INDEX
Italic page number denotes illustration or table.
Abbas I, 100
abduction, xvi, 38–39, 41, 105, 154
Abou el Fadl, Khaled, 3
Abu Hanifa al-Nu‘man ibn Thabit, 15, 19, 23, 40, 54
Abu Nuwas, 8
Abu Sa‘ud (Mufti of Aleppo), 144
Abu Yusuf, 31
abusive husbands. See spousal abuse
accosting, 44
“account of the lie,” 7, 190n. 15
accusations, false, 7, 21, 124–27, 190n. 15
acts of indecency, 96
adaletnames, 34
adjudication process, 64, 99, 155
adultery: confessions of, 21; hadiths on, 10–11; intent of, 42–43, 44–45; kanunnames on, 38; murder and, 54–56; Qur’an on, 7; rape and, 53; stoning for, 9, 10, 132; as zina, xviii
af‘al qabiha, 96
af‘al shani‘a, 96
Afghanistan, 185n. 2
Aghasi, Ibrahim Agha Qattar, xxxv
Agmon, Iris, 200n. 32
‘Aintab, xix
‘A’isha bint Abi Bakr, 7, 9, 46–47, 190n. 15
‘A’isha ibn Qasim ibn Ahmad, 144
Albanians, 106
Al-Barh al-Ra’iq Sharh Kanz al-Duqa’iq (Ibn Nujaym), 17
alcohol: drunkenness and, 76, 163–64; flogging for, 128; istislah and, 135–36; public morality and, 163–64; punishment for, 27, 83; sample Aleppo sijills on, 167; spousal abuse and, 143; taxes on, 206n. 25
Aleppo: ‘amma in, 78–79; caravansaries in, 206n. 35; Christians in, 73; citadel of, xxx; eighteenth century in, xxvii, xxxvi–xxxvii; ethnic groups in, xxxii–xxxiv, 73, 76–77, 93, 188n. 43; Europeans in, 76–77; fatwas from, xx; guild system in, 62, 88–93; history of, xviii–xix, xxvi–xxxviii; housing in, 121, 122; Janissaries in, 105; Jews in, xxxiv, 73; kanunnames of, 36; map of, xxviii, xxix, 75; microhistory of, xx; Muslim population of, 122; nizami courts in, 70; northwest quadrant of, xxxiii–xxxiv, 188n. 43; policing of, 73–88; prostitution in, 112–14, 113; quarter representatives in, 81–82; quarter solidarity in, xix, 61–62, 82; quarters of, 73–75, 75, 76–77; religious groups in, xxxii–xxxiv, 93, 122, 188n. 43; residential neighborhood in, xxxii; revolts in, xxxiv–xxxv; social and political history of, xviii–xix; social class in, 78–80, 87, 188n. 43; trade and, xxvi, xxxi–xxxiii, xxxvi
Aleppo court records: Armenian fatwa in, 49; description of, 69–71; of the eighteenth century, 82; en masse testimony in, 86–87; euphemisms used in, 94–99; on executions, 67; on flogging, 99; formulaic expressions in, 111–12; French citizens in, 76–77; gender and, 156–57; guilds and, 91, 92–93; Jabal Sam‘an court, 70; Kubra court, 70–71; on the levend, 106, 107–8; morally upright women vs. prostitutes in, 100; names in, 201–2n. 49; in the nineteenth century, 115, 208n. 70; on police, 67, 200n. 24; on prisons, 67; on prostitution, xvii, 94, 101, 104–5, 107–8, 110–29, 123, 208n. 70; on public morality, xxiii, 71, 82, 86, 96; on punishment for prostitution, 131; quantitative analysis of, 114; on rape, 138, 147, 150–54, 151; on reformed prostitutes, 115; Salahiyya court, 70; sample sijills from, 167–70; selection method for sijiils, 71, 72; of the sixteenth century, 82; on sodomy, 98; on spousal abuse, 138–39, 143–45; on stoning, 99, 160, 185n. 3; in the Syrian archives, 69–70; witnesses in, 82; on zina, 98, 104–5, 123, 158–59; zina cases from, 172–83
Aleppo courts: deputies of, 68; Hanafi school and, 69, 71; judges rotated through, 68; during the Ottoman period, 70–71; Shafi‘i school and, 69, 71
Algeria, 101
‘Ali (Caliph), 9–10
Ali Pasha, xxxvi
al-louti, 98
al-Almaji quarter, 76
‘amal literature, 136
Amhan bint Abi Bakr, 119
‘amma: in Aleppo, 78–79; definition of, 77; guilds for, 89; zina crimes and, 80–81, 202n. 66
anal intercourse, 6
analogy. See qiyas
Andalusia, Spain, 100
annulments, 68, 140–41, 200n. 30
appeal process, 66
approaching, 44
Arabic language, xxx
arbitration, 66
‘arif al-hara, 159
Armenian fatwa, 49
arsh, 19–20
al-Ash‘ari, Abu al-Hasan, 134
Ash‘ari school, 134
ashraf, xxxvi, xxxvii, 77–78, 126
assault, 107. See also rape; spousal abuse
‘Ayntab, 84, 115–16, 148, 152, 153–54, 156
al-‘Azm, As‘ad Pasha, 100, 110
Bab al-Nasr region, xxxiii–xxxiv
Bab Touma, 163–64
Baer, Gabriel, 89
Baer, Marc, 185n. 3
Baghdad, 100
Bahsita quarter, xxxiv, 73, 76–77
bakers guild, 92
al-Balubi, Hasan Ibn Muhammad, 116
al-Bandara quarter, xxxiv, 7, 118
banishment: for prostitution, 94, 118, 119, 126, 128–29, 131, 137, 159, 209n. 102; return after, 84; for zina, 51, 158
Banqusa region, 113–14
Banqusiyya court, 70
bash, 91
Basra school, 15
bastinado, 129–30. See also flogging
bathhouses, 112
Battle of the Trench, 14, 99–100
Bayezid II, 36
bayt al-mal, 22
bayt al-ta‘a, 141
bayt ‘arabi, 163
Bedouin, 79
Behar, Cem, 116–17
Belkis, 185–86n. 3
bestiality, xviii
betrothed virgins, 11
bint, 111
birth control, 6
blackening faces, 10
blood money. See diya
Bodman, Herbert L., Jr., 67, 200n. 24
brothels. See prostitution
Brown, Janelle, 185n. 2
Brown, Kathleen, 95
al-Budayri, 101–3, 108, 109, 137, 206n. 28
al-Bukhari, ‘Abdallah Muhammad ibn Isma‘il, 9, 11–12, 147
Bulus walad Ishaq, 148
burial, after stoning, 25–26
Çankiri courts, 150
Canpulatoğlu, Ali, xxxv
Capitulations, xxxiii
carpenters guild, 93
castration, 38
Çelebi, Evliya, 89
celibacy, 6
chalabi, 77
chaos, 46–47
child support, 144
Christians: abduction into military service, 105; in Aleppo, xxxiii, xxxiv, 73; guild system and, 92; names in court records, 201–2n. 49; out-of-wedlock pregnancy in, 153; prostitution and, 115, 118; rape of, 148; in shari‘a courts, 76; stoning and, 10–11, 158
