At Idavoll met the mighty gods,
Shrines and temples they timbered high;
Forges they set, and they smithied ore,
Tongs they wrought, and tools they fashioned.
There are moments in everyone’s lives where you may have felt the movements of things that cannot be explained. Perhaps you’ve had a flash of insight that solved an intractable puzzle in the space of a breath. There might have been a tingle running up your spine in the wake of a storm’s fury. Maybe you saw something out of the corner of your eye that seemed impossibly ancient and indescribable. There could’ve been an instant when you suddenly felt as if a mighty presence was in the room with you even though you’d swear you were all alone. Even more unsettling are those times when you weren’t the only one who felt the company of the enigmatic.
If any of this sounds familiar, you may have already been touched by gods. For Radical Norse Paganism they are guides, mentors, protectors, mighty allies and examples of worthy and unworthy conduct in facing life’s struggles. Though they have their own goals that may push you in unexpected ways, they are not rulers. In the Radical tradition, they have shown they trust everyone to govern ourselves even as they offer help.
Understanding Divinity
In Norse Paganism there are many gods, an understanding of divinity that is also known as polytheism. Each god is an independent, autonomous being with their own name, titles, personality, abilities, purviews and desires. Even this is but a fragment of what the gods truly are. Though the Norse gods, like all polytheistic gods, are not limitless or all-powerful, they are still gods. Even though they are subject to the same greater laws as everything else in the Nine Worlds, they are the Powers who lit the stars, raised the mountains, filled the seas, and set the cosmos in motion. Knowing what each is called, tied to, and the driving behind them will help you better understand beings whose true forms are far beyond the limits of human comprehension.
Even as mighty as the Norse gods are, they are far from perfect. Some bear scars, others are missing limbs. Like all people, the gods have made mistakes and sometimes done terrible things—just because a god does something doesn’t make that action justified. The gods offer powerful examples, at their best and worst, for everyone.
Their imperfection may seem strange in the face of modern society, which believes divinity means infallibility. But it is the flaws of the Norse gods that make their conduct even more relevant to our lives. They show the gods struggle with many of the same challenges you may face every day. They are encouraging, experienced mentors who want you to do the best you can and are not waiting to punish you for mistakes or setbacks. They’ve been there and know that the right or best action isn’t always easy.
The gods are also a means for understanding the human experience. The stories of their actions are one way of giving you worthy examples for life. Another is through what they are associated with. Many people these days dismiss nature-based, polytheistic gods as primitive superstitions used to explain the natural world before the rise of modern science, but nothing could be further from the truth. Whether talking about a god of the ocean depths, a harvest deity, or one of words and wisdom, a specific god’s associations helps understand that deity and explain why things are. Associations provide you with a frame of reference for understanding the aspect of life that deity is associated with, and the ties also mean that the deity can provide people guidance if their lives are shaped by an area or field associated with that deity. The influence of the gods is a different view of reality; it doesn’t contradict, negate, or nullify scientific explanations. If anything, science and spirituality enhance each other when applied with an open mind.
Just like animism, the heart of working with the Norse gods is building enduring relationships. There are many ways you can do this. The information that follows will give you a better idea of what each of the gods are like, what they are associated with, and the guidance they offer. There is also an exercise at the end of this chapter that can get you started on your spiritual journey. More specifics on building these relationships can be found in chapter four. There are no specific gods that are better to start off with than others; just as everyone is different, the gods you connect with most easily are the ones who are most suited to meeting your needs. One good place to go for some ideas is author Niki Ruggerio’s work on relational polytheism.43
In Norse Paganism, most of the gods of the Nine Worlds belong to one of three clans, known as the Aesir, the Vanir, and the Jötnar. Each of these clans is associated with an element of how people understand reality. There are also gods with similar potency, importance, and influence who aren’t part of any of the three, known as the Others. They do not make up a specific clan, as each is tied to the most primordial powers in existence, putting them beyond the rest of the gods in many key ways, making each a highly unique Power.
The Aesir are the gods associated with humanity and society, with connections to words, law, labor, and conflict. They also show up the most in pop culture. The Vanir are the gods related to how humanity interacts with the natural world, with connections to fertility, magic, and working with nature. The Jötnar are the gods of the wilderness, with ties to raw natural forces like wildfires, the ocean depths, and Earth itself.44
The three clans and the Others have some very complicated relationships. Sometimes they fight, most spectacularly when the Aesir and Vanir fought a drawn-out war in the days following Midgard’s creation, or as seen in the many scuffles between the Aesir and some of the Jötnar. They also have friendly relationships; some have even intermarried. There are no clear, bright lines defining good versus evil or light against dark between any of the three clans and the Others—they are all simply different Powers with different drives and associations, with many facets of existence.45
Even though the relationships between the three clans and the Others are sometimes tense or complicated, all honor the shared customs that were part of everyday life for the ancient Norse peoples. For example, all recognize the sanctity of hospitality, offering and receiving the protections of guest-right. Compensation for injury and death, known as weregild, is often requested and granted even between members of different groups. Oaths are taken and recognized even if they aren’t always kept. They all, generally, resolve their affairs through open councils, debates and popular assemblies instead of decree. The relationships between different groups of gods and individual deities are shaped by specific circumstances. There is no overarching, cosmic struggle that pits specific groups against each other; many of the conflicts between them are thanks to quite human, easily understood causes.
The Aesir: The Gods of Society
You may have already heard of some of the more famous Aesir, like Odin, Thor, and Loki. Their popularity is in part because so much information on them has survived, as well as due to their very direct associations with humanity. As gods of all aspects of social life, culture, and the human experience, the Aesir are closely tied to concepts like writing, justice, and warfare. There are many Aesir recorded in the sagas and countless more whose names survive to the present day, like Baldr, Forseti, Ullr, Bragi, Idunna, and many others. The information covered in this chapter provide enough information for you to get a sense of who the Aesir are and get started on your practice. The unmentioned Aesir are still important in their own ways and you may find yourself drawn to them as your practice develops.
One aspect shared by most of the Aesir that needs its own discussion is their well-known connection to war and conflict. Most of the Aesir have a martial aspect, something that caused many to believe they are warrior gods who only accept warrior peoples and see battle as more important than anything else. This assumption is based on an incomplete understanding of the ancient world. For many of the Norse peoples, war was civic duty. When their communities were threatened, everyone was expected to help defend their homes however they could. It would be more accurate to say that the Aesir’s warlike nature reflects these conditions. We may extrapolate that all members of every community have a part to play in facing shared struggles, no matter what form those dangers take. So, contrary to popular assumption, the Aesir won’t turn you away for not being “macho”—their examples show they have very different priorities.
