of arthritis, which is why taking a more holistic, mind–body approach to treatment and healing for all diseases, including arthritis, is so effective.
Many alternative ‘body therapies’ also involve some element of the mind or harnessing the healing powers of the ‘life force’ or chi. Others, such as chiropractic and the Alexander Technique, can improve posture. Some of the major body/mind therapies are reviewed here, as well as some simple ‘self-help’ things you can do, such as low-impact exercise and meditation.
Hypnosis is a well-known and accepted psychological technique that slows down the brain’s cycles, inducing more theta or alpha brain waves in the patient, both of which indicate highly suggestible states of consciousness. While the subject is in this comfortable receptive state, the therapist introduces suggestions to bring about changes in physical, mental and emotional behaviour, as well as subjective experiences of perception and sensation.
Hypnosis appears to help people with chronic pain manage both the intensity of the pain they feel and their emotional response to that pain, and to provide them with a sense of involvement in their own treatment.2
One scientific review of good studies on hypnosis found it to be effective for chronic pain. The combined results of 18 studies indicated that the average person treated with hypnosis obtained greater pain relief than 75 per cent of those given conventional care or no treatment at all.3
In another review, researchers examined the use of hypnosis for chronic headache, lower back pain, temporomandibular joint (TMJ) pain and pain resulting from cancer, as well as acute pain related to fibromyalgia, osteoarthritis and disability. Hypnotherapy consistently provided greater relief than conventional or no treatment, leading them to the conclusion that ‘hypnotic treatment for chronic pain results in significant reductions in perceived pain that maintain for at least several months, and possibly longer’.4
Doctors also report their own experience that hypnosis is highly useful for pain management in both acute and chronic situations because it enables patients to control the intensity of their pain as well as the emotional intensity accompanying symptoms.5
A further bonus of hypnosis is that it’s almost always a benign treatment, with little risk of negative side effects. What ‘side effects’ do occur are overwhelmingly positive, including a greater sense of control over pain, greater overall feelings of well-being, and less tension, stress and anxiety.6
With biofeedback, electrical sensors are attached to the body that measure such things as heart rate, muscle tension, body temperature and brainwave activity. The patterns are displayed on a video monitor to help you receive information (feedback) about your body (bio). Following the visual feedback from the sensors, a patient can quickly learn how to create subtle changes in their body – such as relaxing specific muscles – in order to achieve specific results, such as lowering blood pressure or reducing muscle tension or pain.
A non-invasive technique with no side effects, biofeedback has been successfully used to treat a range of problems, including chronic pain, eating disorders, PTSD (post-traumatic stress disorder), migraines, phobias, sexual disorders, urinary incontinence, addictions and numerous other conditions.
A number of studies have found biofeedback to be more effective than conventional treatments for chronic pain.7
This simple process, which entails gently tapping on particular acupuncture points while repeating certain relevant phrases aloud, addresses underlying emotional issues and unresolved subconscious traumas that can trigger any number of health issues – including arthritis. Favoured by some alternative health practitioners and psychologists, EF T has been used with excellent success to treat patients with severe low back pain and other health and pain-related issues.
A number of primary hands-on manipulation techniques, which focus primarily on physiological structure – adjusting the position and alignment of bones and joints, and manipulating soft tissues, thus aiding the circulatory and lymphatic systems – are used to address arthritis pain. All these methods employ highly individualized approaches that address the unique needs of each patient.