chronicles, 64
church doors, 49
Cilicia, xxxi
Circle of Justice, 33–34
circumstantial evidence, 97–98, 147
citadel of Aleppo, xxx
civil courts, 30
civil order, 39
codification of laws, 3, 17–18, 28, 29, 36
coercion, 82–84
Cohen, Amnon, 204n. 102
collective punishment, 83–84
collective responsibility, 82–84, 126, 164
Commentary on the Treasury of Subtleties. See Al-Barh al-Ra’iq Sharh Kanz al-Duqa’iq (Ibn Nujaym)
commoners. See ‘amma
communal domination, 86–87. See also en masse testimony
communities: fatwas and, 50; interests of, xxiv, 87–88, 136–37; muftis and, 49; power of, 159. See also neighborhoods; quarter solidarity
community policing. See neighborhood policing
community punishment. See collective punishment
comparative studies, xix–xx, 186n. 8
conditional divorce, 51–52
confessions: by couples, 153–54; hadiths on, 12–13; Hanafi school on, 12, 21, 22, 33; Muhammad (Prophet) on, 13; Qur’an on, 114–15; rape and, 149, 153–54, 155; of reformed prostitutes, 114–18; stoning and, 23; to zina, 117, 153–54, 156
confinement, 141
Confluence of Seas, The. See Multaqa al-Abhur (al-Halabi)
consensual sexual intercourse, 53–54, 145
consummation, 19
Contagious Diseases Acts (1860s), 101
contracts, 19, 116, 117, 139, 140, 144–45
corporal punishment: for crimes against the state, 132; Islamic law on, 27–28; modern use of, 161; moratorium on, 160–61; for rape, 149; ruler autonomy and, 31; Alexander Russell on, 67; for zina, 4, 99, 137. See also flogging; hadd punishment; stoning
corruption, fomenter of, 87–88, 98, 205n. 9
couples, confessions by, 153–54
court fees, 66
court records, xviii–xix, 95, 111–12. See also Aleppo court records; shari‘a courts
court scribes, 64, 65–66, 68, 200n. 32
courts: despotism model of, xx; French Inquisition, 65; Jewish, 188n. 46; nizami, xxxviii, 69–70, 201n. 39; shopping for the desired ruling in, 126; zaptiyya, 70. See also shari‘a courts
court scribes, 64, 65–66, 68, 200n. 32
crafts. See guilds
Crimean War, xxxviii
crimes against the state, 132
crimes of passion. See honor crimes
criminal past, 84, 148, 208n. 75
Crusades, xxvii
cunning, 47
custom, law and, 133–34
customary law. See local customary law
al-Daftari, Fathi, 103
Damascus: al-Budayri on, 101–3, 206n. 28; banishment as punishment in, 131–32; Christian quarters in, 73; euphemisms used in, 96, 97, 205n. 5; guild system in, 92; the levend in, 106–7; modern life in, 163–64; nizami courts in, 70; oath-taking in, 149; prostitution in, 85, 100, 109–10, 112, 120; public morality in, 84–85; shari‘a court records of, 69; trade in, xxxi–xxxii
dancing boys, 41
dar juwad, 141
darar, 140–41
dar juwad, 141
Davis, Natalie Zemon, 56, 65, 142
al-Dawalibi, Sayyid Ahmad ibn, 128
al-Dawla, Sayf, xxvi
defamation, 148
defendants, 80
deputies, 68
despotism model, xxi–xxii
deviant behavior, xxiii–xxiv, 79
devşirme, 105
al-Din, Ahmad ‘Iz, 93
dishonorable occupations, 79
disobedient wives, 139–41
diverging opinions, 6
divorce: conditional, 51–52; Hanafi school on, 19; li‘an, 21, 192n. 72; triple, 52–53, 141–42, 144
diya: for bodily harm, 19–20, 149; collective responsibility and, 83; fines for, 57–58; honor crimes and, 45, 55; liability and, 51–52
doctrinal law: fatwas as, 50; istihsan and, 132–33; vs. local customary law, xxiii, xxiv–xxv, 94, 133–36, 187n. 24; on stoning for prostitution, 130
D’Ohsson, Mouradgea, xx
domestic violence, xxv–xxvi, 139–45
doubt, judicial. See shubha
Doumani, Bishara, 64
Douwes, Dick, 57
drinking. See alcohol; drunkenness
Druze, 115
Duri, A. A., 190n. 19
East Mediterranean region, xxviii
Ebu’s Su‘ud: fatwas of, 29, 40, 48, 50–51, 58, 197n. 74; on honor crimes, 40, 55–56, 155–56; on murder of ex-husbands, 142; on prostitution, 50, 58; on rape, 50–51, 53, 54; on sodomy, 54; on spousal abuse, 142–43; on violence against women, 51–53
Egypt: disobedient wives in, 141; eighteenth century in, xxxvii; euphemisms used in, 205n. 5; intent in, 42; prostitution in, 100–101, 110; punishment for rape in, 149, 153; rape in, 135, 154; zaptiyya courts in, 70
Elias, Mar, 158
elites, 79
emasculation of men, 102
Engels, Friedrich, xxi–xxii
en masse testimony, 80, 81, 86–88, 150, 159
Ergene, Boğaç, 185–86n. 3; on communal domination, 86–87; on court fees, 66; on en masse testimony, 81; on fomenter of corruption, 205n. 9; on neighborhood policing, 124; on rape, 150; on social class, 202n. 66; on stoning, 185–86n. 3; on strategy of substitution, 98
ethnic groups, xxxii–xxxiv, 73, 76–77
euphemisms, xvii, 94–99, 205n. 5, 205n. 7
Europeans, 76–77
evidence: circumstantial, 97–98, 147; criteria for, 98; customary, 137; en masse testimony and, 81, 87–88; for hadd crimes, 97; nonlegal terminology and, 97–98; rape and, 138, 147, 156; Selim I on, 45
evil, warding off, 95–96
“Excessive Hitting” (Ibn ‘Abidin), 143
executions, 67, 185n. 2. See also stoning
ex-husbands, 142
expert witnesses, 68
expulsion. See banishment
eyewitnesses. See witnesses
faces, blackening, 10
Fahmy, Khaled, 28, 89, 110, 205n. 5
false accusation, 7, 21, 124–27, 190n. 15
family: definition of, 208n. 78; extended, 120, 149–50; prostitution and, 111, 119–24, 159
family economy, 130–31
Fantun walad Fantun, 76–77
Farah bint al-Hajj Mustafa, 122–23