Odin: The Many-Named God
Odin is one of the most complicated deities in the Nine Worlds. In the lore is a name for Odin for every place he’s ever been. He’s also picked up many other names, kennings, and titles thanks to his deeds while wandering the pathways of reality. As complex as he is, many reduce him to a ruling warrior patriarch with some brief mention of his wisdom. However, these superficial understandings of the One-Eyed God just barely scratch the surface of this multi-faceted deity.
The best way to think of Odin is as an experienced elder, world-weary traveler, and cunning sage who has seen it all, done it all, wrote the book, and then rewrote it after realizing his first attempt wasn’t good enough. Odin’s story begins when he and his brothers, Vili and Ve, overthrew Ymir and crafted a new world from the bones of the old, winning the names Ygg, meaning the terrible, and Allfather. Following this revolution, Odin kept pushing the envelope, sacrificing one of his eyes for knowledge of the future, stealing the mead of poetry, and learning seiðr from Freyja. His greatest feat was winning the runes by hanging from the World Tree for nine days and nights. When finished, he shared the fruits of his sacrifice with all the Worlds. This deed earned him the name of the “Hanged God.”46
Ever since these first adventures, Odin has restlessly wandered all the Worlds, seeking knowledge no matter where it was or who held it, earning him the name Wanderer. Many celebrate him as the Father of Victory, yet Odin usually wins through deception and trickery instead of battle, often aided by his great knowledge of magic. As the God of Ecstasy, he is the patron of the skalds (the storytellers and poets of the ancients and modern Norse Paganism), mystics, and the ferocious berserker warriors.47
Odin usually appears wearing a broad-brimmed hat pulled down to one side to cover his missing eye when he doesn’t have an eyepatch, and a well-worn traveling cloak. He carries a great spear, Gugnir, which has the power to grant victory; all the Aesir swear their oaths on it. He is accompanied by two wolves, Geri and Freki, who devour all that is put before them. The twin ravens Huginn and Muninn (meaning Thought and Memory) fly through all the Nine Worlds telling Odin everything they see. He rides an eight-legged horse named Sleipnir, a child of Loki, so that he may travel effortlessly between the Worlds. When not traveling, his home in Asgard is the hall of Hlidskjalf. In this hall is a great seat that grants whoever is in it the power to see anything anywhere in the Nine Worlds. Two symbols most often associated with Odin are the Valknut, representing sacrifice in his name, and the Triple Horn, representing his wisdom and cunning.48
The Valknut and the Triple Horn
Odin can offer you great wisdom, though always with the expectation of work and sacrifice. As Odin gave up his eye and hanged from the World Tree for wisdom, his example is one that expects you to endure challenge and hardship to achieve your goals. Odin’s endless journeys for knowledge mean he offers great insights for anyone whose work involves digging up information, understanding difficult theories, and finding secrets. He offers inspiration of the sort that challenges your core assumptions, ideas, and beliefs. He provides guidance for resolving challenges, trials, and struggles through seeking out unconventional or unexpected solutions. If you seek Odin’s wisdom, always remember nothing of the Many-Named God is ever what it seems to be.
Frigga: the Key-Holder
Frigga, Odin’s spouse and partner, is as potent as the Old Man. Many assume, due to her ties to hearth and home, that she is simply a mother goddess figure defined by domesticity. Such assumptions ignore far greater depths. Frigga is one of the wisest of the Aesir thanks to her associations with hidden knowledge and knowing how to acquire it.49
In her role as goddess of the home, Frigga is often underappreciated thanks to how society undervalues domestic labor. Considering how Odin is often absent from Asgard on his journeys and getting into trouble, Frigga is frequently keeping a lot of wheels spinning. This type of patient work is essential for keeping a community functioning and is often the most critical. After all, there is little point in fighting for a place, seeking out wisdom, or creating great works if there is no community served by any of those deeds. Someone must keep the lights on, and Frigga excels at this.
Hearth and home only scratch the surface of Frigga. Equally critical to Frigga is her well-proven wisdom, as shown in the sagas. Frigga is the only one of the Aesir who knows all fates, yet says nothing, possessing even greater knowledge of events and their causes than Odin. Frigga does not passively seek knowledge for its own sake—Frigga has used information to change Fates, bring favor to any she believes are worthy, trick Odin, bring down a tyrant, and attempt to protect her son Baldr from all harm. She has consistently shown masterful skill in the magical arts of seiðr. Frigga is said to dwell in her own hall of Fensalir (“Fen Hall”), which has associations with wetlands and everything found within them.50
What best sums up Frigga’s complex nature is understanding the meaning of keys in ancient Norse society. As they granted control over access to restricted spaces, keys were an unmatched symbol of a person’s—usually a woman’s—power. Keys can open more than just homes, as treasure, tools, records and secrets were kept behind strong locks. Frigga, as both the domestic goddess and the keeper of great secrets, holds the ultimate key. Her actions show she is not afraid to use it, releasing critical nuggets of information in the right moment to achieve her ends. If Odin’s plans are like those of a scheming high-stakes gambler then Frigga’s designs are those of a patient chess player.51
Frigga offers her own unique wisdom. Frigga’s way is patient observation, steady work, and methodical planning. Frigga’s example provides guidance for any engaging in work that requires these qualities, whether it’s study and research, keeping a home, or holding a community together. Thanks to her domestic associations, she is also strongly tied to hospitality and provides wisdom in this area of conduct. Her most well-known symbols are a weaver’s distaff and a key.
Thor: Defender of Midgard
Thor is the most well-known and popular of the Aesir. The son of Odin and Jötun Jord, the Thunder God, his hammer and great red beard are known all over the world. As shown by the popularity of Thorian place and personal names and the sheer number of Thor’s hammers found by archeologists, he was also one of the most popular Aesir in pre-Christian times. Mightiest of the gods, with the strength to topple mountains, his appetites are equally large, as shown in his famous journey into Utgard, when his thirst lowers all the oceans of Midgard.52
Yet for all the emphasis on his physical power, Thor is so much more than a musclebound sky god. He is Midgard’s defender against dangerous entities. Lightning strikes and thunder claps when his hammer, Mjolnir (pronounced MYOL-neer), falls on a foe. Though often assumed to be dense and thick-witted, there are many times where Thor demonstrates great cunning and patience in pursuit of victory.53
Of all the gods, only Thor was known by the kenning “Friend of Man” in ancient times. In the Harbardsljoth, Thor proudly proclaims how he takes common workers into his hall in Asgard, scoffing at the more elite dead. His great hammer echoes the first tool ever made by human hands, as a hammer is a weapon and tool that anyone, rich or poor, could own and use. The Son of Earth is a defender without prejudice, standing for all in danger, no matter who they are or where they hail from.54
For the modern Norse Pagan, Thor has many roles and associations. First and foremost is his role as Defender. Thor takes up Mjolnir in defense of others and not to show domination or power, guaranteeing safety and security for all. His associations with workers show his protection is for securing people’s needs and not maintaining the status quo for its own sake. Just as lightning strikes with precise, overwhelming force, the Thunderer moves decisively against threats to Midgard and all its people.