Chiropractic manipulation – specifically, spinal manipulation therapy (SMT) – is highly effective for chronic back-pain patients. Studies show that it has significant benefits compared with sham manipulations and other more conventional treatments that can be ineffective or even harmful, such as bed rest and traction.8 SMT is also used to treat a wide variety of other painful conditions, including fibromyalgia, carpal tunnel syndrome and migraine and in general is found to be more effective than conventional treatments in relieving pain and disability generally.9
However, chiropractic involves more than adjusting the spine, neck and other joints. For people suffering from rheumatoid arthritis there are a number of ways it can minimize damage, slow the pace of the condition and ease pain. Among other techniques in the chiropractic arsenal for arthritis are:
Ultrasound therapy using sound waves to help reduce swelling and decrease pain and stiffness
Trigger-point therapy, which is the application of gentle pressure to a specific muscles where a patient experiences pain (similar to acupressure)
Low-level or ‘cold laser’ therapy, which uses a non-heat-producing laser to reduce inflammation
Therapeutic exercises and stretches – physical activities designed specifically for people with RA to promote strength and endurance; they can be done in the office or at home
Massage therapy, which usually focuses on soft tissues, including muscles, tendons and ligaments, also helps alleviate chronic pain. Although there are dozens of different massage techniques, the most well studied include Swedish massage and deep-tissue massage point therapy. In a comprehensive review by the Cochrane Collaboration, massage was shown to be more effective than numerous other treatment methods, including joint mobilization, physical therapy, acupuncture and relaxation therapy for the treatment of lower back pain. Even better was the longevity of its beneficial effects, which were shown to last at least a year beyond the end of the treatment.10
In another study of patients suffering from chronic pain, massage therapy was at least as effective as standard medical care in the short term. Even more importantly, after three months comparing traditional treatment with massage, only those in the massage group still showed significant improvement.11
Massage is thought to work because it promotes better circulation of blood and lymph flow to affected areas, but it’s also been discovered that massage may raise serotonin levels produced by the brain, thus modulating the body’s pain-control system. Another possibility is that the deep relaxation massage acts to aid restorative sleep, which reduces levels of substance P, a brain chemical associated with pain.12
Wearing copper bracelets for arthritis sounds like ancient folklore, but it appears to have begun only in the 1970s. At the time, doctors tended to dismiss it out of hand, claiming that the benefits were imagined and that any pain relief was due to the natural ebb and flow of the disease.
Then, according to one controlled study whereby 300 people with arthritis were given real copper bracelets, look-alike fake ones or none at all, the idea ‘appeared to have some therapeutic value’.13 The results seemed to fit with an earlier finding, that arthritis patients excrete abnormally high amounts of copper in their urine and may have altered copper metabolism,14 as well as more recent evidence.15
So, does the bracelet work because it’s acting as a source of copper? According to Australian rheumatologist, Dr Ray Walker, author of the 1976 study, the answer is a categorical ‘yes. Copper,’ he claims, ‘when in contact with the skin, interacts with human sweat (sometimes seen as a green deposit under the bracelet) and is thus absorbed through the skin. Think of a bracelet as a “time-release” source of copper.’
The reason the bracelets work is less mysterious than it seems. We know that the worse the RA, the more elevated the blood levels of copper. Copper concentrations in the synovial fluid (found in the joints) in RA sufferers are also three times those of non-sufferers. But the rise in these copper concentrations leads to a drop in levels of copper in the liver and other copper-storing tissues. These localized copper deficiencies lead to an increase of iron in these tissues, which may help to cause RA.
Using copper bracelets restores some of this lost copper. In the study of 300 patients, each bracelet lost copper while being worn. Interestingly, the very low incidence of RA in pre-industrial Europe has been put down to the use of copper cooking utensils and plates.16
Copper is also effective for pain relief. Anthroposophical medicine – a holistic system of medicine developed by 19th-century educator, philosopher and social reformer Rudolf Steiner – had many years of success with a copper ointment used for pain in RA.17 Copper may also have an anti-inflammatory effect related to its ability to form selective antioxidants.18
It also may work through the action of superoxide dismutase, an enzyme that breaks down superoxide radicals through a reaction catalysed in the enzyme by copper and zinc.19
Also known as balneotherapy, spa therapy is another approach with ancient roots. Bathing in mineral waters such as the Dead Sea or in thermal waters in hot springs at temperatures of around 34ºC (93ºF) can significantly relieve arthritis pain from a variety of arthritic conditions.20 Balneotherapy may involve either hot or cold water and water massage from jets and moving water. Medicinal clays applied to the body as a mud bath are also frequently used.
Regular moderate exercise is essential for retarding joint deterioration. Activities that don’t put stress on joints but strengthen surrounding bones, muscles and ligaments are effective for dealing with many types of arthritis and may also be preventative. If you know your ligaments are looser than normal, good choices include cycling, walking and swimming. Just avoid weight-bearing or high-impact exercises.
