The Aztecs construct their great city, Tenochtitlán, in this 17th century painting. When Cortés arrived in Mexico in 1519, Tenochtitlán was as large as the greatest cities of Europe.
Christopher Columbus may have been the first European explorer to set foot on Native American soil, but he certainly was not the last to do so. Less than 30 years later, a Spanish conqueror, or conquistador, named Hernando Cortés arrived in Mexico. Tales of riches in the New World abounded ever since Columbus had returned to Europe, and Cortés, like so many others, came seeking his fortune.
The Aztec empire was flourishing when Cortés and his army appeared in 1519. The Aztecs were a resourceful people who controlled much of Mexico. Their leader was named Montezuma, and he ruled his kingdom from a city called Tenochtitlán. Located on an island in the middle of a lake, Tenochtitlán was a remarkable city. It had many temples, schools, and houses. The Aztecs planted gardens filled with beautiful flowers and rare birds. Several bridges stretched across the lake and connected Tenochtitlán to the mainland.
Inside his palace, Montezuma worried about the newcomers. Although the white men had not yet arrived in Tenochtitlán, Montezuma was receiving disturbing reports from the east. He was told the Spaniards had mysterious weapons and they rode large, strange animals called horses. (Horses did not exist in the New World until Europeans brought them.) Montezuma realized these strangers were a serious threat to his empire.
NEW ANIMALS FOR THE NEW WORLD
Horses were not the only species that Europeans imported to America. They also brought pigs, sheep, goats, and cattle. Native Americans had never seen any of these animals before, but they soon became an important part of Indian life. Dogs had already existed in the New World, but not cats. Other creatures, such as cockroaches and rats, were unwanted stowaways from the Old World. Europeans also encountered animals they had never seen before. Alligator, raccoon, beaver, and buffalo are all examples of species indigenous to America.
The introduction of new animals, as well as new plants, changed the American landscape forever. Some native species adjusted to the change. Others could not adapt to the competition from new species and eventually became extinct. Certain animals, such as the sea otter, played important roles in European and Native American relations.
From the time he landed on the shores of Mexico, Cortés had been hearing about a beautiful city to the west that was rich with gold. Inspired by these tales, he quickly marched inland with his army. When they came within view of Tenochtitlán, the Spaniards were stunned by its splendor. As they continued to approach, Montezuma came out to greet them. Aztec prophecy foretold the return of the god Quetzalcoatl to Central Mexico. Because Cortés and his men resembled the appearance of the returned gods in the Aztec legend, Montezuma showered the men with gifts.
Cortés was impressed with Tenochtitlán and wrote a letter to the king and queen of Spain: “Your Highnesses… We have discovered a land rich in gold, pearls, and other things…. There are in the city many large and beautiful houses… and many rich citizens…. And also very pleasant gardens…. Along one of the causeways to this great city run two aqueducts made of mortar…. Canoes paddle through all the streets…. The people of this city are dressed with… elegance and courtly bearing…. Considering that these people are barbarous, lacking knowledge of God and communication with other civilized nations, it is remarkable to see all that they have.”
The Aztec ritual of human sacrifice to please their gods shocked Cortés. He considered the Aztecs to be savages, and felt no obligation to treat them with respect.
The Aztecs construct their great city, Tenochtitlán, in this 17th century painting. When Cortés arrived in Mexico in 1519, Tenochtitlán was as large as the greatest cities of Europe.
The Spanish were horrified at many of the religious practices of the Aztecs, especially human sacrifice. In this drawing an Aztec priest is offering the heart of a sacrifice to the sun god, which the Aztecs believed needed to be fed with blood in order to rise each day.
Despite Montezuma’s hospitality, Cortés took him prisoner. Cortés then demanded all of the Aztecs’ gold, and his men set out to plunder the city. For six months, they controlled Tenochtitlán and abused its citizens. Finally, the Aztec warriors rose up and forced the Spaniards to retreat to Montezuma’s palace, where the Aztec ruler was still being held hostage. The warriors attempted to storm the palace, but failed, and Montezuma was killed during the fighting.
Realizing that they were heavily outnumbered, Cortés and his men decided to escape at night while the Aztecs slept. The Spaniards quietly crept through the darkness, out of the city. Just as they approached a bridge leading off the island, an Aztec woman who was drawing water spotted them. She yelled and screamed, waking up the warriors. As they ran, the Spaniards found themselves being struck by spears and arrows. Many fell into the water and, weighed down by stolen gold, quickly drowned. Cortés escaped, but two-thirds of his soldiers did not. The Aztecs had liberated Tenochtitlán. It was, however, only a temporary victory.
Hernando Cortés was not a man to be beaten easily. Determined to conquer the Aztecs, he rebuilt his army and found Indian allies. With over 50,000 men under his command, Cortés returned to the outskirts of Tenochtitlán. The Aztecs were ready for the assault and defended their city ferociously. Unfortunately, they were fighting more than just Cortés and his vast army. The Spaniards’ previous visit to Tenochtitlán had brought an Old World disease—smallpox. This weakened the Aztecs considerably, but they continued to fight.
HOW THE AZTECS RECORDED HISTORY
The Aztecs used colorful pictures to document events in their history. Scribes painted these pictures and kept them in books called codices (one book by itself is called a codex).
Translated into words, here is how one codex described the Spanish assault on Tenochtitlán: “Fighting continued, both sides took captives, on both sides there were deaths. Nevertheless, great became the suffering of the common folk. There was hunger. Many died of famine. There was no more good, pure water to drink…. Many died of it…. The people ate anything—lizards, barn swallows, corn leaves, salt grass…. Never had such suffering been seen…. The enemy pressed about us like a wall… they herded us…. The brave warriors were still hopelessly resisting.”
Aside from historical events, the many codices that survived tell us much about Aztec life. We know many details about Aztec religion, the clothes they wore, how they educated their children, and so on.
Their island surrounded, the Aztecs eventually began to run out of food and water. As Cortés’ men attacked from the outside, disease and starvation attacked the Aztecs from inside. Still, the warriors fought on, using their arrows and spears against the Spaniards’ guns and cannons.
Finally, after four months of combat, the Aztecs could fight no longer. On August 13, 1521, the siege of Tenochtitlán ended. It proved to be one of the longest continuous battles in history. The victorious Cortés ordered that the city be destroyed. Its temples and other buildings were leveled; its beautiful gardens were burned; and stone sculptures of Aztec gods were buried. Today, Mexico City stands on top of the ruins of Tenochtitlán. In fact, the president of Mexico lives in a palace located on the very spot where Montezuma’s palace once stood. §
One of the reasons the Spanish could defeat the much larger Aztec army was the conquistadors’ use of horses. The Aztecs had never seen these great beasts, and at first they were not sure whether horse and rider were two creatures or one. Mounted on horseback, the heavily armed and armored Spaniards were formidable in battle.
The Spanish conquistador Francisco Pizarro seizes the Inca emperor Atahualpa during a battle in the royal palace in Cajamarca, Peru. Like Cortés, Pizarro took a small army into Peru to subdue the powerful Inca empire. The conquests in Central and South America helped make Spain the wealthiest nation in Europe during the 16th and 17th centuries.