Mjolnir, the Hammer of Thor
Along with Mjolnir, Thor has many other symbols and names. He is sometimes called the Red God, a color associated in ancient times with blood, boldness, and fury. He is also associated with goats, thanks to the two goats Tanngrisnir and Tanngnjóstr, who pull his chariot across the sky.
Sif: The Harvester
The goddess of grain and harvest, Sif is Thor’s wife. Her most well-known story is where she is the butt of one of Loki’s pranks. For reasons unknown (most likely because Loki thought it would be funny), the God of Mischief snuck into Thor and Sif’s hall and shaved her head. Thinking quickly, Loki escaped Thor’s wrath by convincing dwarves to spin her new hair from gold. The shearing of hair is generally interpreted as a parallel to the act of harvesting grain, tying her very directly to grain and the harvest. Sif is also said to be one of the few of the Aesir who has no quarrels with any of the other gods, as is mentioned in the saga of the Lokasenna.55
It’s possible to describe her simply as a fertility goddess, but the work of the harvest is much more than having rich soil. Raising and harvesting crops is essential for life as we know it. In the ancient days, when the best tools available were ox- or horse-pulled plows, hand tools, and often rocky soil with a short growing season, it was very difficult work. Harvest in particular was incredibly dangerous labor where injury, maiming, and death were very common. It took strength, determination, and intimate knowledge of the land to bring in a big enough harvest to feed a community of any size. The strength and danger involved in harvesting gives greater meaning to Sif’s marriage with Thor. Just as she is closely associated with workers, Sif stands closest to farmers and field workers. Her rains feed the fields made fertile by her labor.
Sif, as the goddess of both crop and its collection, embodies many qualities. Her work and wisdom have great meaning for any form of labor where patient, steady work produces necessary results. Sif’s example matters whether you are teaching, an artist, studying, or involved in any other project where long-term dedication and planning is necessary. She stands with all who work the long, hard hours that make life possible. She offers the wisdom of patience, determination, and the knowledge necessary to get the job done. The most well-known symbols of Sif are her golden hair and shorn scalp, the grain sheaf, the sickle and the scythe.
Tyr: The One-Handed
Tyr, son of the Jötun Hymir and God of Justice, is harsh yet fair. He is the embodiment of the letter and the spirit of all that law is meant to be. He is renowned for his might, yet sacrificed some of his strength for the sake of all. Many believe this means Tyr stands for strict adherence to the law, but there is much in Tyr’s conduct and associations arguing strongly to the contrary. Tyr’s example calls for upholding higher principles even when that means making hard choices.56
Tyr’s most well-known story is when he sacrificed his sword-hand to bind the Great Wolf, Fenrir. Even when Fenrir was a pup, all the other gods feared him. Only Tyr was courageous and sympathetic enough to care for him. As Fenrir grew, his appetite swelled, causing many to fear he would devour everything, so the gods plotted to chain the Wolf. To ensure their success, Tyr swore an oath to Fenrir, his de facto foster son, that if the gods successfully bound the wolf, he could take Tyr’s sword hand. When the ribbon Gleipnir succeeded where all other bonds failed, Tyr upheld his end of the bargain, letting Fenrir take his hand in a single bite, making him the one-handed god. Despite the personal loss, his sacrifice staved off a potential threat in more ways than one.57
The tale of Tyr and Fenrir is only the beginning of Tyr’s complex relationship with justice. In ancient times, Tyr was associated with the democratic popular assemblies known as Things (pronounced tings), the bedrock of ancient Norse societies. These assemblies set laws, resolved disputes, empowered and deposed leaders. In the Things all free people could speak, propose legislation, and demand justice. These spaces were presided over by Lawspeakers, community members who held office based on their knowledge of the customs, beliefs, and norms of their communities. In his role as protector of Things, Tyr is not just an enforcer of law—he also upholds the means for creating truly equitable justice.
In the present, Tyr offers powerful lessons. His associations show the importance of consent and dialog in creating equitable social relations. He shows the letter of what is set down must reflect higher principles and how sometimes you must make great sacrifices to uphold them. Tyr is also known as the Leavings of the Wolf and Oathkeeper. His most common symbol is an open hand, representing what he lost to Fenrir’s jaws, and the rune Tiwaz.
Loki: The Maker of Change
Loki is, without question, the most notorious of all the Norse gods. Often maligned as an untrustworthy bringer of chaos, some even consider this god to be more of a devil figure. When digging further, however, you find they are a far more complex deity than being just some discount Viking Satan. Loki is originally of the Jötnar, yet they are Odin’s sworn blood-brother and are accepted as one of the Aesir. Loki is a critical figure in bringing about many necessary changes, creating valuable artifacts, and toppling old structures. Loki’s role as a transformer is shown in their malleable form and their actions.58
Loki’s role as a bringer of change is consistent in all their stories. Such tales all tend to follow a consistent pattern. Loki does something, sometimes for their own amusement or to fulfill an immediate need, which causes a problem. They fix the problems caused by their actions by also winning, creating, or taking something that makes the Aesir stronger and wiser. There are exceptions, however. One good example is when Loki ensured a new defensive wall for Asgard would be completed by turning into a horse, seducing a giant’s stallion, getting impregnated, and, as a bonus to go with the wall’s completion, gave birth to Odin’s mount Sleipnir. Two of Loki’s most consistent attributes are their skills as a shapeshifter and their ambiguous gender. Loki has taken on masculine and feminine shapes, along with many other forms at will, and doesn’t seem terribly attached to any gender, making them a very genderfluid deity.
Two of Loki’s more infamous moments show why some view them as a Norse Satan. The first is in the saga of the Lokasenna where Loki enters a feast and calls out all the gods for their shortcomings. The gods responded by slaughtering their children, tying them up with the entrails of Loki’s offspring, and imprisoning them in a cave until Ragnarok. When Ragnarok comes, Loki will lead an army of the dead into battle while their other children, Fenrir and Jormungandr, wreak havoc. You could assume these actions make them a clear enemy of the gods, yet both show the same consistent theme as Loki’s beneficial deeds. In each case, Loki is challenging longstanding problems and upsetting stagnant systems to clear the way for necessary change. This is especially true of Ragnarok, an event that is inevitable and unavoidable. You don’t have to like Loki or their methods to agree that their actions are nearly always necessary.