Moderate exercise can help keep your body healthy into older age. Even elderly patients with existing problems such as heart disease and arthritis see improvements in their condition once they’ve started a healthy exercise regime. In one study, patients over 60 with osteoarthritis of the knee noticed improvements in their condition and mobility after 18 months of aerobic exercise. Overall, older people who regularly exercise have stronger hearts, better circulation, stronger bones, better balance, less pain, better sleep quality, sharper minds and a reduced risk of many cancers.21
Aerobic exercise of all kinds – dance, biking, swimming – is excellent for stress management and, done properly, helps mitigate the effects of all forms of arthritis, including fibromyalgia. Aerobic exercise has been shown to decrease pain levels, lift depression, aid sleep and increase overall energy.
While there seems to be little evidence of a risk of arthritis in male runners, the same doesn’t hold true for women. A study of some 80 former élite British female athletes – mostly runners – found they had a greater risk of osteoarthritis in the hips and knees than did non-athletes, particularly where the knee joins the upper leg bone, or femur.22
The researchers concluded that weight-bearing sports activity in women is associated with a two-to-threefold increased risk of osteoarthritis (especially the presence of osteophytes) in the knees and hips.
Whether or not you’ll suffer permanent knee injury has to do with another important consideration: joint alignment. One of the greatest health risks from sports, which affects both genders and can lead to osteoarthritis, is injury to the ligaments that attach to the knee. Evidence shows that distance runners may risk developing lax knee joints due to loosening of the ligaments that attach to and support the knee. A loose knee is, in essence, a wobbly one that’s more prone to joint displacement.23 The main ligaments involved are the anterior and posterior cruciate ligaments, two finger-sized pieces of tissue that crisscross within the knee joint and support the joint as well as allow it to rotate comfortably.
At present the statistics for female athletes are sobering. Women involved in running and jumping sports are four to eight times more likely to do their knees in than men are. In the USA, women collegiate athletes suffer some 10,000 knee injuries a year. Several theories suggest that anatomy predisposes women to running injuries: the wider pelvis exaggerates the angle of the knee when running and moving, and female hormones – present in knee ligaments – cause them to be naturally more stretchy than those in men. The lesser leg strength of women and slower reaction times can also increase the risk of injury.
With three times the hamstring strength of women, men are built to stride faster. The bony space in the femur through which the anterior cruciate ligament passes is also smaller in women than in men, leading to a smaller range of motion.
Research comparing the laxity of the knee among runners, basketball players and weightlifters shows that power lifters who do frequent squats don’t put as much pressure on their ligaments as basketball players and runners do, suggesting that it’s the constant flexion and extension of the knee – with little chance to relax and recover, especially in distance running – that places greater stress on the joints.24
What does running do to cartilage? Some answers may lie in the research done on beagles trained by a special running programme to run more than normal. After some months, the endurance-type running exercise caused a reduction in cartilage, which the researchers believe indicates either a ‘disorganization or a reorientation of the … collagen network’.25 Although these results may not apply to humans, they do raise obvious concerns. If dogs – which are born to run – can have their cartilage affected by constant running, what does it do to people?
All this evidence raises a couple of fundamentally disturbing questions. Are we, as humans, meant to run for miles on end every day? Are men and women so anatomically different that what’s good for one may not be good for the other, particularly without special training?
As always, a middle course may be the most sensible. For men, osteoarthritis is not as much of a worry, but effects on the ligaments may be a possible concern. Just make sure that you include some of the suggestions in the following pages before bursting into a run. To avoid exhausted muscles, think twice before punishing them regularly beyond the minimum for cardiovascular benefit. Consider doing a milder jog.
For women, long punishing daily jogs may be taking your workout too far for knee-joint health and predispose you to arthritis – unless you’re prepared to engage in special training to strengthen the muscles supporting the knee.
If you like running or jogging, follow the advice below to minimize the risk of developing arthritis:
Build up your hamstrings: As scientists have discovered, without training, women have significantly different strengths between the hamstring (back thigh) and quadriceps (front thigh) muscles. Before you work out, do regular vertical jumps and ankle jumps (quick bouncing jumps using primarily the lower legs and ankles), and also jump from one leg to the other.
Do exercises that develop strong calf, thigh and ankle muscles, and those around the knee: These all offer vital support for the knee.
Stretch to strengthen your muscles: This is essential before you embark on a running programme. It’s vital that you’re strong and supple when you start running regularly. For strength training, focus on the hip abductors (the muscles on your outer hips) and external rotator muscles (the six small muscles attached to the top of the thigh bone that allow the hip to rotate sideways).
Develop agility: Exercises to help develop this include making rapid directional changes, which help to develop quick contractions of certain muscles to increase reflex-response time and reduce ‘surprise movements’ of the joints.
