1 Anthea Butler, “The Zimmerman Acquittal: America’s Racist God,” Religion Dispatches Magazine, July 14, 2013. www.religiondispatches.org.
2 In particular, civil rights attorney Lisa Bloom has argued that we can trace George Zimmerman’s violence to the rise of the U.S. as a “suspicion nation.” See Bloom, Suspicion Nation.
3 Ted Nugent, “Nugent: Zimmerman Verdict Vindicates Citizen Patrols, Self-Defense,” Rare Magazine, July 18, 2013. http://rare.us.
4 Nugent, “Nugent.”
5 For different perspectives on this tension, see Shain, The Myth of American Individualism. For a more general view of the myth’s contradictions, also see Dorsey, We Are All Americans.
6 See Engels, Enemyship.
7 National Sheriffs’ Association, Neighborhood Watch Manual: USAonWatch—National Neighborhood Watch Program (Alexandria, VA: National Sheriffs’ Association, 2011), 25.
8 Weber, “Religious Rejections,” 334. Also see Amoore, “Vigilant Visualities,” 223.
9 Campbell, Sahid, and Stang, Law and Order Reconsidered, 424.
10 For an earlier answer to this question, see Redden, Snitch Culture.
11 U.S. Homeland Security, “Walmart Public Service Announcement,” YouTube, October 16, 2011. www.youtube.com.
12 NASCO, “NASCO Endorses ‘See Something, Say Something’ Act to Protect Citizens Who Report Suspicious Activity,” PRNewsWire.com, September 14, 2011. www.prnewswire.com.
13 NASCO, “NASCO Endorses ‘See Something, Say Something’ Act.”
14 Ericson and Haggerty, Policing the Risk Society, 267.
15 In a speech before the Council on Foreign Relations in September 2014, newly tapped DHS Secretary Jeh Johnson emphasized that “‘If You See Something, Say Something’ is more than a slogan.” Jeh Johnson, “Remarks by Secretary of Homeland Security Jen Johnson at the Council on Foreign Relations—as Delivered.” U.S. Department of Homeland Security, September 10, 2014. www.dhs.gov.
16 Magnet and Gates, The New Media of Surveillance.
17 Gates and Magnet, “Communication Research and the Study of Surveillance,” 278.
18 See Greene, “Rhetorical Materialism.”
19 Greene, “Rhetorical Materialism,” 44.
20 Greene, “Rhetorical Materialism,” 51.
21 Greene, “Orator Communist,” 91.
22 Greene and Hicks, “Lost Convictions,” 101.
23 See, e.g., Haggerty and Ericson, “The Surveillant Assemblage”; and Lyon, Surveillance Society, 2.
24 Lyon, The Electronic Eye.
25 See Marnie Ritchie’s take on “feeling for the state,” in Ritchie, “Feeling for the State.”
26 Mattelart, The Globalization of Surveillance, 138.
27 Michael Hayden, “Ex-CIA Chief: What Edward Snowden Did,” CNN.com, July 19, 2013. www.cnn.com.
28 See especially Foucault, Security, Territory, Population.
29 Cruikshank, The Will to Empower, 4.
30 Foucault, Security, Territory, Population.
31 Miller, The Well-Tempered Self, xiii.
32 Bennett, The Birth of the Museum, 95.
33 Foucault, The History of Sexuality, Volume I: An Introduction, 105. Also see O’Malley and Palmer, “Post-Keynesian Policing”; and Garland, “The Limits of the Sovereign State.”
34 Rose, “Government and Control,” 329.
35 See Rose, “Governing ‘Advanced’ Liberal Democracies,” 48, 57. Also see Dean, “Culture Governance and Individualization,” 130.
36 See Johnston, “What Is Vigilantism?”
37 Johnston, “What Is Vigilantism?,” 226.
38 See especially Andrejevic, iSpy. Also refer to Larsen and Piché, “Public Vigilance Campaigns”; and Smith, “Surveillance Workers.”
39 Andrejevic, iSpy, 163. Kristy Hess and Lisa Waller have referred to digitally equipped lateral surveillance as “isurveillance,” which transforms “the ordinary citizen into an embodied surveillance system with the power to alert the world to acts of immoral/illegal behavior.” See Hess and Waller, “The Digital Pillory: Media Shaming of ‘Ordinary’ People for Minor Crimes.”
40 See especially Walsh, “Community, Surveillance, and Border Control”; and Chavez, “Spectacle in the Desert.” Also see Hasian and McHendry, “The Attempted Legitimation of the Vigilante Civil Border Patrols.”
41 Although I engage these programs briefly in chapter 5, much closer attention could be (and has been) paid. See Kackman, Citizen Spy; Helen Laville, Cold War Women: The International Activities of American Women’s Organizations (Manchester, UK: Manchester University Press, 2002), 96–123; and Sirgiovanni, An Undercurrent of Suspicion.
42 See Ross, Manning the Race.
43 See especially Chauncey, Gay New York. Also see Kinsman, “Constructing Gay Men and Lesbians as National Security Risks”; and, more generally, Feinberg, Transgender Warriors.
44 Treichler, How to Have Theory in an Epidemic.
45 Bratich, “Sovereign Networks, Pre-emptive Transgression,” 226.
46 Rose, “Government and Control.”
47 Lyon, Surveillance Studies, 77.
48 See, for example, John Whitehead, “Janet Napolitano’s Orwellian Legacy,” FoxNews.com, July 17, 2013. www.foxnews.com.
1 McLuhan and Fiore, The Medium Is the Massage, 24.
2 David Freed and Carol McGraw, “Police Identify Stalker Suspect: 25-Year-Old L.A. Man Named in Seven-Month Spree of Killings,” Los Angeles Times (August 31, 1985): 1.
3 Hall, Wanted, 6.
4 Scranton Police Department, “Be Part of the Solution: Scranton Police PSA,” YouTube, January 20, 2011. www.youtube.com.
5 As most critical/cultural scholars and social scientists agree, America’s Most Wanted and similar police crowdsourcing programs function simultaneously through the production of suspicion, fear, and insecurity as well as through ideals of community responsibility. For a review, see Arthur J. Lurigio, “Victimology,” in Violent Crime: Clinical and Social Implications, ed. Christopher J. Ferguson (Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE, 2010), 338–39. Also see David Prior, “Civil Renewal and Community Safety: Virtuous Policy Spiral or Dynamic of Exclusion?,” Social Policy and Society 4.4 (2005): 357–67.
6 Marx, “Soft Surveillance,” 43.
7 Brabham, “Crowdsourcing as a Model for Problem Solving.”
8 Howe, Crowdsourcing, 14.
9 See Gabriele Paolacci, Jesse Chandler, and Panagiotis G. Ipeirotis, “Running Experiments on Amazon Mechanical Turk,” Judgment and Decision Making 5.5 (2010): 411–19.
10 Shirky, Here Comes Everybody.
11 Trottier, “Vigilantism and Power Users,” 218.
12 For a different take on crowdsourced surveillance, see Monahan and Mokos, “Crowdsourcing Urban Surveillance.”
13 Agamben, “Sovereign Police”; Foucault, “Omnes et Singulatim.”
14 Zedner, “Policing before and after the Police.”
15 Trojanowicz and Bucqueroux, Community Policing, 43.
16 A long line of English scholars have characterized this shift in policing culture as a defining element of the “Norman Yoke”—that is, the colonizing apparatus by which the Normans exploited the native Anglo-Saxons. While—as Foucault points out in Society Must Be Defended—the “Norman Yoke” legend tends to exaggerate the severity of the Norman Conquest, it is clear that the Normans made a number of essential reforms to Anglo-Saxon civil society. See Chibnall, The Debate on the Norman Conquest, as well as Foucault, Society Must Be Defended, 105–7.
17 Morris, The Frankpledge System, 1–8.
18 Morris, The Frankpledge System, 2.
19 Bonnie S. Fisher and Steven P. Lab, Encyclopedia of Victimology and Crime Prevention, Vol. I (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 2010), 198–99.