The Urnes Snakes
Loki offers a compelling example in the present day. Their malleable form shows people can change many things about themselves, even what may appear to be fixed or unalterable. They urge you to challenge everything in your life and test what is before you to see if it has the strength to stand on its own merits. Loki’s wisdom lies in never resting on past successes, accepting something simply for the sake of comfort or convention, and to always question authority. They cause change in the world, inspire new developments, and prevent stagnation. One symbol commonly associated with Loki is the interlocked serpents known as the Urnes Snakes. Anything representing change or transformation is also fitting for Loki.59
The Vanir: The Gods of Nature
If the Aesir are the gods of society, then the Vanir could be considered as the gods of nature, but would be better to say the Vanir are closely associated with how humanity works with nature. The Vanir exist on both sides of the boundaries between the human experience and the world beyond. Their associations with mystical practices and the outsider status of seiðr practitioners in ancient society reinforces their ties to boundaries and transcending them. Even though the Vanir are famous for their magical prowess and the Aesir get all the press when it comes to strife, the gods of nature as just as ferocious as the wilds they hold dear.60
Though only three of the Vanir—Freyr, Freya, and Njord—are discussed in this book, there are probably many more, including some mentioned in Snorri Sturluson’s Prose Edda. The Vanir covered here are the most well-known and commonly honored by Norse Pagans today. As gods associated with the space between society and the natural world, it is not surprising that some of the Vanir passed out of written record, compared to the well-documented Aesir.
As gods of liminal space, human interactions with the natural world, and the more mystical side of things, the Vanir offer a very different perspective from the Aesir. They urge you to consider the deeper connections between you and your environment. Where the Aesir challenge you to consider society, the Vanir push you to examine the broader ecosystems that shape you.
Freyr: The Bringer of Plenty
Freyr (pronounced FREY-er) is a god of fertility, understanding the land and natural cycles. In ancient and modern practice Freyr is associated with masculine fertility, desirability and potency. This is shown in the many statues from ancient times depicting him with a large erect penis. He is Freyja’s twin brother, the son of Njord and one of the Vanir who was sent to the Aesir as a hostage following the end of the war between the two tribes. He is also the King of the Alfar, a group of spirits closely tied to the natural world, in and is hailed as Bringer of Peace.61 In many ways, Freyr represents a more nurturing and empathetic form of masculinity.
Two of the most widely known stories of Freyr are the courtship of his wife, the Jötun Gerd, and his last stand at Ragnarok. As written in the saga of the Skirnismol, Freyr sought out Gerd’s hand in marriage after he saw her while sitting in Odin’s magic seat in Hlidskjalf, leaving him totally smitten and determined to win her love. As part of the arrangements to win her over Freyr gave up his magic sword, a blade that could fight on its own with no need for a hand to guide it or arm to swing it. Freyr willingly sacrificed an item of great power in pursuit of something he saw as greater than any magic sword even though this decision may have sealed his doom at Ragnarok.62
In the final battle, Freyr, along with many of the other gods, will ride out first into the fray. On the Idavoll plain he will face the mighty Surtr in a ferocious duel. The two will clash, but Freyr, facing a living inferno only armed only with an antler spear, will fall. Even in defeat, what Freyr represents does not die with him. A new green world springs up from the ashes of Surtr’s blaze just as new life follows ferocious wildfires. You could say the fertility Freyr embodies is served through this sacrifice.63
Freyr is associated with peace and abundance. His wisdom is useful when starting a new project, working with plants and animals, or cultivating new possibilities. Freyr is also very strongly tied to masculine energy, male fertility, and masculine-identified people. That said, one should be very clear about their desires when working with this aspect of Freyr. Freyr is often honored in seasonal rites, particularly at the time of the Spring and Fall Equinoxes. Some of his other names are the Bringer of Plenty and Peace, the Peace-Giver, and his name means Lord. Freyr’s most common symbols are antlers, boars (thanks to his golden boar, Gullinbursti), and the plant life of spring and autumn.
Freyja: The Free Heart
Freyja (pronounced FREY-yah), Freyr’s twin sister, is one of the most famous of the Norse gods. Usually cast as a Scandinavian Aphrodite due to being described as the most beautiful of all deities, Freyja is far more than that. Fiercely independent, with ties to war and sorcery, Freyja embodies all passions. She is the embodiment of feminine power, understands her own desires, and always stands up for her autonomy. One of the many symbols of her power is her chariot, which is drawn by a team of cats that work together and obey her commands.64
As a goddess of all passions, Freyja is as much this as the embodiment of the independent woman. In fact, her name is the word for “lady.” Freyja is said to have had many lovers, all of her own choosing, yet she lives alone on her own terms. Her famous Brisingamen necklace was said to have been made for her by dwarven lovers and is one of her most well-known possessions. Amber is also associated with her, as it is believed to come from her tears falling to Midgard, making it a popular gift between lovers. Even though she is known for love, beauty, and sensuality, Freyja is also closely tied to warfare. As the Queen of the Valkyries, a group of spirits who stalk every battlefield, Freyja gets the first choice of any of the slain brought before the gods by these fierce battle spirits. Odin then takes the rest for Valhalla. Freyja is a powerful force in war or when using her formidable command of the mystic arts.65
One of the most important aspects of Freyja is her mastery of the arts of seiðr, a form of Norse magic. She first taught Odin these arts, and there are many instances of her skills surpassing his, such as one case where she punished him for stealing the Brisingamen by trapping two armies he wanted for Valhalla with her magic in an endless battle. This display of power was so awe-inspiring that Odin has never attempted such a stunt since. In the lore, the Vanir’s mystical might was potent enough to evenly match the more martial Aesir’s power. Freyja also wears a feathered cloak that she uses to shapeshift into the form of hawks and falcons.66
Freyja’s wisdom lies in the power you hold by standing strong on your own terms. Her conduct gives stellar examples of personal autonomy and consent. She offers guidance in these matters, especially for women and feminine-identified people. Her close ties to mystical practice also mean she is often invoked for such work and can help you understand the secrets of these mystic arts. Her most common names are the Lady of the Slain, the Giver, and Sea Brightener. Her most common symbols are cats, birds of prey, the seiðworker’s staff, amber, and gold.