Stay on the flat: Exercise on level surfaces or soft ones like grass.
Replace your running shoes regularly: Change them every three to six months – before they wear out and lose their shock-absorbing capacity.
Pay attention to odd cracking noises in your knees: Most physiotherapists aren’t worried by knees that ‘click’, but if pain, swelling or any other changes develop, these could be the first signs of degenerative joint disease. Get it checked out.
Be versatile: Consider altering your weekly exercise programme so that, besides just running, you introduce other non- or low-impact activities such as swimming, walking or biking.
To keep the muscles supporting your knees strong and minimize your arthritis risk, both men and women should do the following exercises at least three times a week.
If your knees ever feel like they ‘give way’, get yourself tested with an arthometer. This device measures the ‘drawer’ movement – the relative position of the lower leg bone to the thighbone. If it can move too far forward – called the ‘anterior drawer sign’ – you’re likely to have loose anterior cruciate ligaments and be more prone to injury to the ligaments and possibly arthritis.
Test the range of motion of all your major joints to determine how loose your ligaments are: a general laxity of joints especially in women has been linked to a tendency for torn ligaments. Test whether you can:
A ‘yes’ to any of the above could indicate a greater likelihood to suffer ligament-related injuries.26 If so, get advice from a trained physiotherapist about proper exercises to compensate. Wear support wraps and choose wisely the level of aerobic activity you want to engage in. But don’t stop exercising!
Whatever your age, serious injuries to joints – torn ligaments, torn cartilage, or broken bones – can lead to arthritis later in life. For example, people who injure their knees as teenagers and young adults are nearly three times more likely than those without such injuries to have osteoarthritis by the time they reach 65.27
Simply being aware of the possibility of injury may be the best way to avoid it. However, if you do sustain an injury during exercise, consider the following alternative treatments:
Take good fats for inflamed joints: The benefits of essential fatty acids (EFAs), particularly omega-3, in the treatment of sore and inflamed joints have been well recognized for many years. While EFAs can’t rebuild degenerated cartilage, bone or synovial membranes, they can be effective in relieving the pain and reducing inflammation. Many studies have shown benefits in treating arthritic joints with both omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids taken as supplements.28
Take a glucosamine supplement: Joints require glucosamine, which the body makes from glucose and the amino acid glutamine, to work well and prevent injury. However, those who are very physically active may find it hard to make enough to meet their needs. Most of the research into this supplement has been done with osteoarthritis patients. One study found glucosamine sulphate more effective in relieving pain than the NSAID ibuprofen.29
Use the time-honoured RICE method to recover: Rest, Ice, Compression and Elevation.
Sweat is a great joint lubricant, and one of the best ways to work up a sweat sensibly is by taking a brisk walk. If you haven’t exercised a great deal, and depending on the extent of your arthritis, set yourself easy and attainable goals at first. Don’t try a mile your first time out. But do walk at least three times a week and steadily increase the pace and length of your outings over time. Wear sensible walking shoes or trainers, and do a few simple stretching exercises to warm up first.
Something to be aware of is the design of your footwear. ‘Sensible walking shoes’ sounds like a straightforward choice, but not necessarily. In fact, shoes designed to provide additional support are often the very worst things for your knees, and they might even be increasing your chances of developing osteoarthritis. Instead, a new study has discovered that shoes with flexible soles, and even ‘flip-flop’ sandals, are kinder for your joints.
Researchers at Rush University Medical Center in Chicago made this surprising discovery when they tested four different types of shoes on 31 people with osteoarthritis. They found that special clogs, often worn by healthcare professionals who are on their feet all day, which are designed for comfort, increased the pressure on the wearer’s knees compared with flat shoes with flexible soles, and with flip-flops.
The key appears to be the type of sole the shoe has: if it’s flexible, it can reduce the load on the knee joints as effectively as medical braces or shoe inserts. Higher heels than basic flat shoes may also be worse for the knee, even when they’re part of a special walking shoe.30
Cycling – either indoors or out – is another great sweat lubricant. Some arthritis sufferers swear that cycling is the answer. Others find it doesn’t help their arthritis at all, or even worsens it. It all depends on the individual. Remember, go at your own pace, experiment and see what works for you. If you have arthritis of the hip or knee, a recumbent stationary bike (one on which your legs are not straight under you) may be more comfortable, but still allow rotation and movement.