20 Roth and Olson, “Hue and Cry,” 63.
21 Pollock and Maitland, The History of English Law, 577.
22 Burn, The Justice of the Peace, 553.
23 Burn, The Justice of the Peace, 554. The horn—as the “hue” in hue and cry—can be traced in the English policing tradition at least as far back the Middle Ages; and we do know, moreover, that the horn, which has long been used to herd flocks, was used by the Romans as a method of patrol and troop coordination. See Baines, Brass Instruments, 37–66. The horn provided important new capacities for managing people’s behavior across space, making a significant impact on the organization of roving police patrols. As we see in Monelle’s account, patterns of repetition, tone, and emphasis allowed patrols in disparate communities to announce a criminal’s presence and direct the dispersal of a number of civilian patrols. At least by 1302, horns were employed to alert neighboring towns of a criminal’s movement during hue and cry campaigns. See DeWindt and DeWindt, Ramsey. During the following century horns were given to England’s night watchman, who would patrol the town on foot. These watchmen, however, were soon moved to bell towers, where they could (either with trumpets or bells) customize their alerts based upon the threat posed to the community. See Thomas Dudley Fosbroke, Encyclopedia of Antiquities: and Elements of Archaeology, Ancient and Medieval, Vol. 1 (London: John Nichols and Son, 1825), 472.
24 Critchley, A History of Police in England, 2–6.
25 Costello, Our Police Protectors, 12.
26 Bruce L. Berg, Policing in Modern Society (Butterworth-Heinemann: Woburn, MA, 1999), 30–32.
27 See, for example, John Fauchereaud Grimké, “Hue and Cry,” in The South-Carolina Justice of the Peace; Containing All the Duties, Powers, and Authorities of That Office, as Regulated by the Laws Now of Force in This State (New York: T. & J. Swords, 1810), 227–32.
28 Costello, Our Police Protectors, 45–46.
29 See Wirt, The Life of Patrick Henry, 147.
30 See Foucault, Society Must Be Defended, 82.
31 In order to broaden the gaze against theft, the gazettes also allowed citizens to advertise rewards for stolen goods. For an early discussion of this, see Colquhoun, A Treatise on the Police of the Metropolis, 210. This method of distribution was hotly debated among nineteenth-century police officials. See, for instance, Clarkson and Richardson, Police!, 280–85.
32 Battles, Calling All Cars, 147–86. Also see Glynn, Tabloid Culture, 1–45.
33 Hall, Wanted, 111. Also see Jessica M. Fishman, “The Populace and the Police: Models of Social Control in Reality-Based Crime Television,” Critical Studies in Mass Communication 16.3 (1999): 268–88.
34 See the show’s official Facebook page, https://www.facebook.com/1800crimetv/info?ref= page_internal.
35 Claire Martin, “The End of America’s Most Wanted: Good News for Criminals, Bad News for the FBI,” Time, July 29, 2011. http://content.time.com.
36 Martin, “The End of America’s Most Wanted.”
37 Martin, “The End of America’s Most Wanted.”
38 Alejandro Martínez-Cabrera, “Social Media a Police Weapon That Can Backfire,” San Francisco Chronicle, September 25, 2010. www.sfgate.com.
39 Krainik, “Amber Alert.”
40 Devon Glenn, “Google Brings AMBER Alerts for Missing Children to Search and Maps,” SocialTimes.com, November 1, 2012. http://socialtimes.com.
41 Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention, “AMBER Alerts for Abducted Children Now Available on Facebook,” OJJDP News, January/February 2011. www.ncjrs.gov.
42 Associated Press, “Amber Alerts Hit Cellphones, Aggravate Users,” OregonLive.com, February 1, 2013. www.oregonlive.com.
43 Amber Alert, “Bringing Abducted Children Home,” Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention, April 2005. www.ojjdp.gov.
44 See Trottier, “Policing Social Media.” In addition, an article in Police Chief magazine outlines suggested protocols for police departments’ social media development. See Lauri Stevens, “Social Media in Policing: Nine Steps for Success.” The Police Chief: The Professional Voice of Law Enforcement, February 2010. www.policechiefmagazine.org.
45 IACP Center for Social Media, “2015 Survey Results,” IACPSocialMedia.org, October 2015. www.iacpsocialmedia.org.
46 Hank Silverberg, “Police Turn to Social Media to Combat Crime,” WTOP, April 25 2013. www.wtop.com.
47 Heather Kelly, “Police Embrace Social Media as Crime-Fighting Tool,” CNN.com, August 30, 2012. www.cnn.com.
48 “Twitter Transparency Report,” Twitter.com, July 2, 2012. http://blog.twitter.com.
49 Renee C. Lee, “DWI Suspects to Have Names Plastered on Twitter,” Houston Chronicle, January 6, 2010. www.chron.com.
50 Joseph Master, “Philadelphia Police Department—Version 2.0,” Market Street, Fall 2012. www2.lebow.drexel.edu.
51 Master, “Philadelphia Police Department.” Also see Police Social Media, “1-Day Progressive Training for Police Leaders and Spokespersons,” PoliceSocialMedia.com, 2013. www.policesocialmedia.com.
52 Frank Domizio, “Social Media in Law Enforcement,” SocialMediaToday.com, January 28, 2012. http://socialmediatoday.com.
53 Master, “Philadelphia Police Department.”
54 Troy Graham. 2013. “Philly in 2012: Killings Rise, Overall Crime Falls,” Philly.com, January 1, 2013. http://articles.philly.com.
55 Aubrey Whelan, “Homicides on the Rise in Philadelphia; Fewer Cases Solved,” Philly.com, January 4, 2016. http://articles.philly.com.
56 Pottstown Police Department, “Wanted by Police,” Pinterest.com. http://pinterest.com.
57 Robert J. Moore, “Pinners Be Pinnin’: How to Justify Pinterest’s $3.8B Valuation,” RJ Metrics Blog, May 7, 2014. https://blog.rjmetrics.com.
58 Government Technology, “Pinterest Helps Police Catch Criminals,” Governing.com, January 3, 2013. www.governing.com.
59 Emma Jacobs, “To Catch a Suspect—on Pinterest,” NPR.org, December 7, 2012. http://m.npr.org.
60 Jacobs, “To Catch a Suspect.”
61 Bob Moffitt, “Crime Down as Nextdoor Sign-Ups Hit Ten-Thousand Mark,” Capital Public Radio, November 20, 2013. www.capradio.org.
62 Ashley Knight, “Next Door App a Virtual Neighborhood Watch.,” WKRG.org, August 14, 2014. www.wkrg.com.
63 Gary Rotstein, “America’s Most Wanted Leads to the Wrong Man,” Pittsburgh Post-Gazette, September 30, 1993.
64 Skolnick and Bayley, The New Blue Line. Quoted in Ericson and Haggerty, Policing the Risk Society, 78.
65 Roberto Baldwin, “How a Facebook Joke Made One Guy San Francisco’s Public Enemy No. 1,” Wired.com, October 30, 2012. www.wired.com.
66 Baldwin, “How a Facebook Joke.”
67 Tara Murtha, “Administrator of ‘Kensington Stranger’ Facebook Page Threatened,” Philadelphia Weekly, December 22, 2010. http://blogs.philadelphiaweekly.com.
68 Richard DesLauriers, “Remarks of Special Agent in Charge Richard DesLauriers at Press Conference on Bombing Investigation,” FBI.gov, April 18, 2013. www.fbi.gov.
69 See Marx, “The Public as Partner?”
70 Michael Walsh, “Reddit Apologizes for Online ‘Witch Hunt’ for Boston Marathon Bombers,” New York Daily News, April 24, 2013. www.nydailynews.com.
71 David Montgomery, Sari Horwitz, and Marc Fisher, “Police, Citizens, and Technology Factor into Boston Bombing Probe,” Washington Post, April 20, 2013. www.washingtonpost.com.