Njord: The Wave-Rider
Njord (pronounced NYORD) was one of the Vanir who was traded as a hostage with the Aesir to end their war with the Vanir. He has lived with the Aesir ever since. He is associated with the sea, ocean waves, and sailing. He lives in his hall of Noatun, by the water. Even with these strong maritime ties, Njord is not associated directly with the oceans themselves. This makes Njord is a perfect example of how the Vanir embody human interactions with nature in contrast to the Jötnar’s direct embodiment of nature itself.67
What is critical for understanding Njord is knowing the importance of sea travel in ancient Scandinavia. For the Norse, the fastest and most reliable way to travel was by ship. Mariners also brought in food from the sea through fishing, whaling, and seal hunting. Sailors navigated using tools like sunstones, astronomy, and the art of dead reckoning, a form of navigation that depended on a sailor’s intimate knowledge of local currents, tides and even the taste of different bodies of water. Every voyage was a risk with no guarantee of survival. This dangerous trade was a matter of survival for whole communities.68
Along with his associations with sailing and sea travel is his most well-known story. When the Jötun Skadi came to Asgard demanding justice for the Aesir’s role in killing her father Thiazi, Njord was one of the many offered as a possible husband as compensation. He was picked in a blind contest where the only feature Skadi could see was the candidates’ feet—and thanks to his living by the water, Njord’s were the cleanest. Sadly, Njord and Skadi’s relationship was not a harmonious one. Njord was kept awake at night in Skadi’s hall by the howling of wolves and the wind in the trees and missed the sounds of the sea. Due to these problems and other irreconcilable differences, they amicably separated, yet there is no hint of ill will between them.69
For modern Norse Pagans, Njord offers especially keen guidance for any who live on or by water, work in maritime trades, or whose lives depend on their ship coming in. He offers the wisdom of charting a course through difficult conditions, pressing on in the face of great uncertainty and finding ways to bring in critical wealth for those in need of it. Njord is sometimes also called the Giver and is associated with navigational and maritime tools, fish hooks, items used in sailing, and seashells.
The Jötnar: The Tribe of the Wilderness
If the Vanir are the gods of humanity’s interactions with nature, the Jötnar are nature itself in all its unbridled fury and mystery. Closely tied with elemental forces like the ocean depths, the Earth itself, and the fury of flame, the Jötnar are all that lies beyond humanity in every sense of the word. Even in the modern world, with all the discoveries made by science and society, there are mysteries and aspects of the natural world that lie well beyond human control or understanding.70
The interactions between the Aesir and Jötnar mirror humanity’s relationship with nature. Though humanity as a species is often in conflict with nature, humans have found ways to work with the many ecosystems of the world. Even where modern technology gives a sense of power and dominance, it is still stumbling as a result of the many unanticipated consequences of pressing against nature’s power. As Powers who dwell in the unknown, the Jötnar are gods of the deeper wisdom that lies beyond the limits of knowledge and comfort.
There are many writings on the Jötnar; surviving texts and folklore often speak of many tribes of hill Jötnar, ice Jötnar, fire Jötnar, and countless others. The Jötnar discussed here are the most well-known and documented in the sagas. There are likely many more Jötnar who are unknown, unnamed, or have yet to be met or worked with.
Ymir: The Progenitor
Ymir is one of the most important gods in Norse Paganism. As one of the first beings that emerged following the collision of fire and ice, Ymir was there at the beginning of all things. All around was a vast, frosty tundra where nothing else existed. Ymir lived off the meat and milk of Audumla, while the cow lived by licking moss and lichen off the ice and rocks. It was from Ymir that the first of the frost giants came into existence, spawning from the primordial giant’s arms, legs, and torso.71
One day, as Audumla was foraging for lichen, the great cow came upon a bright being trapped in the ice named Buri. Its licking freed this being of light, setting in motion the greatest change since fire and ice collided. Buri wed an unknown frost giant, and they had a son named Bor. Bor, in turn, married the giant Bestla and they begat three sons named Odin, Vili, and Ve. Even in these days when the world was inhabited by many frost giants and the children of Buri, only Ymir could partake of Audumla’s milk and meat.72
There was no question this order was one that mostly benefited Ymir at the expense of all others. Under these conditions and after living for three generations of unknown length under Ymir’s domination, the three brothers would upend everything. After seeing all of what was around them and how reality operated, Odin, Vili, and Ve rose up against Ymir. They slew the great giant, unleashing a torrent of its blood to wash over existence. As the flood subsided, the brothers, along with many other gods, came together to forge a new reality. They used Ymir’s bones, flesh, and organs to build Midgard and all of physical reality as we know it.73
The story of Ymir’s downfall is critical for two reasons. The first is everything comes from something else; nothing comes from nothing. All things are made from the materials, ideas, and influences of something else. Things can be taken and reshaped into new, more beneficial forms for the present and future. The second is that Ymir, as is shown in many other sagas, is a clear example of the evils of greed, hoarding, and dominating others. Many other hostile figures, like the dragon Fafnir, were in the wrong because they hoarded of wealth for themselves instead of sharing their bounty freely.74
Ymir’s story shows presently existing conditions can be adapted into new forms and people do not have to accept what is if the current order is harmful for them. Reality is not a fixed, unalterable creation. It can be changed, refashioned, and rebuilt into new forms by deliberate, decisive action. For those who meditate on the vast primordial being, Ymir itself carries the mystery of the primordial times before Midgard. As the first being to come from fire and ice, its wisdom is unique and potent for those who would seek it. Be wary for if you would plumb the depths of reality to commune with a dead giant. You may find answers you did not expect or were prepared for.
Surtr: The Walking Inferno
Surtr dwells in Muspelheim, the land of eternal fire and heat, and rules over the fire giants living there. He is a massive, furious entity of great power embodying raging flame. Surtr carries a flaming sword that will ignite the World Tree at the climax of Ragnarok, burning all the Nine Worlds.75 In the lore, Surtr is a bringer of great destruction, catastrophe, and crisis.
It is easy to see Surtr as the ultimate enemy and opponent of the gods. There is some truth to this—however, Surtr’s role is much more complex than being a simple adversary. Surtr is as much an agent of destruction as Odin and his brothers were when they slew Ymir, yet their rising paved the way for Midgard as we know it. Even though Surtr will not rule over the realm created by his acts of destruction, he is as much an agent of change as Odin, Vili, and Ve.
Surtr’s fire has many parallels in the natural world. The great pine forests of Scandinavia are dependent on flame to bring new life, just as the World Tree is to bring forth new realities. Their seed-bearing cones drop regularly throughout the seasons, but this alone is insufficient to make new pine trees. It takes a wildfire, whether caused by natural or human sources, to make this possible. During the blaze the sticky, combustible sap holding the pine cones together heats up and explodes, flinging the seeds in every direction. The ash from the blazes fertilizes the ground and clears the way for new life to grow and flourish.76
Even though Surtr fulfills this broader cosmic role, it doesn’t make him harmless or lacking in agency. His war against the Aesir at Ragnarok, as is shown in the lore, has its roots in deeper feuds between these clans. Many actions, such as Ymir’s death and the deception in the building of Asgard’s wall, motivate Surtr and his followers to move against the Aesir and their allies. The role of Surtr is both cosmically necessary and driven by his own desires in response to the actions of other Powers on the World Tree.