Swimming is the ultimate low-impact exercise. And you don’t even have to know how to swim well to enjoy the benefits. Just kicking your legs and sweeping the water with your arms help to loosen and invigorate muscles and joints. And researchers say that this will put enough force on the bones to strengthen them. A Veterans Administration Medical Centre analysis in Portland, Oregon, compared the bones of men who swam to the bones of men who did no exercise, and found that the swimmers had thicker bones. As with walking, set easy goals at first and build up your routine to include a more vigorous workout.
Not into going to the gym or heading to the bike trail? How about your own back garden? Researchers find that being in nature is highly relaxing and an anti-stress tonic. Hoeing, weeding and digging are all good bone-building activities. And all the bending and lifting help build flexibility and increase muscle tone. Plus, your garden ends up looking great. Just make sure to use cushions if you have knee arthritis and are kneeling for any length of time.
Tai Chi Chuan is a martial art form that was developed around 1,500 years ago. The version we see practised in parks, a gentle exercise regime that people of all ages can practise, is known as Hand Form, a series of slow movements with the hands that can help keep the mind sharp and the limbs and joints free of aches and pains. Its philosophy is rooted in Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM), which works with the body’s chi, or energy system.
According to doctors of TCM, chi imbalance occurs when the body’s energy (chi) is blocked, stagnant, in excess or deficient. Any of these situations can lead to disease, and acupuncture and TCM herbs can help free up blockages and get the chi moving freely again.
Tai chi is a preventative method as its movements keep the chi flowing. It also helps to heal arthritis. And there’s plenty of evidence to suggest it really does work – which means it presents a real problem for Western medicine. Its movements are supposed to rebalance yin (feminine/negative electromagnetic charges) and yang (masculine/positive electromagnetic charges) and adjust the body’s flow of chi, or qi.
Tai chi is recommended by the UK’s National Health Service (NHS), which grudgingly admits it definitely helps arthritis and prevents falls in the elderly. Implausible as it may seem to doctors, there’s a stack of evidence proving Tai chi’s many benefits. One study concluded that it’s a great non-drug way to reduce pain levels, and improve movement and joint stiffness.31
Fibromyalgia sufferers have reported feeling less pain and a better quality of life after they practised Tai chi every day for 12 weeks.
Interestingly, the improvements in symptom severity continued for at least three months after they stopped the exercise.32 Twelve weeks of continued practice seems to be the optimal time for improving arthritis too. One group of 72 women with osteoarthritis said their joint pain and stiffness had improved after three months of daily sessions.33
Another osteoarthritis study found that Tai chi relieved joint pain and stiffness, and also promoted positive behaviours such as a healthier diet and better stress management.34 But perhaps the most impressive effect of Tai chi is its apparent ability to slow bone loss in women with arthritis after the menopause, as documented in a review of six studies.35
Yoga also comes highly recommended by some practitioners as a potent way to relieve arthritis symptoms, with specific postures, or asanas, designed to help arthritis, but if you’re intending to use it for arthritis relief, make sure to find a qualified practitioner to help you achieve your goals.
Mindfulness meditation can reduce chronic inflammation, which plays a key role in a range of health problems, including heart disease, arthritis and asthma. The technique – which focuses attention on the breath, body sensations and thoughts to keep the attention on the present moment – is one of the most effective ways to reduce the inflammation associated with psychological stress. Researchers from the University of Wisconsin-Madison say it may also be an effective alternative to drugs in people who get no help from pharmaceuticals.
Meditation has been used with other stress-reducing alternatives such as nutrition, physical activity and music therapy. In one experiment, a programme combining the latter three approaches showed that all three reduced psychological and physical stress responses to a similar degree to mindfulness, but that only mindfulness meditation also lowered the inflammation associated with stress.36
The following simple lifestyle options will also help to ward off joint problems:
Chlorinated water, which is associated with a higher risk of combined cancers,37 can cause allergic symptoms from skin rashes to intestinal symptoms, arthritis and headaches. Filtered tap water is better than bottled water in plastic bottles, which can leach plastics from their containers. Well water and spring water are ideal as long as they don’t contain a lot of minerals or any bacteria.