72 See Trottier, “Vigilantism and Power Users,” 219.
73 Montgomery, Horwitz, and Fisher, “Police, Citizens, and Technology.”
74 DesLauriers, “Remarks of Special Agent in Charge.”
75 Manuel Valdes, “In Boston Manhunt, Online Detectives Flourish,” NBC Bay Area, April 20, 2013. www.nbcbayarea.com.
76 See LEEDIR (Large Emergency Event Digital Information Repository) at www.leedir.com.
77 Valdes, “In Boston Manhunt, Online Detectives Flourish.”
78 See, for example, Della Porta and Mattoni, “Social Networking Sites in Pro-Democracy and Anti-Austerity Protests.”
79 Schneider, “Police ‘Image Work’ in an Era of Social Media,” 228.
80 Schneider, “Police ‘Image Work,’” 229. Also see Carlos Miller’s excellent website, Photography Is Not a Crime, at https://photographyisnotacrime.com.
81 Kevin Fagan, “How Viral Video Put Occupy UC Davis on the Map,” San Francisco Chronicle, November 23, 2011, www.sfgate.com.
82 Fagan, “How Viral Video Put UC Davis on the Map.”
83 Reuters, “Occupy Pepper-Spray Cop John Pike Banks $38,000 for ‘Psychiatric’ Trauma,” New York Daily News, October 24, 2013. www.nydailynews.com.
84 Kathleen Hickey, “Crowdsourcing Video Surveillance Can Work Both Ways,” GCN.com, May 15, 2013, http://gcn.com.
85 Daniel Pérez, “Bill Restricting Rights of Citizens to Videotape Police Introduced in Texas House,” Houston Chronicle, March 12, 2015. www.chron.com.
86 Brian X. Chen, “Smartphones Embracing Theft Defense,” New York Times (June 20, 2014): B1.
87 See “I Am Mike Brown Live from Ferguson, MO,” LiveStream.com, August 19, 2014. http://new.livestream.com.
88 Jenkins, Convergence Culture, 219.
89 For example, see CrimeMapping.com at www.crimemapping.com.
90 See, just for example, the coordination between the Miami University Police Department and a company called e2Campus: http://miamioh.edu/police/services/etms/index.html. Text message crime alerts are particularly popular on college campuses.
1 Kieran Nicholson, “Denver Police Looking at Lag Time between 911 Call, Body’s Discovery,” Denver Post., November 11, 2012. www.denverpost.com.
2 Sadie Gurman, “Loretta Barela’s Husband Told 911 He Might Have Killed Wife,” Denver Post, November 21, 2012. www.denverpost.com.
3 Nicholson, “Denver Police Looking at Lag Time.”
4 Miller and Rose, “Governing Economic Life.”
5 Moskos, Cop in the Hood, 93.
6 Nicholson, “Denver Police Looking at Lag Time.”
7 See, for example, Greene, “Y Movies”; Ouellette and Hay, Better Living through Reality TV; and Pepper, “Subscribing to Governmental Rationality.”
8 In general, see Manning, The Technology of Policing.
9 Packer, Mobility without Mayhem, 163.
10 In the late twentieth and early twenty-first centuries, as media technologies became more mobile and popular, policing strategies have been constantly refined in accordance with these technological changes. In the words of Gary T. Marx, informing has been increasingly seen “as an element of good citizenship, commanding growing institutional and technical support.” Marx, Undercover, 207.
11 Barry, “Lines of Communication and Spaces of Rule,” 124.
12 Sprogle, The Philadelphia Police, iv.
13 DeWindt and DeWindt, Ramsey, 76.
14 Reiss, The Police and the Public, 64.
15 In fact, critical criminologists like Richard Ericson and Kevin Haggerty have recognized “the organized incapacity of the police to detect and risk-manage crime and other troubles on their own.” Ericson and Haggerty, Policing the Risk Society, 76.
16 Moskos, Cop in the Hood, 92.
17 See, for example, Wald, “Keynote Address,” 86.
18 Lee P. Brown, Policing in the 21st Century: Community Policing (Bloomington, IN: AuthorHouse), 150.
19 Of course, police officials had long required citizens to use media technologies to carry out lateral surveillance and to record evidence of potentially criminal activities. Carriage operators and hoteliers in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, for example, were required to keep meticulous written records of their mobile clientele so that police could scour their notes for evidence. See Reeves and Packer, “Police Media,” 364.
20 Marvin, When Old Technologies Were New, 92.
21 Sprogle, The Philadelphia Police, 396.
22 See Philips and Robinson, Philips’ and Robinson’s Municipal Telegraph, 18–19.
23 See Folsom (ed.), Our Police, 464.
24 Prescott, Bell’s Electric Speaking Telephone, 309.
25 Carey, “Technology and Ideology,” 210.
26 Pope, Modern Practice of the Electric Telegraph, 162.
27 See Ewald, “Norms, Discipline, and the Law.”
28 For more on the importance of eliminating “noise” in high-intensity communication scenarios, see Kittler, “Media Stars.”
29 Philips and Robinson, Philips’ and Robinson’s Municipal Telegraph, 13.
30 United States Department of Commerce and Labor, Special Reports, 146.
31 United States Department of Commerce and Labor, Special Reports, 143–45. One of the first police telephones was introduced in 1880 by J. P. Barrett, who was then superintendent of Chicago’s electrical department. This phone was so successful that by 1893 several hundred private boxes had been installed in the city. See U.S. Department of Commerce and Labor, Special Reports, 146.
32 Prescott, Bell’s Electric Speaking Telegraph, 312.
33 Prescott, Bell’s Electric Speaking Telegraph, 312.
34 United States Department of Commerce, Special Reports, 147.
35 United States War Department, Telephone Switchboard Operating Procedure, 1.
36 United States War Department, Telephone Switchboard Operating Procedure, 2.
37 United States War Department, Telephone Switchboard Operating Procedure, 2.
38 The Challenge of Crime in a Free Society, 116.
39 The Challenge of Crime in a Free Society, 246.
40 The Challenge of Crime in a Free Society, vi.
41 The Challenge of Crime in a Free Society, 250
42 The Challenge of Crime in a Free Society, 250.
43 The Challenge of Crime in a Free Society, 250.
44 The Challenge of Crime in a Free Society, 250.
45 The Challenge of Crime in a Free Society, 250.
46 Manning, The Technology of Policing, 52.
47 Manning, The Technology of Policing, 52.
48 See Sherman, “Patrol Strategies for Police.”
49 For more information, see Platt, “Crime Rave.”
50 As an example of this research, see Bickman, “Bystander Intervention in a Crime.”
51 National Institute of Justice, Calling the Police, 137.
52 National Institute of Justice, Calling the Police, 181.
53 National Institute of Justice, Calling the Police, 190.
54 National Institute of Justice, Calling the Police, 194. For more about this classification, see Farmer (ed.), Differential Police Response Strategies, 1981.
55 National Institute of Justice, Calling the Police, 194.
56 Gow and Ihnat, “Prepaid Mobile Phone Service and the Anonymous Caller.”
57 Department of Homeland Security, A Resource Guide to Improve Your Community’s Awareness, 13.
58 Federal Communications Commission, “What You Need to Know about Text-to-911,” FCC.gov, December 22, 2015. www.fcc.gov.
59 John Cook, “iWitness: This iPhone App Fights Crime by Recording Incidents and Dialing 911,” Geekwire: Dispatches from the Digital Frontier, March 14, 2012. www.geekwire.com.
60 Cook, “iWitness.”
61 Anushay Hossain, “Downloading Empowerment: Application Gives Citizens Control over Crime,” Forbes, February 1, 2012. www.forbes.com.
62 For a farsighted political analysis of anonymous tips and 911 technologies, see Marx, “Commentary,” 516.
63 Heather Tomlinson, “Ky. Police Unveil Texting Program Targeting Students,” Officer.com, January 21, 2013. www.officer.com.
64 Tomlinson, “Ky. Police Unveil Texting Program.”
65 Lyon, “Why Where You Are Matters.”
66 Phillips, “Texas 9–1–1,” 843.
67 Lindberg, To Serve and Collect, 23.
68 For a very early example, see United States Department of Commerce and Labor, Investigation of Telephone Companies, 339.