Jord: The Living Earth
Jord is the Earth itself. She is the ground beneath our feet and everything it sustains. Jord is the closest there is in Norse Paganism to an Earth goddess figure. Also known as Fjorgyn, Jord is best known as Thor’s mother, making the thunder god half Jötnar. This also shows any claim of constant, unceasing hostility between Jötnar and Aesir has no basis in the lore. If this were the case, then Thor would never have come into existence in the first place.77
Jord is a goddess to be reckoned with—she is everything that makes up the air we breathe, the soil that grows our food, the waters that sustain us, and all else that makes life possible. She is the rage of volcanos, the tremble of the rumbling earth, and ferocious landslides. Where other deities like Freyr are associated with the ways humanity interacts with nature, Jord is the cradle, home, and support needed for nature to be possible.
In modern practice, Jord’s potency, breadth, and depth reflect nature’s diversity, majesty, and fury. She invites contemplating the great paradoxes of life, both its nurturing and destructive sides. She is the beauty and danger of all the things that lie beyond human control. Jord’s wisdom shows how to confront these limitations, humanity’s place in the natural world, and how utterly dependent humans are on forces that are, at best, indifferent to human needs. Jord calls for respect and humility before nature’s might. Anything representing Earth and the natural world are her symbols, showing her diversity and power.
Aegir and Ran: The Ocean Depths
Aegir and Ran are directly associated with the ocean in a more direct way than Njord. They live in a hall deep beneath the ocean depths that is also home to all who die at sea. Even with this fearsome reputation, Aegir and Ran are not simply cold, ferocious gods ruling what lies beneath the waves. They have hosted the Aesir and Vanir at feasts in their great hall. Aegir himself, who is also called the Brewer, possesses the only kettle large enough to make enough ale for all the gods. Like the great oceans of the world, Aegir and Ran can be cruel or kind, giving and taking as they will.78
Aegir and Ran offer many things. They show how hospitality is widely honored across the Nine Worlds by hosting the Aesir and Vanir in their hall. This relationship shows the dynamic between Aesir, Vanir, and Jötnar is not a clear-cut order-versus-chaos dichotomy, but is far more complex. The cooperation between the Aesir, Vanir, and these two gods shows the necessity of working with great forces of the wilds. The best symbols for them are creatures of the deep like sharks, whales and octopi, ocean waves, and other representations of the sea. Another common symbol for Aegir and Ran is a fishing net, as it was said in the ancient days anyone who died of drowning had been caught in Ran’s net.
Skadi: The Frosty Mountains
Skadi is one of the most well-known of the Jötnar, in part due to the amount of information about her that survives to the modern day, as well as her close ties to the Aesir. Skadi first comes into the lore following the death of her father, Thiazi. After his demise at the hands of the Aesir, Skadi took up her weapons and armor, setting out for Asgard to demand the Aesir give her justice for his death. Due to the nature of her request and her clear display of martial prowess, the gods agreed.79
They offered her a husband as compensation and to make her laugh. They further said Skadi had to choose her husband by only looking at the feet of her potential betrothed. All the eligible bachelors were lined up behind a screen and she picked the cleanest feet she saw, which belonged to Njord. Unfortunately this marriage was an unhappy one. Skadi loved woods and snow of her mountains and Njord loved the sea. Skadi was no more comfortable at his hall of Noatun, where the cry of seagulls and crash of the waves disturbed her slumber. The two felt their differences were irreconcilable and so they agreed to part ways, amicably divorcing. Even so, Skadi regularly associated with the Aesir afterward.80
Skadi is tied to skis, snowshoes, hunting, mountains, wolves, and winter. In modern practice she is also associated with sports, the great outdoors and the cold. Her role as one of the punishers of Loki for their perceived breaches of hospitality during the Lokasenna also sees her invoked as a goddess of Vengeance. Her great wisdom is in the example of her strong, independent personality and willingness to take direct action to achieve justice. If you seek Skadi’s guidance, she will urge you to act while helping you find the strength and best way to achieve justice. Her separation from Njord is regularly cited as an example of how people in romantic relationships can amicably resolve great differences and part ways while remaining friendly. Snowflakes, icicles, mountains, skis, snowshoes, and wolves are her most common symbols, as are implements of the hunt such as knives, spears, and bows.
The Others: Gods of the Primal
Outside of the three tribes are other entities who live in the Nine Worlds. They don’t belong to any tribe of their own. Each is a unique entity with its own history, personality, traits, and role to play. They embody primordial forces even more potent, unknown, and vast than the three tribes. They offer their own wisdom, though it is often more terrible than any other’s. Three of these beings are children of Loki and the troll Angrboda; the others are potent entities whose origins are a mystery. To study these beings is to explore some of the deepest and most terrifying yet enlightening mysteries in existence.
The Norns: Fate-Shapers
The Norns are three goddesses who live at the base of the World Tree. Their names are Urd, meaning what is, Verdandi, meaning what is becoming, and Skuld, meaning what shall be. The roots of their names are a reflection of the Norse understanding of time where the past determined what currently is, the present as the here and now that is constantly in a state of becoming, and the future as what shall be as a direct consequence of past events and present developments. They are the shapers of Ørlog and the tenders of the World Tree. Over the course of countless ages, they sat at the base of the Tree, drawing water from the Well of Urdr to nourish the Yggdrasil with pure possibility. They set the Ørlog of the living into the World Tree, which then moves with Yggdrasil as it grows, changing with time.81
Some compare them to the Moirai of Greek mythology, the three spinners who dictate the lives of all. There is some superficial truth to this comparison; after all, they dictate the lengths of the lives of all beings and how much time is allotted to them. A key difference is how much power they hold over the time between. Though they set the lengths of lives and their Ørlog, they hold no sway over what happens during that time. As the drawers of the Well of Urdr’s water, they interact with possibility like everything else, using it as best they can.82
None are sure when the Norns first came to be. Their first known appearance in the lore is shortly after Ymir’s demise and the shaping of Midgard. They are not mentioned often, and the rest of the gods seem to give them a wide berth, never interfering in their timeless task. Even Odin and Loki, two deities known for showing little regard for boundaries when it suits them, are never known to have sought out the three. It is possible they even have influence over the fates of gods.