Fatima bint ‘Abd al-Karim, 123
Fatima bint ‘Abdallah, 200n. 30, 209n. 102
Fatima bint Ahmad al-Sarraj, 116
Fatima bint Hajj ‘Ali, 143
Fatima bint Hussein, 145
Fatima bint Muhammad, 119–20
Fatima bint Musa, 119
Fatima bint Shaykh Mustafa, 89
Fatma bint Hadhr, 107–8
fatwas: of Aleppo, xx; Armenian, 49; vs. court records, xix; definition of, xxxix, 47; on disobedient wives, 141; of Ebu’s Su‘ud, 29, 40, 48, 50–51, 58, 197n. 74; on honor crimes, 54–56; on istihsan, 133; muftis and, 49–50; Ottoman law and, 29, 47–56; process of issuing, xxiii; on prostitution, 50; on rape, 50–51, 52–53, 146–47; relationship to reality, 50; on self-defense, 40; on spousal abuse, 141–43, 144–45
fees, court, 66
fetva. See fatwas
fines: vs. banishment, 158; collective responsibility and, 126; with flogging, 129–30; kanunnames on, 31–32, 57–58; on neighborhoods, 126, 128; for out-of-wedlock pregnancy, 153; for rape, 146; as revenue, 34, 58; shari‘a on, 57–58; social class and, 37; for sodomy, 41; for zina, 37, 51
fiqh: closing of the gates of ijtihad and, 4; definition of, 15; on dual punishment, 57; fatwas and, 50; Hanafi school, 16; legal theory vs. court practices in, xix; vs. local customary law, 187n. 24; Ottoman law and, 58
first-person narratives, 65–66
fitna, 46–47
flesh trade, xxiv
flirtation, 43–44
flogging: Aleppo court records on, 99; for drinking and prostitution, 128; for false accusation, 7; fines with, 129–30; gender and, 26–27, 193n. 97; hadiths on, 9; Hanafi school on, 26, 27; kanunnames on, 31; moderation of, 28; for rape, 146, 147; women, 26–27; for zina, 4, 26, 51
fomenter of corruption, 87–88, 98, 205n. 9
forced confinement, 141
forced sexual intercourse. See nonconsensual sexual intercourse; rape
foreign merchants, xxxii–xxxiii, 103
foreign prostitutes, 111, 207n. 63
formulaic expressions, 95, 111–12
fornication, 37
French citizens, 76–77
French Inquisition, 65
gardens, 112
gates of ijtihad, 3–4, 187n. 19
gathering strangers, 96–97, 99, 118, 168, 205n. 7
gender: flogging and, 26–27, 193n. 97; legal system and, 156–57; morality and, xix, xxiv, 160; social relationship of, xxiii. See also women
gender violence, 138. See also rape; spousal abuse
Ghantusa bint Hajj ‘Abdallah, 120
ghasb, 146
al-Ghawri, Qansuh, xxviii
ghayr mubrah, 139–40
al-Ghazali, Abu Hamid, 134–35
al-Ghazali, Janbirdi, xxix
government, local, 159
Grehan, James, 148–49
guarantee, 62
Guerre, Martin, 65
guilds: in Aleppo, 62, 88–93; competition and, 90–91; definition of, 88; expulsion from, 91, 92; leaders of, 91; origins of, 91–92; prostitution and, 89, 100, 101, 204n. 102; public morality and, 92–93; rules of, 91
hadd punishment, 31–33, 146–47, 149
hadiths: on adultery, 10–11; authenticity of, 8–9; on confessions, 12–13, 115; on flogging, 9; on homosexual acts, 13–15; on intent, 46, 57; patriarchy in, 9, 191n. 22; process of compiling, 8, 190n. 19; on prostitution, 14; on punishment, 12–13; on rape, 21, 147; on sexual innuendo, 44; on stoning, xxi, 4–5, 9–13, 22–28, 158; on zina, 5, 8–15
al-Hakim, 100
hakim al-‘urf, 66
Halab, xxvi. See also Aleppo
al-Halabi, Ibrahim, 17, 20, 21–22, 23, 32
Hallaq, Wael, xxii–xxiii, 50
al-Hamawi, Sayyid Muhammad, 112
Hamna bint Jahsh, 7
Hanafi school, xxv, 15–22; Aleppo courts and, 69, 71; on annulments, 68; on circumstantial evidence, 97, 147; codification of laws, 17–18; on collective responsibility, 83; on confessions, 12, 21, 22, 33; on contracts, 19; on divorce, 19; on dual punishment, 57; on flogging, 26, 27; on hadd punishment, 33; on intent, 44, 57; Jabal Sam‘an court and, 70; kanunnames and, 16–18, 192n. 54; Kubra court and, 71; Ottoman law and, 16–17, 192n. 54; on pregnant women, 25; on ruler autonomy, 31, 35; shubha and, 33; on sodomy, 40; on stoning, 22–23, 26; on witnesses, 33, 54; on zina, 18–22
Hanbali school, 15–16; on anal intercourse, 6; on confessions, 22; on istihsan, 133; prostitution and, 100; on stoning, 22
harm: bodily, 19–20, 149; darar, 140–41; warding off, 95–96
Haskiya bint ‘Ali, 144–45
Hatt-i Hümayun, xxxviii
Hatt-i Sharif, xxxvii–xxxviii
Hawadith Dimashq al-Yawmiyya (al-Budayri), 101–3, 206n. 28
Hawran, 76
heaven, 8
Hedaya (al-Marginani): on banishment, 131; on flogging, 27; influence of, 17; on intent, 44, 57; on shubha, 32; on stoning women, 25
Helena bint ‘Abd al-Nur, 148
Heyd, Uriel: on bastinado, 129–30; on fatwas, 48; on fines, 31, 57; kanunnames of Süleyman I and, 36; on stoning, 58
Hilala bint Ka‘dan, 154–55
hitting: excessive, 143; nonviolent, 139–40
homeless persons, 79
homosexual acts, 6, 7–8, 13–15, 41, 98. See also sodomy
honor, 159
honor crimes, 40, 45, 46, 54–56, 155–56
Hourani, Albert, 78
hudud. See corporal punishment
humiliation, public, 10, 191n. 28
husbands, 51, 139, 142. See also spousal abuse
Husseini, Safiya, 185n. 2
Ibn ‘Abdallah, Mustafa, 108
Ibn ‘Abdi Efendi, Ibrahim Chalabi, 149–50
Ibn ‘Abidin, 143, 152, 197n. 74
Ibn Ahmad, ‘Abd al-Rahman, 149
Ibn Ahmad, Taha, 128
Ibn al-Baktash, Muhammad, 107
Ibn al-Batanuni, 47
Ibn al-Hajj Mahmud, ‘Uthman Pasha, 119
Ibn al-Hajj Muhammad, Sayyid Ahmad, 118
Ibn al-Hajj ‘Uthman, ‘Aqil, 119
Ibn ‘Ali, Mustafa, 116
Ibn al-Kayem, 135–36
Ibn al-Khattab, Umar, xvii
Ibn Anas, Malik, 14-15
Ibn Bashar, Hajj Ahmad, xvii
Ibn Battuta, 91