69 CBS News, “Texting: Can We Pull the Plug on Our Obsession?,” CBSNews.com, September 30, 2012. www.cbsnews.com.
70 Juan Gonzalez, “Report Concludes That City’s $2 Billion 911 Modernization is Redundant and Inefficient,” New York Daily News, May 10, 2012. www.nydailynews.com.
71 “Dealing with Anonymous Drug Tip Lines,” CopBlock.org, December 31, 2011. www.copblock.org.
72 Tracy and Tracy, “Emotion Labor at 911,” 396–97.
73 Tracy and Tracy, “Emotion Labor at 911,” 396–97.
74 Simpson, Misuse and Abuse of 911, 1.
75 Simpson, Misuse and Abuse of 911, 21.
76 Danielle Paquette, “Miley Cyrus Gets a Swatting: Police Lights Are One, Nobody’s Home,” Los Angeles Times, August 2, 2012. http://articles.latimes.com.
77 Irving Oala, “Miley Cyrus Swatted for Second Time as Police Arrive at Her Home Following Hoax Call of Shots Fired Inside the House,” Daily Mail, May 18, 2013. www.dailymail.co.uk.
78 Maria Elena Fernandez, “Ashton Kutcher, Miley Cyrus, and Others Terrorized in Dangerous ‘Swatting’ Prank,” Daily Beast, October 5, 2012. www.thedailybeast.com.
79 Don Lemon and Erick Erickson, “SWATting Prank Could Be Deadly,” CNN Newsroom, June 8, 2012. http://newsroom.blogs.cnn.com.
80 Fernandez, “Ashton Kutcher, Miley Cyrus, and Others Terrorized.”
81 Dave Kinchen, “Police Respond to ‘Swatting’ Prank Call in Upper Uwchlan Township,” My Fox Detroit, June 9, 2014. www.myfoxdetroit.com.
82 Adrianne Jeffries, “Meet ‘Swatting,’ the Dangerous Prank That Could Get Someone Killed,” The Verge, April 23, 2013. www.theverge.com.
83 Erick Erickson, “The 911 Call and 80+ Members of Congress,” RedState.com, June 11, 2012. www.redstate.com.
84 Lyon, Surveillance Studies, 52.
85 See Brian Krebs, “Swatting Incidents Tied to ID Theft Sites?,” KrebsOnSecurity.com, April 13, 2013. http://krebsonsecurity.com.
86 Federal Communications Commission, “IP Relay Fraud,” FCC.gov, www.fcc.gov.
87 Jeff Black, “California Governor Signs Bill to Crack Down on Celebrity ‘Swatting,’” NBC News, September 10, 2013. www.nbcnews.com.
88 Erickson, “The 911 Call.”
89 Erickson, “The 911 Call.”
90 David Clarke, “Sheriff David Clarke PSA for Milwaukee County,” YouTube, January 26, 2013. www.youtube.com.
91 David Schaper, “Milwaukee County Sheriff: ‘You Have a Duty to Protect Yourself,’” NPR.org, January 31, 2013. www.npr.org.
92 Bruce Vielmetti, Steve Schultze, and Don Walker, “Sheriff David Clarke’s Radio Ad Says 911 Not Best Option, Urges Residents to Take Firearms Classes,” Milwaukee Journal-Sentinel, January 25, 2013. www.jsonline.com.
93 Vielmetti, Schultze, and Walker, “Sheriff David Clarke’s Radio Ad.”
94 Don Walker, “David Clarke, Tom Barrett Square Off Over Guns on CNN,” Milwaukee Journal-Sentinel, January 19, 2013. www.jsonline.com.
95 iWatchLA, “iWatchLA Report,” iWatchLA.org, 2012. www.iWatchLA.org.
96 See the features and local program advertisements in Department of Homeland Security, A Resource Guide.
97 Foucault, “Two Lectures,” 98.
98 Monahan, Surveillance in the Time of Insecurity, 29.
1 Isabelle Zehnder, “George Zimmerman’s 911 Call Transcribed,” Examiner.com, March 24, 2012. www.examiner.com.
2 Zehnder, “George Zimmerman’s 911 Call Transcribed.”
3 Michael Thompson, “George Zimmerman Doesn’t Reflect True Neighborhood Watch,” Yahoo! News, April 24, 2012. http://news.yahoo.com.
4 Michael Thompson, “George Zimmerman Doesn’t Reflect True Neighborhood Watch.”
5 National Crime Prevention Council, “Strategy: Starting Neighborhood Watch Groups,” NCPC.org, 2013. www.ncpc.org.
6 National Sheriff’s Association, “National Sheriff’s Association Releases Statement on Florida Neighborhood Watch Tragedy,” Law Officer: Police and Law Enforcement, March 21, 2012. www.lawofficer.com.
7 See, in particular, Greenberg, Citizens Defending America. Williams’s Our Enemies in Blue also contains a valuable parallel history of citizen participation in policing.
8 Johnson and Wolfe, History of Criminal Justice, 79. Quoted in Greenberg, Citizens Defending America, 21–22.
9 Greenberg, Citizens Defending America, 23–25.
10 Trojanowicz and Bucqueroux, Community Policing, 46.
11 Williams, Our Enemies in Blue, 121–48.
12 Pfeifer, “Introduction,” 3.
13 See Klein, Unification of a Slave State, 47–77.
14 Brown, Strain of Violence, 96.
15 Abrahams, Vigilant Citizens, 3–4.
16 Chriss, Beyond Community Policing, 55–65.
17 See Brown, Strain of Violence, 162; and Thelen, Paths of Resistance, 95–96.
18 David J. Brewer, “The Right of Appeal,” Independent, October 29, Volume 55.2865 (1903): 2547–50.
19 Greenberg, Citizens Defending America, 6.
20 For more on neoliberal policing and responsibilization, see O’Mally and Palmer, “Post-Keynesian Policing”; and Garland, “The Limits of the Sovereign State.”
21 Campbell, Sahid, and Stang, Law and Order Reconsidered, 416.
22 Greenberg, Citizens Defending America, 9.
23 Brown, Strain of Violence, 132.
24 See Aaron Major’s excellent analysis of how U.S. economic policy of the 1950s and 1960s sowed the seeds of neoliberal austerity in the 1970s and 1980s. Major, Architects of Austerity.
25 See Fox, “Demographics and U.S. Homicide.”
26 Justice Kennedy Commission, Reports with Recommendations, 18.
27 Campbell, Sahid, and Stang, Law and Order Reconsidered, 422.
28 Campbell, Sahid, and Stang, Law and Order Reconsidered, 413. Also see Marx, “Commentary,” 513.
29 Yin et al., Patrolling the Neighborhood Beat, 193–96.
30 Yin et al., Patrolling the Neighborhood Beat, 204.
31 Yin et al., Patrolling the Neighborhood Beat, 253.
32 .Yin et al., Patrolling the Neighborhood Beat, 126.
33 Yin et al., Patrolling the Neighborhood Beat, 124.
34 Yin et al., Patrolling the Neighborhood Beat, 126.
35 Yin et al., Patrolling the Neighborhood Beat, 127.
36 Yin et al., Patrolling the Neighborhood Beat, 128.
37 Yin et al., Patrolling the Neighborhood Beat, 253.
38 Hollander et al., Reducing Residential Crime and Fear, 2.
39 Hollander et al., Reducing Residential Crime and Fear, 153.
40 Hollander et al., Reducing Residential Crime and Fear, 11.
41 Hollander et al., Reducing Residential Crime and Fear, 5–6, 122.
42 Mesa Police Department, Neighborhood Block Captains Guide (Mesa, AZ, 1999), 4.
43 National Sheriffs’ Association, National Neighborhood Watch Program Review, 2.
44 National Sheriffs’ Association, National Neighborhood Watch Program Manual, 19.
45 William H. Petersen, National Neighborhood Watch Program Discretionary Grant Progress Report, 1.
46 Midwest Research Institute, Evaluation of the National Sheriffs’ Association, 1.
47 Midwest Research Institute, Evaluation of the National Sheriffs’ Association, 1–2.
48 Midwest Research Institute, Evaluation of the National Sheriffs’ Association, 24.
49 Midwest Research Institute, Evaluation of the National Sheriffs’ Association, 52.
50 Midwest Research Institute, Evaluation of the National Sheriffs’ Association, 52.
51 Midwest Research Institute, Evaluation of the National Sheriffs’ Association, 52.
52 Office of Crime Prevention, Program Guide, 3.
53 See Beth Kassab, “Trayvon Martin Would Be Alive if Neighborhood Watch Rules Followed,” Orlando Sentinel, March 14, 2012, http://articles.orlandosentinel.com; and Jane Morse, “Neighborhood Watch Programs Help Build Citizen-Police Trust: Communities Find Fighting Residential Crime Requires Cooperation,” America.Gov, March 10, 2009. www.america.gov.