The Norns represent the primordial power of time. They are its inevitability and inescapable nature. They also show all are shaped by life’s circumstances and how those can change. Their endless work to feed the World Tree shows a steady, patient dedication for keeping reality intact and dynamic. The wisdom they offer is accepting the inevitability of time’s march and how to cope with it. By keeping everything moving, growing, and changing, the Norns keep possibility flowing instead of freezing all in place.
Fenrir: The Great Wolf
Fenrir is the wolf child of Loki and Angrboda, queen of the trolls. He was born and raised in Asgard by the gods. Due to his fearsome appearance, Tyr was the only god brave enough to care for the pup. As he grew, his cravings kept up with his size, and he needed more and more to be satisfied. This swelling appetite alarmed the gods who feared the Wolf, whose growth showed no signs of slowing down or stopping, would eventually swallow up everything in existence. He became so vast that when he opened his jaws they stretched from the ground to the furthest reaches of the sky.83
Driven by fear, the gods plotted to bind the wolf and spare reality from his vast hunger. The dwarves made three great chains, one after the other, to hold Fenrir and the gods presented them to Fenrir as a test of his might. Fenrir, however, was suspicious of their intentions and demanded a guarantee for his safety. Tyr, in exchange, placed his sword-hand in Fenrir’s maw, swearing an oath that if anything happened to impede Fenrir’s freedom, the Wolf could take Tyr’s hand. The first two chains, one forged from heavy iron and the other made of stone, were easily broken. The third, the ribbon Gleipnir, was forged from seven things that were removed from reality the moment the dwarves took them for Gleipnir. This bond held fast, keeping Fenrir locked in place. In a rage, Fenrir tore off Tyr’s hand, swearing revenge on the gods and declaring he would devour Odin at Ragnarok.84
Like so many other examples of dangerous forces in the lore, like the dragon Fafnir of the Volsungsaga and Grendel of Beowulf, greed is the driving force that makes Fenrir so threatening. Fenrir’s all-consuming greed convinced the gods to bind him at the depths of the World Tree. Yet Fenrir is not simply a villain. His rage and vengeance exist because of betrayal by the gods, guaranteeing he will be an agent of destruction at Ragnarok. Fear was just as critical as hunger in shaping the Wolf. Fenrir’s imprisonment shows the dangers of letting fear overpower your better judgment, urging you to always question the roots of your distress and ask if what you feel is justified.
Jormungandr: The Migdard Serpent
Jormungandr is the great serpent child of Loki and Angrboda, so long that it circles all of Midgard and holds its own tail in its mouth. When Jormungandr was born, Odin hurled it into the seas surrounding Midgard, where it sank, wrapping around the borders of the physical realm. There it dwells, hidden and undisturbed.85
It comes back into the lore when Thor, Tyr, and the giant Hymir go on a fishing trip. In an attempt to catch the largest fish imaginable, Thor uses the head off Hymir’s ox for bait. Before long, Jormungandr bites down on the hook. Thor holds on, attempting to reel in his massive catch only to see the enormous serpent surge from beneath the waves. The two grapple back and forth before Hymir, in a panic, cuts the line to stop Thor and the Midgard Serpent from tearing the boat in two.86
The serpent will emerge again at Ragnarok. Its rising from beneath will unleash waves that drown Midgard. It will surge forward with the other enemies of the gods to settle its long-standing score with Thor. The two will wrestle in a match that shakes the world before Thor finally triumphs over the great serpent. In spite of this great victory, Midgard’s champion will only take nine steps before Jormungandr’s venom overpowers him, laying Thor low.87
Jormungandr is the edge of known reality. It represents the limits of existence. When it turns against the reality it once defined, everything we know will come crashing down, unleashing untold havoc. Some fans of pulp horror literature may note there is some similarity between Jormungandr’s resurgence at Ragnarok and the fictional deity Cthulhu, another indescribable being said to slumber beneath the ocean, whose awakening will usher in the end of civilization. That said, any resemblance between the two is probably a total coincidence.
Hel: Guardian of the Dead
Hel is the daughter of Loki by Angrboda. Born half-living and half-corpse, her appearance disgusted Odin so much that he flung her as far from Asgard as he could, launching her into the depths of what became Helheim. Since that moment, no other god or goddess is as closely associated with Helheim and the dead as Hel. In this place of rest, she keeps watch over the deceased as they retire from the toil of their living days.88
As keeper of the dead, Hel is connected to the spirits of the departed, the grave, and decay. She is the certainty of death and the memories that remain in spite of it. If you work closely with the dead, you may find her to be a key guide for understanding the deceased. She also provides a way of grappling with the inevitability of mortality, offering some degree of comfort that some part of you will endure long after your passing.
Nidhoggr: The Devourer
At the base of the World Tree, by the shores of a lake called Nastrond, is the great dragon Nidhoggr. It dwells there forever feasting on the dishonored dead who committed deeds too horrible to enter Helheim, like murdering the defenseless and kinslaying. When the Corpse-Gnawer is not consuming the few who fall into its maw, it chews endlessly on the roots and trunk of the World Tree. The dragon will never stop eating, gaining no final success in devouring its greatest target, and it is one of the few that will survive Ragnarok. None know when it first came into existence.89
Nidhoggr is the embodiment of entropy and decay. It is ceaseless in its labor, as eternal as the tree it devours. Just as Nidhoggr’s hunger will never be satisfied, entropy will never cease. Yet in spite of the serpent’s determination, Yggdrasil endures thanks to the care of those who maintain it. Nidhoggr’s unceasing dedication to this task, along with the endless efforts to keep its harm at bay, neatly summarize the challenge presented by the inevitable march of time. Nowhere is there any consideration of surrender to the dragon. Even the fate said to await the worst of the living in Nidhoggr’s belly links back to its embodiment of decay. Those who commit terrible deeds in life have all save the most terrible actions worn away by time until the only things remaining of them are their most shameful actions.
The Nameless Seeress: The Terrible Truth
The Nameless Seeress is an obscure figure who often escapes notice in modern practice. In Radical Norse Paganism, however, she is far more important. She is different from all the others in this chapter because in both of her appearances she is clearly dead, raised up from under a mound. Both times she appears in the lore she plays a highly critical role, revealing visions of Ragnarok and Baldr’s death to Odin. She gives access to some of the greatest secrets in the lore and what she reveals is truly awful to behold.90
Beyond these two specific moments there is little known about the Nameless Seeress. Even her name or any titles she holds are a mystery. Even so, these episodes provide considerable insight into her nature. In each case, Odin actively seeks her out for information, claiming she has answers he cannot get anywhere else. She only divulges this information after being pulled from her mound unwillingly by Odin’s magic. Though this could imply Odin has control over each encounter, he is powerless to silence her once she begins reciting these dire prophecies. That Odin seeks the Seeress suggests she possessed great oracular skills in life and death gives her special insights into Fate’s design beyond all other the other Powers.