Ibn Bazzaz, 55
Ibn Bilal, Taha, 128
Ibn Fathi, Mustafa, 119
Ibn Hajj ‘Ali, Qasim, 143
Ibn Hajj Hussein, ‘Abd al-Qadir, 91
Ibn Hajj Muhammad, Nasr, 93
Ibn Hajj Muhammad, Salah, 93
Ibn Hajj Muhammad, Sayyid Bakr, 125–26
Ibn Hajj Murad, Shaykh Muhammad, 127
Ibn Hamad, Sayyid Hassan, 120
Ibn Ibrahim Pasha, Darwish Ahmad, 127
Ibn Ishaq, 5
Ibn Isma‘il, Milhem, 149
Ibn Jawzi, 13
Ibn Kathir, 139–40
Ibn Mahmud, ‘Aqil, 91
Ibn Mubarak, ‘Ali, 92
Ibn Muhammad, Abdul Karim, 145
Ibn Muhammad, Ahmad Khatush, 144
Ibn Muhammad, Muhammad ibn Hajj Rajab, 107
Ibn Muhammad, Sayyid ‘Abd al-Razzaq, 91
Ibn Murad, Ahmad, 131
Ibn Mustafa, Hajj ‘Ali, 127
Ibn Najm, Ka‘dan, 154–55
Ibn Nujaym, Zayn al-Din, 15, 17, 32, 55
Ibn Qasim Basha, Muhammad Agha, 124
Ibn Qasim, Hajj Isma‘il, 116
Ibn Rajab, Hajj Muhammad, 119–20
Ibn Rajab, Mustafa, 119–20
Ibn Shams al-din, ‘Abd al-Salam, 167
Ibn Taymiyya, 135–36
Ibn Thabit, Hasan, 7
Ibn Uthatha, Mistah, 7
Ibn Walid, Khalid, xxvi
Ibn Yusuf, Ahmad, 144
‘iddah, 142
ifta’, xxiii
ightisab, 146
ijtihad: classical Islamic law and, 3; debate about, 5; gates of, xxii–xxiii, 3–4, 187n. 19; Hanafi school on, 132; modern use of, 161; women and, xx, 186n. 13
ikhtilaf, 6
illicit sexuality. See zina
illness, 27
Imber, Colin: on the Hanafi school, 16–17; on prostitution, 38; on rape, 53–54; on ruler autonomy, 35; on shubha, 32
immoral conduct. See public morality
imperial law. See kanunnames
Imperial Rescript of the Rose Chamber, xxxvii–xxxviii
impurity, 79
imtiyazat, xxxiii
Inalcik, Halil, 36
incest, xviii
indemnity, 33
individual punishment, 83
innocence, 22
intent, 41–43, 56–57; to commit adultery, 42–43, 44–45; as guilt, 42, 56–57; of rape victims, 45–46; stoning for, 197n. 66; suspicion of, 42–43, 46, 197n. 66
interest (monetary), 134
interests of the community, 87–88, 136–37
“International Call for Moratorium on Corporal Punishment, Stoning, and the Death Penalty in the Islamic World, An” (Ramdan), 160–61
iqrar. See confessions
Iran, 185n. 2
Iraq, 15
irregular troops. See levend
Islamic law: classical, 3; codification of, 3, 17–18, 28, 29, 36; definition of, 160; devşirme system and, 105; doctrinal vs. local customary, xxiii, xxiv–xxv, 61, 94, 133–37, 187n. 24; flexibility within, 159; history of, xxii–xxiii; Islamists’ understanding of, xxi; istihsan and istislah in, 132–36; on legitimacy, 152; literature of, xix; Orientalism on, xxi–xxii, 187n. 19; on rape, xxv–xxvi, 138, 145; reformed prostitutes and, 114–18; reinterpretation of, 160–62; revisionist school of, xxi, xxii–xxiii; schools of, 15–16, 68, 69; on sexual morality, 160; sources of, 5–6, 134–35; on spousal abuse, 138–39; textual analysis of, xxiv; theory and practice of, xxi–xxii; women’s rights and, 139; on zina, xxv, 159–60. See also doctrinal law; juridical literature; shari‘a courts; shari‘a law
Islamists, xvii–xviii, xxi, 161
isnad, 8–9
Istanbul, 62, 70, 73, 117, 130
Jabal Sam‘an court, 70
al-Jandaly, Bassam, 185n. 2
Janissaries: Banqusa region and, 114; guild system and, 89; notable class and, 78; power of, xxxv–xxxvii; prostitution and, 108–9; two classes of, 103, 104
al-Jazzar, Ahmad Pasha, 106
Jelali revolts, xxxiv–xxxv, 38–39
Jennings, Ronald C., 108, 130–31
Jesus, 10–11
Jewish courts, 188n. 46
Jews: in Aleppo, xxxiv, 73; guild system and, 92; marriage to Muslims, 185n. 3; stoning and, 10–11, 25; zina and, 129
Jezebel, 25
al-Jisr, Husayn, xxii
jizya, xxxviii
John (Book of), 10–11
Joseph, 46
judges: Circle of Justice and, 34; confessions and, 33; euphemisms and, 98, 99; istislah and, 135; kadijustiz system and, xxii; role in Islamic law, xxii; role in shari‘a courts, 67–68; rotation of, 67–68, 200n. 27; siyaset used by, 98; strategy of substitution, 98
judicial doubt. See shubha
juridical literature, xix, 137, 141, 145, 186n. 8. See also fatwas; fiqh; hadiths
Justice, Circle of, 33–34
Kadizâdeli movement, 129
kanunnames, xx; on abduction, 38–39; on adultery, 38; of Aleppo, 36; on circumstantial evidence, 147; on collective responsibility, 82, 126; decline of, 58; on fines, 31–32, 57–58; Hanafi school and, 16–18, 192n. 54; on honor crimes, 40, 45; on intent, 41–46, 57; local customary law and, 58; of Mehmet II, 35; on prostitution, 37–38; punishment and, xxv; on rape, 39, 41, 53–54; as ruler autonomy, 35–37; as secular law, 35; of Selim I, 29, 36, 37, 38, 41, 45; on sexual solicitation, 43–44; on sodomy, 40–41; on speculation, 43; on stoning, 158; of Süleyman I, 29, 36–37, 38–39, 40, 41, 42–43, 58, 82, 147; on violence against women, 39–40; on zina, 33–47
Karima bint Hajj Yusuf al-Mu‘asirani, 89
al-Kasani, ‘Ala’ al-Din, 15
Kasap Ilyas quarter, 116–17
katib. See court scribes
kayd, 47
Kayseri, 108
kenizlik. See sodomy
Khadija bint ‘Abd al-Karim, 123
Khadija bint Bakri, 118
Khadija bint Shaykh Salah, 116
Khalidi, Tarif, 190n. 19
khans. See caravansaries
Khanum bint Hajj bint Hajj, 125–26
kharajiyyat, 100
Kharij Bab al-Nasr quarter, 113
khassa, 79
Khayr ad-Din. See al-Ramli, Khayr ad-Din ibn Ahmad
Khoury, Philip, 203n. 88
kidnapping, 149
killing innocents, 135
Kitab al-fatawa al-kubra li naf‘ al-barriya (Khayr ad-Din), 141–42
Kitab al-Mabsur, 51
Kitab al-‘Unwan fi maka‘id al-Niswan, 47
Kohar bint ‘Attallah, 123
al-Kubra, Mahkamat, 69
Kubra court, 70–71