54 Campbell Robertson and John Schwartz, “Shooting Focuses Attention on a Program That Seeks to Avoid Guns,” New York Times (March 23, 2012): A12.
55 Robertson and Schwartz, “Shooting Focuses Attention,” A12.
56 Robertson and Schwartz, “Shooting Focuses Attention,” A12.
57 Robertson and Schwartz, “Shooting Focuses Attention,” A12.
58 Robertson and Schwartz, “Shooting Focuses Attention,” A12.
59 Yin et al., Patrolling the Neighborhood Beat, iii.
60 Virginia Division of Justice and Crime Prevention, Neighborhood Watch Guide, 1.
61 Virginia Division of Justice and Crime Prevention, Neighborhood Watch Guide, 2.
62 Virginia Division of Justice and Crime Prevention, Neighborhood Watch Guide, 6.
63 Virginia Division of Justice and Crime Prevention, Neighborhood Watch Guide, 6.
64 National Institute of Justice, Calling the Police, xxxii.
65 Sanford Police Department, “History of Neighborhood Watch,” Trayvon Martin Killing: Neighborhood Watch 2 (n.d.): 3. Available at http://documents.latimes.com/trayvon-martin-and-george-zimmerman.
66 Bureau of Justice Assistance, Neighborhood Watch Manual: USAonWatch—National Neighborhood Watch Program (Washington, DC: Bureau of Justice Assistance, 2010), 7. Available at www.usaonwatch.org.
67 Bureau of Justice Assistance, Neighborhood Watch Manual, 7.
68 Sanford Police Department, “Crime Prevention Tips,” Trayvon Martin Killing: Neighborhood Watch 2 (n.d.): 7. Available at http://documents.latimes.com/trayvon-martin-and-george-zimmerman.
69 Bureau of Justice Assistance, Neighborhood Watch Manual, 21.
70 Bureau of Justice Assistance, Neighborhood Watch Manual, 24.
71 Bureau of Justice Assistance, Neighborhood Watch Manual, 25.
72 Bureau of Justice Assistance, Neighborhood Watch Manual, 22.
73 See http://neighborhoodwatchradio.org.
74 Morgan Whitaker, “Sanford Police Chief Flips on Gun Ban for Neighborhood Watch,” MSNBC.com, November 6, 2013. www.msnbc.com.
75 Kim Clare, “Sanford Bans Guns for Neighborhood Watch Volunteers,” MSNBC.com, October 31, 2013. www.msnbc.com.
76 Clare, “Sanford Bans Guns.”
77 Whitaker, “Sanford Police Chief Flips on Gun Ban,” and Susan Jacobson and Arelis R. Hernández, “Sanford Police Chief Clarifies Gun Rules for Neighborhood Watch Volunteers,” Orlando Sentinel, November 5, 2013. http://articles.orlandosentinel.com.
78 Jacobson and Hernández, “Sanford Police Chief Clarifies Gun Rules.”
79 Whitaker, “Sanford Police Chief Flips on Gun Ban.”
80 Whitaker, “Sanford Police Chief Flips on Gun Ban.”
81 Clare, “Sanford Bans Guns.”
82 Jacobson and Hernández, “Sanford Police Chief Clarifies Gun Rules.”
83 Garofalo and McLeod, “The Structure and Operation of Neighborhood Watch,” 338–39.
84 Marx and Archer, “Citizen Involvement in the Law Enforcement Process.”
85 Yin et al., Patrolling the Neighborhood Beat, 215–16.
86 Yin et al., Patrolling the Neighborhood Beat, 216.
87 Yin et al., Patrolling the Neighborhood Beat, 219.
88 Cicchini and Kushner, But They Didn’t Read Me My Rights, 83.
89 Pennell, Curtis, and Henderson, Guardian Angels, 61.
90 For more on this conflict, see Pennell, Curtis, and Henderson, Guardian Angels, 110–13; and Susan Pennell, Christine Curtis, Joel Henderson, and Jeff Tayman, “Guardian Angels: A Unique Approach to Crime Prevention,” Crime and Delinquency 35.3 (1989): 378–400. Partly as a result of these cultural, legal, and violent methods of conduct regulation, citizen’s arrests are exceedingly rare. Indeed, this has been the case for decades. Soon after the Guardian Angels helped introduce the term “citizen’s arrest” into the popular lexicon, in 1984 a Department of Justice task force found that victims and witnesses chased and restrained suspects in too few cases to generate reliable statistics about the phenomenon. See National Institute of Justice, Calling the Police, 136.
91 Berkowitz, Local Heroes, 158.
92 Berkowitz, Local Heroes, 156.
93 Berkowitz, Local Heroes, 157.
94 Berkowitz, Local Heroes, 157.
95 Nicholas Pileggi, “The Guardian Angels: Help—or Hype?,” New York (November 24, 1980): 14–19.
96 Pileggi, “The Guardian Angels,” 19.
97 Breslin, The World According to Breslin, 98.
98 Pennell, Curtis, and Henderson, Guardian Angels, 114.
99 Pileggi, “The Guardian Angels,” 16.
100 Pennell, Curtis, and Henderson, Guardian Angels, 69.
101 Berkowitz, Local Heroes, 157–58.
102 Pileggi, “The Guardian Angels,” 16.
103 Jay Maeder, “Citizens on Patrol Guardian Angels December 1980–February 1981 Chapter 442,” New York Daily News, October 15, 2001. www.nydailynews.com.
104 “A Way to Remember Frank Melvin,” New York Times, January 5, 1982. www.nytimes.com.
105 Maeder, “Citizens on Patrol.”
106 Breslin, The World According to Breslin, 98.
107 Breslin, The World According to Breslin, 100.
108 Jennifer N. Grimes, “Guardian Angels,” in Encyclopedia of Street Crime in America (Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE, 2013), 183–86.
109 Berkowitz, Local Heroes, 158.
110 “Curtis Sliwa: Zimmerman Was ‘Mad Dogging,’” CNN.com, March 30, 2012. http://cnnpressroom.blogs.cnn.com.
111 Associated Press, “Hazy Statistics Deter Firm Analysis of Officer-Involved Deaths,”San Francisco Chronicle, December 7, 2014. www.sfgate.com.
112 Kimberly Kindy, Marc Fisher, Julie Tate, and Jennifer Jenkins, “A Year of Reckoning: Police Fatally Shoot Nearly 1,000,” Washington Post, December 26, 2015. www.washingtonpost.com.
113 Rebecca Lopez, “Inner-City Gun Club Takes Issue with Dallas Police,” WFAA/ABC News, January 30, 2015. www.wfaa.com.
114 Huey P. Newton Gun Club, Press Release, August 17, 2014. See “Video: The Texas Based Huey P. Newton Gun Club Participates in Serious Show of Resistance,” Black Talk Radio Network, August 21, 2014. www.blacktalkradionetwork.com.
115 Aaron Lake Smith, “Revolutionary Gun Clubs Patrolling the Black Neighborhoods of Dallas,” Vice.com, January 5, 2015. www.vice.com.
116 Smith, “Revolutionary Gun Clubs.”
117 Smith, “Revolutionary Gun Clubs.”
118 Brandy Zadrozny, “Texas Gun Slingers Police the Police—With a Black Panthers Tactic,” Daily Beast, January 2, 2015. www.thedailybeast.com.