Yes, people who don’t take good care of their teeth and gums are 70 per cent more likely to develop heart disease than those who brush their teeth twice a day and make regular visits to the dentist. But those with poor oral health are also more likely to suffer high levels of C-reactive protein, a marker of inflammation linked to conditions like arthritis, say researchers from University College London. Doctors are beginning to understand the importance of tooth and gum health, and how it relates to overall health, and a study of 2010 reinforces the point.38
There also appears to be some association between periodontal disease and other inflammatory conditions such as rheumatoid arthritis. In a Brazilian study of 39 RA patients and 22 healthy controls, scientists concluded that the typical arthritic patient had fewer teeth, and higher levels of dental plaque and gum disease, than found in the general, non-arthritic population.39
Whether it’s chemical food additives or gas heating, chemical sensitivities are also linked to arthritis. Consider moving your gas boiler to a covered shelter outdoors and cooking with electricity. Nitrogen dioxide, spewed out by gas cookers and gas- and oil-burning boilers, stays concentrated in the home, particularly in this age of double glazing, and is implicated in arthritis, asthma and other allergies. One American study concluded that gas cookers generate concentrations of nitrogen dioxide of 200–400ppb (parts per billion), which means the average kitchen with a gas cooker has an atmosphere comparable to levels of pollution usually accompanied by government health warnings.
Strange as it may seem, silicone gel breast implants and other silicone prostheses may cause arthritis-like symptoms, such as swelling of joints, pain, fever and chronic fatigue. The problem appears to be that they promote antibodies to collagen that have been linked to arthritis.40 Some, but not all, women have seen arthritic symptoms disappear after having their breast implants removed.
Loneliness is an entirely subjective experience. Individuals can have a wide circle of friends and still feel lonely, or have just one or two friends and feel part of a community. Marriage is the single most important relationship most of us have, and the sense of closeness we feel with our partner can determine our sense of isolation or connection.
Two studies make the point of how companionship helps guard against arthritis. The first study of 255 people with rheumatoid arthritis found that those who were happily married felt less pain from their condition. Researchers at Johns Hopkins School of Medicine in Baltimore, Maryland, found that those who had a ‘non-distressed’ marriage reported lower pain levels than those who were either unmarried or had a ‘distressed’ marriage.41
Stress and depression have major impacts on rheumatoid arthritis and juvenile idiopathic arthritis, both of which are chronic inflammatory disorders. Scientists at the Regensburg University Clinic in Germany have demonstrated that stress causes a cascade of biological processes that can make the symptoms of rheumatoid arthritis worse.42
This means a smile and a good attitude may well be the easiest protection when it comes to guarding against stress-related inflammation. Sociability, positive emotions and general extroversion have all been associated with greater resistance to inflammatory conditions of many varieties.43
Not an extrovert? Not to worry. It seems the trick is to include many of the signs of extroversion into your life, such as thinking positively, keeping connected, and staying energetic and involved in life. And laughter, it appears, really can be the best medicine.
American political journalist and author Norman Cousins suffered from heart disease and severe arthritis (ankylosing spondylitis). Told that he had little chance of surviving, he developed a get-better programme that focused on megadoses of vitamin C and developing a positive attitude. He credits his cure, against all odds, to watching Marx Brothers films for hours on end. ‘I made the joyous discovery that 10 minutes of genuine belly laughter had an anesthetic effect and would give me at least two hours of pain-free sleep,’ he reported. ‘When the pain-killing effect of the laughter wore off, we would switch on the motion picture projector again, and not infrequently it would lead to another pain-free interval.’
Numerous studies show that optimists live longer and are healthier than their pessimistic counterparts. A 2009 study by researchers from the University of Rochester Medical Center in New York discovered that extroverts, particularly those with high engagement in life, had dramatically lower levels of the inflammatory chemical interleukin-6 (IL-6) in their blood.44 IL-6 is an important indicator of stress, and raised levels have been linked to several inflammatory diseases such as rheumatoid arthritis and coronary heart disease.45 IL-6 is also highly predictive of mortality, with the risk of death reportedly doubling for people over 65 with the highest levels in their blood compared to those people with the lowest levels (less than 1.9pg/ml) in one study of 1,293 healthy adults over 65.46
According to Benjamin Chapman, the lead researcher in the study, ‘Beyond physical activity, some people seem to have this innate energy separate from exercise that makes them intrinsically involved in life.’ Perhaps it’s this élan vital that’s playing a health-protecting role.47