Kufa school, 15
Kusa Mustafa Pasha, xxxvi
La Funti, Yusuf walad Istifan, 76–77
language: Arabic, xxx; euphemisms and, 94–99, 205n. 5; formal court, 64; formulaic expressions and, 95, 111–12; rape and, xxvi, 54, 145–46; Turkish, xxx–xxxi
lapidation, 10–11
Lapidus, Ira, 81
Largueche, Dalenda, 141
lashes. See flogging
law: codification of, 3, 17–18, 28, 29; custom and, 133–34; religious vs. secular, 35; substantive, 4, 16, 50; terminology of, 97–98; Western, 3. See also doctrinal law; Islamic law; local customary law; Ottoman law; shari‘a law
Lawal, Amina, 185n. 2
legal discourse, xxiv–xxv, 3–4, 15–16
legal pluralism, 30
legal reasoning. See ijtihad
lesbianism, 6
letters of introduction, 117
levend, 103, 105–8, 154–55, 206n. 38
liability, 51–52
“lie, account of the,” 7, 190n. 15
literature: ‘amal, 136; juridical, 137, 141, 145, 186n. 8; popular, 46
local customary law: consideration of, 5–6; vs. doctrinal law, xxiii, xxiv–xxv, 94, 133–36, 187n. 24; Islamic law and, 136–37; Ottoman law and, 30–31, 58; punishment and, 129–32; tradition of, 159–60
local government, 159
looseness of women, 102
Lot, 8
madhahab, 15–16
mahkamah shar‘iyya, 69–70
majlis, xxxvii
mahr or mahr mu’akhkhar. See dowry
Malti-Douglas, Fedwa, 47
Mandeville, Jon, 63
al-Maqrizi, 100
mar’a, 111–12
Marcus, Abraham: on ‘amma, 80; on collective responsibility, 82–83; on guilds, 88, 91–92; on policing, 73; on prostitution, 129, 131, 209n. 102; on reputation, 208n. 75; on rotation of judges, 67–68; studies by, xviii
al-Marginani, Abi Bakr al-Farghani: on banishment, 131; on circumstantial evidence, 147; on dowry, 192n. 63; on flogging, 27; Hedaya, 17, 25, 27, 32, 44, 57, 131; on intent, 44, 57; on prostitution, 37–38; on shubha, 32; on stoning women, 25; on zina, 18
marital status: fines and, 37; on muhtasib, 91; prostitution and, 119; punishment and, 6, 26, 194n. 99; women as property and, 19
Markar walad Arakil, 92
marriage: abduction for, 154; between a Muslim and Jew, 185n. 3; of rapist to victim, 135; registration of, 69; tahlil, 142
marriage contracts, 19, 116, 117, 139, 140, 144–45
Marx, Karl, xxi–xxii
al-Masabin quarter, xxxiv
Masters, Bruce, xviii, xxxiii, 206n. 35
masturbation, 6
Mecelle, 17–18
mediation, 39
Mehmed IV, 129
memory, xxi
men, emasculation of, 102
mens rea, 13
merchants, xxxii–xxxiv, 103
Meriwether, Margaret, xvi, 208n. 78
Mernissi, Fatima, xx, xxi, 191n. 22
Messick, Brinkley, 49
midwives guild, 88–89
military troops: abduction into, 105; prostitution and, 101, 103, 105–9, 206n. 38; rape and, 154–55. See also Janissaries
millet, xxxvii–xxxviii
miscarriage, 108
misuse of memory, xxi
money, blood. See diya
morality: deviant behavior and, xxiii–xxiv; gender and, xix, xxiv, 160; sexual, 160; women and, xxi. See also public morality
“morally repugnant deeds,” 96
Moroccan guards, 92
mosques, xxvi–xxvii
mudaraba, 133–34
muftis, 29, 47, 48, 49–50, 68–69
Muhammad (Prophet): ashraf and, xxxvi; on confessions, 13; descendants of, 77–78; on fixed punishment, 30; on flogging, 27; hadiths on, 13–14; on intent, 44, 46, 57; on nonviolent hitting, 140; on prostitution, 14, 99–100; on punishment, 12, 32; on shubha, 32; on stoning, xvii, 4, 9–10, 158; stoning of Ma‘iz and, 11–12; sunna, 4
muhtasib, 91
mukhtar notebooks, 117
mulk. See ownership
Multaqa al-Abhur (al-Halabi), 17, 21–22, 32
murder: collective punishment for, 83; diya and, 20, 45; of ex-husbands, 142; honor crimes and, 46, 54–56; as self-defense, 51–52; for sexual impropriety, 56. See also honor crimes
Muslim neighborhoods, xxxiv
Muslims: abduction into military service, 105; marriage to Jews, 185n. 3; names in court records, 201–2n. 49; out-of-wedlock pregnancy in, 153; population of Aleppo, 122; prostitution and, 115, 121–22; sexuality of, xx
mustakraha, 145. See also rape
Mu‘tazili school, 134
Myriam bint ‘Abd al-Rahman, 108
Myriam bint Yusuf, 118
mysticism, 91
Nablus, 69
al-Nabulusi, ‘Abd al-Ghani, 15, 44
nafaqa. See child support; maintenance
na’ib. See deputies
nakedness, 27
names, 201–2n. 49
naqib al-ashraf, 77–78
narratives, first-person, 65–66
neighborhood policing: corruption in, 124; modern use of, 159; Ottoman law on, 61–62; against prostitution, 101, 114, 118–29, 137, 206n. 25; of public morality, 82–83, 84–86, 124–27, 137, 164
neighborhoods: collective responsibility of, 82–84, 126; euphemisms and, 97; fines on, 126, 128; Muslim, xxxiv; non-Muslim, xxxiii–xxxiv, xxxiv. See also banishment; quarter representatives; quarter solidarity
neighborhood strongmen, 85, 203n. 88
Nerses walad Abdullah, 154
nizami courts, xxxviii, 69–70, 201n. 39
nobility, xxxvi, xxxvii. See also a‘yan
nonconsensual sexual intercourse, 53–54, 145. See also zina
nonlegal terminology, 97–98
non-Muslims: guild system and, 92; neighborhoods of, xxxiii–xxxiv, xxxiv, 73; prostitution and, 115; in shari‘a courts, xxxiv, 76
nonviolent hitting, 139–40
notable class. See a‘yan
nushuz, 139–40
oath-taking, 147, 148–49, 152, 157
obedience. See ta‘a
occupations, dishonorable, 79
“off the straight path,” xvii, 96, 118, 159, 168
1001 Nights (Shahrazade), 46
Orientalism, xxi–xxii, xxii–xxiv, 133