119 Howard Zinn, A People’s History of the United States (New York: HarperCollins, 2010), 63–65.
120 Stevens, “Urban Communities and Homicide.”
121 Pepinsky, “Issues of Citizen Involvement in Policing,” 461.
122 Pepinsky, “Issues of Citizen Involvement in Policing,” 461.
123 Andrejevic, iSpy, 178.
124 See Reeves, “License to Kill.”
125 Patrik Jonsson, “Trayvon Martin 911 Tapes: Who Screamed for Help before Shot Rang Out?,” Christian Science Monitor, March 17, 2012. www.csmonitor.com.
1 Crystal Grendell v. James Gillway, et al., United States District Court, District of Maine (July 11, 1997), 3.
2 Grendell v. Gillway, 4.
3 Joseph Periera, “The Informants: In a Drug Program, Some Kids Turn in Their Own Parents,” Wall Street Journal (April 20, 1992): 1, A4.
4 Grendell v. Gillway, 7.
5 See Giroux, “Doing Cultural Studies.”
6 See Hebdige, Hiding in the Light, 19–26.
7 Hall et al., Policing the Crisis, 111.
8 See, for example, Kidd, Making American Boys; and Kwon, Uncivil Youth.
9 “Juvenile Coppettes,” 1731.
10 Grant, The Boy Problem.
11 Brace, The Dangerous Classes of New York, 316–24.
12 Brace, The Dangerous Classes, 418.
13 Brace, The Dangerous Classes, 28.
14 Brace, The Dangerous Classes, 78.
15 Brace, The Dangerous Classes, 78–81.
16 Brace, The Dangerous Classes, 91.
17 See Donzelot, The Policing of Families; Boyer, Urban Masses and Moral Order; and Hunt, Governing Morals, 110–39.
18 For a more general history of boy police programs, see Greenberg, Citizens Defending America, 133–43.
19 “Boy Police,” in The Americana Supplement, ed. Frederick Converse Beach (New York: Scientific American Compiling Department, 1911), 189.
20 “Boy Police,” 189.
21 “Boy Police,” 189.
22 “Boy Police for the Fourth?”
23 “Boy Police of New York,” 1258.
24 “New York’s Campaign of Crime Prevention,” 296.
25 Mason, “Boy Police of New York,” 708.
26 “The Junior Police of New York City,” 653.
27 “Boy Police of New York,” 1258.
28 “Boy Police of New York,” 1259.
29 “Juvenile Coppettes,” 1732.
30 “Juvenile Coppettes,” 1732.
31 “Juvenile Coppettes,” 1732.
32 “Juvenile Coppettes,” 1732.
33 “Juvenile Coppettes,” 1731.
34 Goosman, Group Harmony, 54.
35 Sealander, The Failed Century of the Child, 33; see, more generally, 19–52.
36 Lindquist, Race, Social Science, and the Crisis of Manhood, 158–60.
37 Macleod, Building Character in the American Boy, 67–71.
38 Washington, “A Study of the Program and Activities of the Junior Police,” 1.
39 Butterfield, “Our Kids Are in Trouble,” 108.
40 Maxine Davis, “The Cop Appeals to the Kids,”97. Also see Martin Alan Greenberg, “A Short History of Junior Police,” Police Chief Magazine, April 2008. www.policechiefmagazine.org.
41 Davis, “The Cop Appeals,” 28.
42 Ness, “The Participation of Boys,” 338.
43 Juttee T. Garth, “Juvenile Delinquency and Suggested Treatment,” 16.
44 Davis, “The Cop Appeals,” 96.
45 Woltman, “Town Up in Arms.”
46 New York Times News Service, “U.S. Drug Czar Urges Teens to Just Say Snitch,” Chicago Tribune, May 19, 1989. http://articles.chicagotribune.com.
47 For an excellent analysis of our society’s panic about youth violence during the 1990s, see Franklin E. Zimring, American Youth Violence (New York: Oxford University Press, 1998).
48 Yin et al., Patrolling the Neighborhood Beat, 296.
49 Yin et al., Patrolling the Neighborhood Beat, 297.
50 Yin et al., Patrolling the Neighborhood Beat, 300.
51 Campbell, Sahid, and Stang, Law and Order Reconsidered, 416.
52 Gottfredson, “School-Based Crime Prevention,” 381.
53 For example, see Foucault, Discipline and Punish, 135–69; Giroux, The Abandoned Generation, 71–102; Matthew, “Reading, Writing, and Readiness”; and Simmons, “The Docile Body in School Space.”
54 Klein, Street Gang Patterns and Policies, 97. See Patrick Boyle, “A D.A.R.E.ing Rescue: How an Intervention by Critics and Federal Officials Brought the Anti-Drug Program into Rehab,” Youth Today 10.4 (2001): 16.
55 See Gard and Pluim, Schools and Public Health, 87–112.
56 See “About,” DARE.org. www.dare.org.
57 Stoil and Hill, Preventing Substance Abuse, 59.
58 “D.A.R.E. Program Celebrates Twenty-Five Years,” DARE.org, August 18, 2014. www.dare.org.
59 Jennifer Gonnerman, “Truth or D.A.R.E.: The Dubious Drug-Education Program Takes New York,” Village Voice, April 6, 1999. www.villagevoice.com. Others, however, disagree that D.A.R.E. is effective at reaching youth. As Ryan Grim has pointed out, 1996 was the first year that high school drug use rose, after declines through the 1980s and early 1990s. The class of 1996 was the first cohort to have received D.A.R.E. all throughout their public school years, as the program was founded in 1983. See Grim, This Is Your Country on Drugs, 91–92.
60 Kevin Sapp, “Florida Law Enforcement Teaching New D.A.R.E. Program,” F.D.O.A. e-Times 1.2 (December 21, 2005): 3–4.
61 See, for example, “Father & Son in Kindergarten D.A.R.E. Class,” DARE.org, February 16, 2014. www.dare.org.
62 Child Safety Coloring and Activity Book: Safety at Home, at School, and with Friends (Lansing: Michigan Legislature, 2011), 30. Available at www.legislature.mi.gov/publications/childsafety coloring.pdf.
63 Child Safety Coloring and Activity Book, 16.
64 D.A.R.E. America, Elementary and Middle School Curriculum, 2. Available at http://darealaska.com/download/teachers/Elementary%20and%20Middle%20School%20Curriculum%20Design.pdf.
65 Child Safety Coloring and Activity Book, 40.
66 Katrina B., “Kids’ Essays,” DareAlaska.com. http://darealaska.com.
67 Taylor D., “Kids’ Essays,” DareAlaska.com. http://darealaska.com.
68 Steve, “Kids’ Essays,” DareAlaska.com. http://darealaska.com.
69 Bureau of Justice Assistance, Implementing Project DARE, 72.
70 Bureau of Justice Assistance, Implementing Project DARE, 34.
71 Bureau of Justice Assistance, Implementing Project DARE, 72.
72 Marx, Undercover, 207.
73 Periera, “The Informants.”
74 Ericson and Haggerty, Policing the Risk Society, 267.
75 James Bovard, “DARE Scare: Turning Children into Informants?,” Washington Post (January 30, 1994): C3.
76 Jeff Rivenbark and Tom Roussey, “Elementary Student Brings Pot to School to Turn in His Parents,” WBTV.com, October 15, 2010. www.wbtv.com.
77 Safe City Commission Campus Crime Stoppers: 2010–2011 School Year End Report (Fort Worth, TX: Safe City Commission, 2011).
78 See, for example, Benjamin Alexander-Bloch, “Two Belle Chasse Middle School Students Arrested on Drug Charges,” Times-Picayune, October 22, 2014. www.nola.com; and “Safe Schools Hotline–Youth Program,” Crimestoppers Greater New Orleans. www.crimestoppersgno.org.
79 Gonnerman, “Truth or D.A.R.E.”
80 See Gonnerman, “Truth or D.A.R.E.”
81 Anderson, Code of the Street.
82 Natapoff, Snitching, 135–38.
83 Woldoff and Weiss, “Stop Snitchin’,” 189.
84 See Police Executive Research Forum, The Stop Snitching Phenomenon, 10–11, 19–26.
85 Police Executive Research Forum, The Stop Snitching Phenomenon, 10.
86 Whitman and Davis, Snitches Get Stitches, 9.
87 “Police: Juveniles Laughed after Setting 15-Year-Old on Fire,” CNN.com, October 14, 2009. www.cnn.com.