For modern practitioners, the Nameless Seeress represents the most terrible of all knowledge. What she offers is true and inescapable. Her status as dead, yet active and insightful, further suggests this wisdom comes from a permanent, irreversible change. The Seeress’ wisdom is of confronting the most primordial truths, greatest fears, and the biggest assumptions of life in search of deeper knowledge. This comes with the warning that her answers may not be ones you want to hear.
Many Gods, No Masters
The gods of Norse Paganism offer many pathways to wisdom, understanding, and answers. Though this tradition honors all gods, regardless of clan, you may only end up regularly working with one or a few. Which gods you work with may also change over time as your life changes, you face new challenges, and seek different solutions to the problems ahead. What matters is always seeking out the best way for you and trying out different perspectives. Working with the gods won’t always be easy or simple but the ways they push you will ultimately make you stronger.
The next exercise will help you work with the gods by learning how to reach out to them. Do not be discouraged if nothing dramatic seems to happen the first few times you try this exercise. The gods work in many different ways and interact with lived existence in means beyond human comprehension. What you learn during this exercise may manifest itself in many different ways, ranging from flashes of insight to intense visions and visitations.
exercise
Before you start this exercise, skim through chapter three until you find a deity that calls to you. The best ones for your first attempt are the Aesir or Vanir, as they are the most human in their associations, activities, and desires. As you get comfortable with some of these deities, you can then try working with some of the Jötnar.
Begin with the breath exercise at the end of chapter one. Continue until you have reached a state of relaxed calm with steady heartbeat and breathing.
Start whispering the names and titles of the deity you are working with. Start with their name before continuing with their other titles. Once you have gotten through all the ones included, go back to their name and repeat them all again. Go through this process at least three times.
As you whisper the names of the specific deity, visualize their symbols in your mind. Start with the first that comes most easily, and as you whisper more names, visualize additional symbols.
As the symbols become clearer, begin thinking about what that deity is associated with. Focus on what that means for you, how those associations make you feel, and what ideas or images come to the surface as you do.
Let your mind drift. Sit in this unfocused space silently for as long as you feel comfortable doing so. When you feel the time is right, open your eyes.
Write down everything you felt during this meditation. Pay particular attention to anything you didn’t expect or can’t easily explain. These moments of insight are the beginnings of when the gods came directly to you.
As you practice this exercise more with the same deity, your impressions and experiences will become clearer. This will make it more possible for you to build a reciprocal relationship with the Norse gods.
43. https://www.patheos.com/blogs/awitchsashram/2015/08/11/relational-polytheism/
44. Crossley-Holland, xx; Crossley-Holland, xxxi-xxxii
45. Davidson, gods and Myths of Northern Europe, 45.
46. Gylfaginning 3, translated by Jesse L. Byock.
47. Crossley-Holland, xxv–xxvi.
48. Crossley-Holland, xxv–xxvi; Gylfaginning 9, Byock translation.
49. Crossley-Holland, xxxi.
50. Lokasenna 29, Poetic Edda; Davidson, Gods and Myths of Northern Europe, 111–112, 114; Gylfaginning 35.
51. Jesch, Judith. “History: Viking Women.” BBC. March 29, 2011. http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/ancient/vikings/women_01.shtml.
52. Davidson, Gods and Myths of Northern Europe, 84–85; Crossley-Holland, xxvi-xxvii
53. Davidson, Gods and Myths of Northern Europe, 73–75.
54. Harbardsljoth 24-25, Poetic Edda.
55. Davidson, Gods and Myths of Northern Europe, 30, 84.
56. Davidson, Gods and Myths of Northern Europe, 57–60; Hymiskvida 5, Poetic Edda.
57. Gylfaginning 34, Byock translation.
58. Davidson, Gods and Myths of Northern Europe, 176-182.
59. Lokeanwelcomingcommittee. “30 Days of Deity Devotion: Loki Day Three.” Lokean Welcoming Committee. June 27, 2015. Accessed August 28, 2018. http://lokeanwelcomingcommittee.tumblr.com/post/122544282338/30-days-of-deity-devotion-loki-day-three.
60. Davidson, Gods and Myths of Northern Europe, 92-93; Ross 204–211.
61. Gylfaginning 24, Byock translation
62. Gylfaginning 37, Byock translation
63. Voluspo 52-53, Poetic Edda; Gylfaginning 37, Byock translation
64. Gylfaginning 24, Byock translation
65. Gylfaginning 24, 36, Byock translation
66. Ross, 206.
67. Gylfaginning 23, Byock translation
68. Konung Skuggsja 5, translated by Laurence M. Larson; “Wayfinders: Wayfinding.” PBS. Accessed November 13, 2017. http://www.pbs.org/wayfinders/wayfinding2.html
69. Gylfaginning 23, Byock translation
70. Crossley-Holland xxxi-xxxii
71. Gylfaginning 6, Byock translation
72. Ibid
73. Gylfaginning 7-8, Byock translation; Voluspo 3-4, Poetic Edda; Vafthruthnismol 20-21, Poetic Edda
74. Gripisspo 11-13, Poetic Edda
75. Gylfaginning 51, Byock translation; Voluspo 52, 57, Poetic Edda
76. “Gymnosperma (Pine).” Afzender. Accessed November 13, 2017. http://www.vcbio.science.ru.nl/en/virtuallessons/gymnosperma/.
77. Ross 54-56; Voluspo 56, Poetic Edda
78. Davidson, Gods and Myths of Northern Europe, 128-129; Hymistvithka 1, Poetic Edda.
79. Gylfaginning 23, Byock translation; Davidson, Gods and Myths of Northern Europe, 106–107.
80. Gylfaginning 23, Byock translation; Davidson, Gods and Myths of Northern Europe, 106–107; Lokasenna 49-51, Poetic Edda.
81. Gylfaginning 15-16
82. Voluspo 20, Poetic Edda; Ross 202-203
83. Gylfaginning 34, Byock translation
84. Ibid
85. Ibid
86. Hymisvithka, 23–25.
87. Voluspo 55–56, Poetic Edda.
88. Gylfaginning 34, Byock translation; Davidson, Gods and Myths of Northern Europe, 29–32.
89. Voluspo 39, 66, Poetic Edda.
90. Voluspo 1, 66, Poetic Edda; Baldrs Draumar 4-5, Poetic Edda 1.