Ottoman Empire: Aleppo’s court records and, xix; coercion by, 82–84, 86; economy, xxxvi, 8; guild system and, 88, 91; history of, xxviii–xxxviii; language of, xxx–xxxi; public morality in, 84; social class in, 77–80; Tanzimat reforms, xxxviii, 3, 69–70; taxation of prostitutes in, 100–101
Ottoman law: Circle of Justice, 33–34; codification of laws and, 3, 17–18, 28, 29, 36; on collective responsibility, 84; fatwas and, 29, 47–56; Hanafi school and, 16–17, 192n. 54; intent in, 41–43; local customary law and, 58, 61; on policing, 61–62, 83–84; on prostitution, 101; on punishment, 30–31, 107; on rape, 53–54; religious vs. secular, 35; shari‘a and, 29, 56–58; on stoning, 58; sultans and, 34–37; zina and, 32–33. See also kanunnames
out-of-wedlock pregnancy, 150–54, 155, 156, 167, 185n. 2
Pakistan, 139
Palestinian Peasants and Ottoman Officials (Singer), 107
Paolo, 124
Paşa, Çağalzade Sinan, xxxv
passion crimes. See honor crimes
patriarchy, 9, 11, 18–19, 46–47, 191n. 22
Peeping Toms, 43
Peirce, Leslie: on ‘Ayntab, xix; on circumstantial evidence, 147; on monitoring morality, 84; on oath-taking, 152; on police, 200n. 24; on punishment, 132, 199n. 9; on rape, 148, 153–54, 155, 156; on reformed prostitutes, 115–16; on reputation, 208n. 75; on ruler autonomy, 31
perceived ownership, 32
Permanent Council (Saudi), 3
physical punishment. See corporal punishment
pimping, 38
pluralism, legal, 30
policing: of Aleppo, 73–88; collective responsibility for, 84–85; Ottoman law on, 61–62, 83–84; against prostitution, 101, 114, 206n. 25; public morality, 84–85; quarter representatives in, 82. See also neighborhood policing
poll tax (jizya), xxxviii
popular literature, 46
poverty, 79
Powers, David, 187n. 24
preferred result. See istihsan
pregnancy, out-of-wedlock, 150–54, 155, 156, 167, 185n. 2
pregnant women, stoning of, 24–26
prisoners of war, 105
prisons, 67
procurement of prostitution, xviii, 38, 49, 96–97, 112, 118–28. See also prostitution
property, 18–19
proprietorship, 19
prostitution, 99–129; al-Budayri on, 102–3; Aleppo court records on, xvii, 94, 104–5, 107–8, 110–29, 123, 131, 208n. 70; ban on, 110; banishment for, 94, 118, 119, 126, 128–29, 131, 137, 159, 209n. 102; in Damascus, 85, 100, 109–10, 112, 120; descriptions of women in, 100; Ebu’s Su‘ud on, 50; in Egypt, 100–101, 110; euphemisms for, xvii, 96–97, 99, 205n. 5, 205n. 7; family and, 111, 119–24, 159; flogging for, 128; foreign prostitutes in, 111, 207n. 63; guild system and, 89, 100, 101, 204n. 102; hadiths on, 14; Janissaries and, 108–9; kanunnames on, 37–38; military troops and, 101, 103, 105–9, 206n. 38; Muhammad (Prophet) on, 99–100; neighborhood policing against, 101, 114, 118–29, 137, 206n. 25; in the nineteenth century, 115, 208n. 70; non-Muslims and, 115; ownership and, 37; patronage of, 103, 127–28; policing against, 101, 114, 206n. 25; premodern vs. modern, 101; procurement of, xviii, 38, 49, 96–97, 112, 118–28; punishment for, xvii, xxv, 94, 128–32, 136, 159, 209n. 102; Qur’an on, 99; reformed prostitutes and, 114–18; by religion, 123; sample Aleppo sijills on, 168; shubha and, 32–33; social class and, 110–11; socioeconomic factors of, 120; stoning for, 58, 130; taxes on, 100–101; testimonials on, 114–18, 170; as zina, xviii
public humiliation, 10, 191n. 28
public interest. See istislah
public morality: alcohol and, 163–64; Aleppo court records on, xxiii, 71, 82, 86, 96; collective responsibility and, 82–83; en masse testimony in, 80; euphemisms for, 96; false accusation of, 124–27; fomenter of corruption and, 87–88, 98, 205n. 9; guild system and, 92–93; neighborhood policing of, 82–83, 84–85, 86, 124–27, 137, 164; in Ottoman Empire, 84; quarter solidarity and, 85, 93, 159; social class and, 71, 80
“Public Morality in 18th Century Damascus” (Rafeq), 84–85
punishment: for alcohol, 27, 83; based on circumstantial evidence, 98; collective, 83–84; consistency of, xxiii; for crimes against the state, 132; for disobedient wives, 140; dual, 57; executions as, 185n. 2; fixed, 30, 35; hadd, 20–21, 27, 31–33, 146–47, 149; hadiths on, 12–13; for homosexual acts, 13–14; illness and, 27; individual, 83; Islamists’ and, xix; kanunnames on, xxv; local customary law and, 129–32; mandatory, 23; marital status and, 6, 26, 194n. 99; moderation of, 28; Ottoman law and, 30–31, 107; precedent for, 4; for prostitution, xvii, xxv, 94, 128–32, 136, 159, 209n. 102; for rape, 146–47, 148, 153, 155; ritual, 27–28; shari‘a court records on, xv, 64, 199n. 9; shari‘a law on, 30–31; social class and, 37; for spousal abuse, 143; for zina, xvii–xviii, xxi, xxiii, 20–21, 31–33, 129–32, 159–60. See also banishment; corporal punishment; fines; flogging; stoning
püzavinklik, 38
qadi. See judges
al-Qadir, Hajj Hijazi bin, 169
Qarliq district, 121
qasd. See intent
al-Qasila quarter, 113
al-Qattan, Najwa, 73
quantitative analysis, 66, 114
quarter policing. See neighborhood policing
quarter representatives, xxv, 81–82, 85
quarter solidarity: in Aleppo, xix, 61–62, 82; en masse testimony and, 159; in modern Damascus, 164; public morality and, 85, 93. See also neighborhoods
Qur’an: on adultery, 7; on confessions, 114–15; on disobedient wives, 139–40; on heaven, 8; on homosexual acts, 7–8; on prostitution, 14, 99; on stoning, xxi, 5, 9, 10, 22; on women’s sexual desire, 46; on zina, 5, 6–8
Radd al-muhtar ‘ala al-durr al-mukhtar (Ibn ‘Abidin), 143