88 Whitman and Davis, Snitches Get Stitches, 7.
89 See “Baltimore City Cops Response to Stop Snitching 1 DVD,” YouTube, December 29, 2007. www.youtube.com.
90 Ryan Davis, “Police Hit Streets with Their Answer to ‘Snitch’ DVD,” Baltimore Sun, May 11, 2005. www.baltimoresun.
91 Whitman and Davis, Snitches Get Stitches, 11.
92 See Police Executive Research Forum, The Stop Snitching Phenomenon, 28–30.
93 Merida, “Fearful Kids Maintain a Code of Silence,” Washington Post (April 27, 1999): C8.
94 Merida, “Fearful Kids Maintain a Code of Silence.”
95 Whitman and Davis, Snitches Get Stitches, 47.
96 Whitman and Davis, Snitches Get Stitches, 41.
97 Tom Farrey, “‘Melo Looks Past Hoops to Streets,” ESPN.com, December 17, 2006. http://insider.espn.go.com.
98 Whitman and Davis, Snitches Get Stitches, 32.
99 Hebdige, Hiding in the Light, 18.
1 Quoted in “CNN Live Event/Special: Sessions, Murphy Debate Use of Military Tribunals; Willis, Frederick Discuss U.S. Recession; Frank, Hitchens Talk about Military Efforts,” CNN.com, December 1, 2001. http://transcripts.cnn.com.
2 Martin Jay, “FBI Surrounds House of Saudi Student after Sightings of Him with Pressure Cooker Pot—Only to Discover He Was Cooking Rice,” Daily Mail, May 12, 2013. www.dailymail.co.uk.
3 Jay, “FBI Surrounds House.”
4 Packer, “Becoming Bombs.”
5 “Bomb Squad Called in for Old Metal Luncbox,” WFMZ-TV News, September 22, 2014. www.wfmz.com.
6 Sean Alfano, “Toothpaste Terror in the Skies,” CBSNews.com, August 24, 2006. www.cbsnews.com.
7 U.S. Department of Homeland Security, “Walmart Public Service Announcement,” YouTube, December 6, 2010. www.youtube.com.
8 Kelly Gates, for example, questions “whether the post-9/11 moment represents a decisive transformation in the configuration of state power. Are the U.S. ‘homeland security’ policies ushering in a new era of state sovereignty with potential authoritarian tendencies?” Gates, “Biometrics and Post-9/11 Technostalgia,” 49.
9 For a description of the discourses and programs that have characterized this “new” enemy and the state of exception that has accompanied it, see Ralph, America’s War on Terror.
10 Rutherford, “At War,” 632. Also see Hay and Andrejevic, “Toward an Analytic of Governmental Experiments,” 340.
11 See Monahan, “Identity Theft Vulnerability”; and Simon, Governing through Crime.
12 Mythen and Walklate, “Communicating the Terrorist Risk.”
13 See Beck, “Living in the World Risk Society.”
14 Best, “Ambiguity, Uncertainty, and Risk,” 356.
15 Brian Palmer, “10,000 Potential Maniacs,” Slate, November 8, 2010. www.slate.com.
16 Donohue, The Cost of Counterterrorism, 254.
17 Mattelart, The Globalization of Surveillance, 72.
18 Mattelart, The Globalization of Surveillance, 72.
19 Mattelart, The Globalization of Surveillance, 72. For a related account of this transformation, see Jack Bratich’s discussion of the evolution from the polis to the polemos, from the government of citizens to the control of combatants. Bratich, “User-Generated Discontent.”
20 Crandall, “Envisioning the Homefront,” 20.
21 Kennedy, Over Here, 82.
22 Capozzola, Uncle Sam Wants You, 122.
23 For more on unidentifiable enemies in the War on Terror, see Gates, Our Biometric Future, 98–99.
24 Celia Malone Kingsbury, For Home and Country: World War I Propaganda on the Home Front (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2010), 177.
25 Blum, Dark Invasion.
26 Gary, The Nervous Liberals, 19.
27 Cornebise, War as Advertised, 72.
28 For how the “Silence Means Security” program took hold in American life, see Hales, Atomic Spaces, 243–72.
29 See the U.S. National Archives’ World War Two propaganda archive for examples of many of these posters: http://www.archives.gov/exhibits/powers_of_persuasion/powers_of_persuasion_home.html#.
30 See Birdwell, Celluloid Soldiers.
31 See the poster archived at http://users.humboldt.edu/ogayle/HowtotellaCommunist.png.
32 For analyses, see Bennett and Woollacott, Bond and Beyond; and Miller, Spyscreen.
33 See “Armed Forces Information Film: Recognizing a Communist,” YouTube. www.youtube.com.
34 See Biesecker, “No Time for Mourning,” 158.
35 Andrejevic, “‘Securitainment’ in the Post-9/11 Era.”
36 Kackman, Citizen Spy, 1.
37 See, in particular, Moynihan, Secrecy.
38 Dick, Radical Innocence, 6–9.
39 Agamben, “What Is an Apparatus?,” 23.
40 See, for example, Robert L. Snow, Terrorists among Us: The Militia Threat (Cambridge, MA: Perseus Publishing, 1999).
41 Levitas, The Terrorist Next Door.
42 Molotch, Against Security, 192.
43 George W. Bush, Proposal to Create the Department of Homeland Security, DHS.gov, June 2002, 2. www.dhs.gov.
44 Bush, Proposal to Create the Department of Homeland Security, 2.
45 Patrick Leahy, “Congressional Record—Senate, November 19, 2002,” Congressional Record: Proceedings and Debates of the 107th Congress, Second Session (Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 2002), 23012.
46 See Nat Hentoff, “Ashcroft’s Master Play to Spy on Us,” Village Voice, August 6, 2002. www.villagevoice.com.
47 Important elements of the TIPS program, however, have survived under other guises. Consider, just for example, how employees of Walt Disney World and SeaWorld have been trained by the Transportation Security Administration (TSA) to keep an eye out for terrorists. Jana Winter, “TSA Trained Disney, SeaWorld to SPOT Terrorists,” The Intercept, April 16, 2015, https://theintercept.com.
48 “Homeland Security Revives Supersnoop,” Washington Times, March 8, 2007. www.washingtontimes.com.
49 Paul Wolfowitz, “Memorandum: Collection, Reporting, and Analysis of Terrorist Threats to DoD Within the United States,” May 2, 2003. Available at https://wikileaks.org/wiki/Paul_Wolfowitz_TALON_memo.
50 Wolfowitz, “Memorandum.”
51 Doug Sample, “‘Eagle Eyes’ Teaches Pentagon Personnel to Be on the Lookout,” DOD News, January 24, 2003, www.defense.gov.
52 Sample, “‘Eagle Eyes’ Teaches Pentagon Personnel.”
53 Flynn and Prieto, Neglected Defense, 43.
54 Flynn and Pietro, Neglected Defense, 43.
55 Flynn and Pietro, Neglected Defense, 43.
56 See Department of Homeland Security, “If You See Something, Say Something: About the Campaign,” DHS.gov, http://www.dhs.gov/see-something-say-something/about-campaign.
57 U.S. Department of Homeland Security, “‘If You See Something, Say Something (TM)’ Public Awareness Video,” YouTube, March 15, 2011. www.youtube.com.
58 U.S. Department of Homeland Security, “If You See Something.”
59 “Buying Water Is Not a Suspicious Activity,” ACLU.org. www.aclu.org.
60 Laura Muth, “How Many Terror Threats Does the U.S. Get Every Day?,” PolicyMic, August 8, 2013. www.policymic.com. Also see Palmer, “10,000 Potential Maniacs.”
61 Julia Harumi Mass, “The Government Is Spying on You: ACLU Releases New Evidence of Overly Broad Surveillance of Everyday Activities,” ACLU.org, September 19, 2013. www.aclu.org.
62 “Buying Water Is Not a Suspicious Activity,” ACLU.org.
63 Mass, “The Government Is Spying on You.”
64 Jack Cloherty and Pierre Thomas, “Attorney General Eric Holder’s Blunt Warning on Terror Attacks,” ABCNews.com, December 21, 2010. http://abcnews.go.com.
65 Cloherty and Thomas, “Attorney General Eric Holder’s Blunt Warning.”
66 Janet Napolitano, “State of America’s Homeland Security Address,” DHS.gov, January 27, 2011. www.dhs.gov.
67 Napolitano, “State of America’s Homeland Security Address.”
68 Hinds and Grabosky, “Responsibilisation Revisited,” 95.
69 Robert Jensen, “Written Testimony of DHS Office of Public Affairs Principal Deputy Assistant Secretary Robert Jensen,” DHS.gov, June 14, 2013. www.dhs.gov.
70 Jeh Johnson, “Secretary Johnson Highlights Super Bowl XLIX Security Operations,” DHS.gov, January 28, 2015. www.dhs.gov .
71 Johnson, “Secretary Johnson Highlights Super Bowl.”
72 See “Campaign Print Materials,” DHS.gov. www.dhs.gov.
73 See Mikael Thalen, “‘See Something, Say Something’ Promotional Items Handed out at NFL Games,” Infowars.com, November 11, 2014. www.infowars.com.
74 “‘If You See Something, Say Something’ Video: Protect Your Every Day Public Service Announcement,” DHS.gov, January 21, 2015. www.dhs.gov.
75 Coleman, Hacker, Hoaxer, Whistleblower, Spy, n.p.
76 Brian Barrett, “Hack Brief: Hacker Leaks the Info of Thousands of FBI and DHS Employees,” Wired.com, February 8, 2016. www.wired.com.
77 Tim Shorrock, “Obama’s Crackdown on Whistleblowers,” Nation, March 26, 2013. www.thenation.com.
78 Amy Davidson, “Manning’s Sentence, Miranda’s Detention,” New Yorker, August 21, 2013. www.newyorker.com.
79 Jacob L. Lew, “M-11–06: Memorandum for the Heads of Executive Departments and Agencies,” November 28, 2010. Available at www.fas.org/sgp/obama/wh-wikileaks.pdf.
80 Pentagon Force Protection Agency, “Security Advisory No. 14–01: Subject: Recent Threats and Individual Protective Measures,” October 24, 2014. Available at projects.militarytimes.com/pdfs/PFPA-102914.pdf.
81 Pentagon Force Protection Agency, “Security Advisory No. 14–01.” Emphasis in original.
82 Pentagon Force Protection Agency, “Security Advisory No. 14–01.”
83 See Kumar, A Foreigner Carrying in the Crook of His Arm a Tiny Bomb; and Human Rights Watch, Illusions of Justice: Human Rights Abuses in US Terrorism Prosecutions (New York: Human Rights Institute at Columbia Law School, 2014).
84 Trevor Aaronson, “The Informants,” Mother Jones, September/October 2011. www.motherjones.com.
85 In 2012, the New York Times claimed: “Of the twenty-two most frightening terrorist plots on American soil since 9/11, fourteen were organized during sting operations.” David K. Shipler, “Terrorist Plots, Hatched by the F.B.I.,” New York Times (April 29, 2012): SR4.
86 Shipler, “Terrorist Plots.”
87 Perhaps the most notorious example of this is the case of the Newburgh Four, a group of poor African American Muslims who were set up by an ex-convict-turned-FBI informant named Shahed Hussain. See Human Rights Watch, Illusions of Justice.
88 Pamela Geller, “Can American Stop Paris-Style Terror from Coming Here?,” WND.com, January 10, 2015. www.wnd.com.
89 Jeh Johnson, “Remarks by Secretary of Homeland Security Jeh Johnson at the Council on Foregin Relations—As Delivered,” DHS.gov, September 10, 2014. www.dhs.gov.
90 See, especially, Andrew Rubin’s nuanced commentary in Archives of Authority, 24–46.
91 And as Rachel Hall has pointed out, this has the complementary effect of turning us into “citizen-suspects.” See Hall, “Of Ziploc Bags and Black Holes.”
92 See Gary T. Marx’s classic Undercover.
93 See Packer, “Becoming Bombs.”
94 Jeh Johnson, “Remarks by Secretary of Homeland Security Jeh C. Johnson at the Adams Center—as Prepared for Delivery,” DHS.gov, December 7, 2015. www.dhs.gov.
95 Zedner, “Policing before and after the Police,” 92–93.
1 Williams, Our Enemies in Blue, 223.
2 Berten and Foucault, “What Our Present Is,” 136–37.
3 Monahan, Surveillance in the Time of Insecurity, 128.
4 Lyon, Surveillance after September 11, 157.
5 Packer, “Epistemology Not Ideology.”
6 See Lyotard, The Differend.
7 Dyer-Witheford and De Peuter, Games of Empire, 218.
8 Lazzaratto, “Immaterial Labor,” 135.
9 Lazzaratto, “Immaterial Labor,” 134.
10 Greene, “Rhetoric and Capitalism,” 203. Also see Galloway and Thacker’s discussion of “life-resistance” in The Exploit, 78–81.
11 Greene, “Orator Communist,” 87. Also see May, “Orator-Machine,” 440–42.
12 Mattelart, The Globalization of Surveillance, 184.
13 Deleuze, “Control and Becoming,” 175.
14 See Massumi, “Potential Politics and the Primacy of Preemption.”
15 Martin Gansberg, “Thirty-Eight Who Saw Murder Didn’t Call the Police,” New York Times, March 27, 1964. Quoted in Rosenthal, Thirty-Eight Witnesses, 19–20.
16 For more information on this controversy, see Nicholas Lemann, “A Call for Help: What the Kitty Genovese Story Really Means,” New Yorker, March 10, 2014. www.newyorker.com.
17 Rosenthal, Thirty-Eight Witnesses, 64. Quoted in Lemann, “A Call for Help.”
18 Rosenthal, Thirty-Eight Witnesses, 67–68.
19 Rosenthal, Thirty-Eight Witnesses, viii. Quoted in Lemann, “A Call for Help.”
20 Lemann, “A Call for Help.”
21 See Turkle, Alone Together.
22 Virno, “Virtuosity and Revolution,” 199.
23 Molotch, Against Security, 194.
24 See especially Mann, Nolan, and Wellman, “Sousveillance.”
25 For more on the importance of this development, see Wilson and Serisier, “Video Activism.”
26 Lee Rainie and Mary Madden, “Americans’ Privacy Strategies Post-Snowden,” Pew Research Center, March 16, 2015. www.pewinternet.org.
27 Jack A. Smith, “Obama Defends NSA Spying on Americans,” Foreign Policy Journal, January 27, 2014. www.foreignpolicyjournal.com.
28 Andrew Leonard, “Edward Snowden’s Unintended Internet Revolution,” Salon, October 15, 2013. www.salon.com.
29 See “History,” Berkeley Copwatch. www.berkeleycopwatch.org.
30 “History,” Berkeley Copwatch.
31 See Andrea Pritchett and Annie Paradise, The Criminalization of Copwatching: Berkeley Copwatch Report on State Violence, Police Repression, and Attacks on Direct Monitoring. (Berkeley, CA: Copwatch, 2011), 6. http://berkeleycopwatch.org.
32 Aune, “The Work of Rhetoric in the Age of Digital Dissemination,” 240.
33 See user-generated YouTube footage of the shooting at https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Q2LDw5l_yMI.
34 “ACLU-NJ Launches Smartphone App That Lets Users Secretly Record Police Stops,” CBS New York, July 3, 2012. http://newyork.cbslocal.com.
35 See “Stop and Frisk Watch App,” NYCLU.org. www.nyclu.org.
36 Michel Foucault, Security, Territory, Population, 144.
37 See Hall et al., Policing the Crisis, 202.
38 Cruikshank, The Will to Empower, 123.