Rafeq, Abdul Karim: on banishment, 131–32; on euphemisms, 96, 97, 205n. 5; on gathering strangers, 205n. 7; on guilds, 91; on homosexuality, 98; on the levend, 106; on prostitution, 110, 120, 136; on public morality, 84–85; on quarter solidarity, 61; studies by, xviii–xix
rajam. See stoning
Ramadan, Tariq, 160–61
al-Ramli, Khayr ad-Din ibn Ahmad, 52–53, 141–42, 146–47
rape, 145–57; adultery and, 53; Aleppo court records on, 138, 147, 150–54, 151; of boys, 41, 53–54; compensation for, 146–47, 149; confessions and, 149, 153–54, 155; Ebu’s Su‘ud on, 50–51; evidence and, 138, 147, 156; fatwas on, 50–51, 52–53, 146–47; flogging for, 146, 147; hadd punishment for, 146–47, 149; intent and, 42, 45–46; Islamic law on, xxv–xxvi, 138, 145; kanunnames on, 39, 41, 53–54; marital, 51, 139; marriage of rapist to victim and, 135; oath-taking and, 147, 148–49, 152, 157; Ottoman law on, 53–54; pregnancy from, 150–54; punishment for, 146–47, 148, 153, 155; shubha and, 33; of slaves, 21; sodomy as, 41; stoning for, 185–86n. 3; terminology for, xxvi, 54, 145–46; testimony on, 65; witnesses to, 147; women as property and, 18–19; as zina, xviii, 21–22, 146, 156–57
Raymond, André, 81, 92, 121, 206n. 35
reasoning, legal. See ijtihad
reformed prostitutes, 114–18
religious elite. See ‘ulama
religious groups, xxxii–xxxiv, 73, 122, 188n. 43
religious law, 35
remarriage, 142
rent, 124
representatives, quarter, xxv, 81–82, 85
reputation, 116, 118, 208n. 75
research methodology, 63–69, 199n. 7
responsibility, collective, 82–84, 126, 164
retribution, 138
ritual punishment, 27–28
Romans, 158
Rosen, Lawrence, 133–34, 135, 136
runaways, 163–64
Sahat Biza quarter, 113
sa‘i bi’l fasad. See fomenter of corruption
Sajdi, Dana, 206n. 28
Salah al-Din, xxvii
Saliba al-Judayda quarter, xxxiv, 73
Saliha bint Muhammad, 149–50
Salmun, 109
same sex relationships. See homosexual acts
al-Saqazi, Sadiq ibn Muhammad, 32–33
Sara bint Hana, 131
Sara bint Rizq Allah, 150, 154
al-Sarkhsi, Muhammad ibn Ahmad, 17, 19
Sasun bakers, 92
Saudi Arabia, 3
Schacht, Joseph, xviii, 16, 18, 133, 192n. 54
Schlegell, Barbara von, 15
schools of Islamic law, 15–16, 68, 69
scribes, 64, 65–66, 68, 200n. 32
secular law, 35
seduction, 46
Selim I: on abduction, 38; on evidence, 45; on intent, 41; kanunnames of, 29, 36, 37, 38, 41, 45; on kissing or flirtation, 43; Mutaqa al-Abhur and, 17; rule of, xxviii
Seljuk emirates, xxvii
Seng, Yvonne, 130
sexes, mixing of, 49
sexual assault. See rape; spousal abuse
sexual desire, 46
sexual indiscretion. See zina
sexual intercourse: consensual, 53–54, 145; forced, 40–41; illicit (see zina); legal, xxiv, 6; nonconsensual, 40–41, 53–54, 145
sexual intercourse, illicit. See zina
sexual morality, 160
sexual solicitation, 43–44
sexuality, xx, xxiv, 19, 46–47
Shafi‘i school: Aleppo courts and, 69, 71; on annulments, 68; on confessions, 12, 22; founding of, 16; Hanafi school and, 15; on istihsan, 133; on pregnant women, 25; on sodomy, 40; on stoning, 23
Shafi‘iyya court, 69
Shahrazade, 46
Shahroudi (Ayatollah), 185n. 2
shahud al-hal. See expert witnesses
Sharaf bint Hajj Mustafa ibn ‘Abdallah, 116
shari‘a courts: adjudication process, 64; Christians in, 76; communal domination in, 86–87; formulaic expressions in, 95, 111–12; guild system and, 62, 88–89, 91–92; information provided by, 63–64; interests of the community and, xxiv; legal theory vs. actual practices of, xix, 61; local customary law and, 5–6; local differences in, 69; non-Muslims in, xxxiv, 76; political history and, xviii–xix; procedures and structure of, 67–68; on punishment, xvii, 64, 199n. 9; quantitative analysis of, 66, 114; research methodology and, 63–69, 199n. 7; shopping for the desired ruling in, 126; siijills of, 66, 68; social class and, 61–62, 80–81, 202n. 66; social history and, xviii–xix, xxv, 63–72; stoning by, xvii–xviii; Syrian archives records of, 69–70. See also Aleppo court records
shari‘a law: codification of, 3, 17–18, 28, 29, 36; vs. customary law, 94; description of, 61; on fines, 57–58; istihsan and, 132–33; kanunnames and, 29, 56–58; vs. local customary law, 5–6, 61; modern understanding of, 161–62; Ottoman law and, 29, 56–58; on punishment, 30–31; as religious law, 35; on stoning for prostitution, 130. See also doctrinal law; Islamic law
sharif, 77–78
shaykhul-islam. See mufti
Shiites, 6
shotgun weddings, 152
Shuman, Mushin ‘Ali, 73
silent partnership. See mudaraba
Singer, Amy, 107
slander. See qadhf
social class: in Aleppo, 76, 87, 188n. 43; court fees and, 66; guild system and, 88, 89, 204n. 98; in the Ottoman Empire, 77–80; prostitution and, 110–11; public morality and, 71, 80; punishment and, 37; shari‘a courts and, 61–62, 80–81, 202n. 66; witnesses and, 77, 126
social conflict, 46
social history, xviii–xix, xxv, 63–72
socioeconomic factors, 120, 130–31
Sodom and Gomorrah, 8
sodomy, xvi, 8, 13, 14, 40–41, 54, 98, 145
soldiers. See military troops
solicitation, sexual, 43–44. See also prostitution
solidarity, quarter, xix, xxv, 61–62, 82, 85, 93, 159
Sonbol, Amira El-Azhary, xix, 79, 141, 149
speculation. See suspicion
Spellberg, Denise A., 190n. 15
spice trade, xxxiii
spousal abuse, 139–45; Aleppo court records on, 138–39, 143–45; Ebu’s Su‘ud on, 142–43; Islamic law on, 138–39; kanunnames on, 39–40; murder of ex-husbands after, 142; punishment for, 143; sample Aleppo sijills on, 169; testimony on, 65–66
spousal support, 141
standing surety, 62
state, crimes against, 132
stoning: for adultery, 9, 10, 132; Aleppo court records on, 99, 160, 185n. 3; bodily position during, 23–24, 27; burial after, 25–26; Christians and, 10–11, 158; confessions and, 23; fatwas on, 50–51; hadiths on, xxi, 4–5, 9–13, 22–28, 158; Hanafi school on, 22–23, 26; historical basis for, xvii–xviii; kanunnames on, 31; of Ma‘iz, 11–12, 24, 25; moratorium on, 160–61; Muhammad on, xvii, 4, 9–10, 11–12, 158; Ottoman law on, 58; of pregnant women, 24–26; for prostitution, 58, 130; Qur’an on, xxi, 5, 9, 10, 22; for rape, 185–86n. 3; recent cases of, 185n. 2; size of stones for, 23; for suspicion of bad intent, 197n. 66; of women, 24–26, 27; for zina, xvii–xviii, 4, 22–28, 129, 185–86n. 3
strangers, gathering, 96–97, 99, 118, 168, 205n. 7
strategy of substitution, 87, 98
al-Sulami, Safwan ibn Mu’attal, 7
Süleyman I: on abduction, 38–39; on circumstantial evidence, 147; on collective responsibility, 82; on honor crimes, 40; on intent, 42–43; kanunnames of, 29, 36–37, 38–39, 40, 41, 42–43, 58, 82, 147; on Peeping Toms, 43; on prostitution, 38; rule of, xxviii–xxxviii; on sodomy, 41
sulh. See mediation
sultans, 34–37
Sunni, 15
Surat al-Isra, 6
Surat al-Nisa, 139
Surat Bani Isra’il, 6
Su‘ud, Efendi, xx
Syrian archives, 69–70, 201n. 39
al-Tabari, 140
tafsir, 15
tahlil marriage, 142
ta’ifa. See guilds
Taliban, 185n. 2
Tamari, Stephen Edmond, 200n. 27
al-Tamimi, 152
Tanzimat reforms, xxxviii, 3, 69–70
taxes, xxxviii, 100–101, 206n. 25
Tayiba, 108
ta‘zir, 20–21, 57, 143, 193n. 97
testimony: in court records, 65–66; en masse, 80, 81, 86–87, 150, 159; nonlegal terminology and, 97–98
textual analysis, xxiv
titled witnesses, 77
Torah, 10–11
trade, xxvi, xxxi–xxxiii, xxxvi
transliteration, xxxix
triple divorce, 52–53, 141–42, 144
troops. See military troops
Tucker, Judith: on disobedient wives, 141; on gender, xix, xxiii; on marriage contracts, 69; on muftis, 49; on shubha, 33; on ta‘a, 53
Turkish language, xxx–xxxi
‘Umar (Caliph): on punishment, 32; on rape, 21, 147; on stoning, 5, 9–10
Umar ibn al-Khattab, xvii
Umayyad Dynasty, 15
undesirables, 79, 124, 131, 137
United Arab Emirates (UAE), 185n. 2
urban notables paradigm, 78
‘urf. See local customary law
usul al-fiqh, 16
‘Uthman, Shaykh, 124
Venetians, 106
“Verse of Rajam,” 5
Verse on Women. See Surat al-Nisa
violence, xxv–xxvi, 39–40, 51–53, 138, 139–45. See also spousal abuse
Virginia, 95
virtue, 45–46
Volney, Constantine François, 106
volumes. See siijills
al-Walid, Khalid ibn, 24–25
Warda bint ‘Ajrif, 149
warding off evil or harm, 95–96
“Was the Gate of Ijtihad Closed?” (Hallaq), xxii–xxiii
wealth, 78
Weber, Max, xxi–xxii
Western culture, 161
Western law, 3
witnesses: Aleppo court records on, 82; en masse testimony of, 80, 81, 86–88; expert, 68; Hanafi school on, 33; for honor crimes, 54–55; intent and, 45; vs. oathtaking, 152; to rape, 147; social class of, 126; stoning and, 23; titled, 77
Wittfogel, Karl, xxii
wives, disobedient, 139–40
women: cunning, 47; family economy and, 130–31; fines paid by, 37; flirtation with, 43–44; flogging, 26–27; guild system and, 88–89; ijtihad and, 186n. 13; intent of rape victims and, 45–46; juridical, 46; labels for, 95; looseness of, 102; morality and, xxi; morally upright vs. prostitutes, 100; ownership of, 18–19, 32, 37; patriarchy and, 11, 46–47; pregnant, 24–26, 150–54, 155, 156, 167, 185n. 2; reformed prostitutes, 114–18; self-defense by, 40, 51–52; sexual desire of, 46; sexuality of, 46–47; stoning of, 24–26, 27; with unrelated men, 55–56; violence against, 39–40, 51–53. See also prostitution; rape; spousal abuse
women’s rights, 139
world economy, xxxiii
yara, 118
Yemen, 49
Yusuf ‘Ali, ‘Abd Allah, 139
Zamzan bint Sulayman, 170
Zangi, Nur al-Din, xxvii
zaptiyya courts, 70
Zarinebaf, Fariba, 185n. 3
Zarmina, 185n. 2
Ze’evi, Dror, 56, 64, 130, 199n. 7
zina: ‘amma and, 80–81, 202n. 66; after divorce, 142; Aleppo court records on, 98, 104–5, 123, 158–59, 172–83; with betrothed virgins, 11; confessions to, 117, 153–54, 156; corporal punishment for, 4, 99, 137; definition of, xviii, 6, 18, 43-44, 53; euphemisms for, xvii, 94–99, 205n. 5, 205n. 7; false accusation of, 7, 190n. 15; fatwas on, 50–53; fines for, 37, 51; flogging for, 4, 26, 51; hadd punishment for, 31–33; hadiths on, 5, 8–15; Hanafi school on, 18–22; individual punishment for, 83; intent to commit, 44–45, 46; interests of the community and, xxiv; Islamic law on, xxv, 159–60; Jews and, 129; kanunnames on, 33–47; legal theory vs. practice of law and, xxiv–xxv, 136–37; legitimacy and, 152; local customary law and, 129–32; Ottoman law and, 32–33; punishment for, xvii–xviii, xxi, xxiii, 20–21, 31–33, 129–32, 159–60; Qur’an on, 5, 6–8; rape as, xviii, 21–22, 146, 155, 156–57; sample Aleppo sijills on, 167–70; sanity and, 13; self-defense against, 51–52; social class and, 80; stoning for, xvii–xviii, 4, 22–28, 129, 185–86n. 3; suspicion of, 42–43, 46, 57; witnesses to, 23; women found with unrelated men as, 55–56. See also adultery; prostitution; rape
Zulaykha, 46
zurbawat, 108