Abbreviations
(a) Modern
| AE | L’Année Epigraphique. |
| BMCRE | H.B. Mattingly et al., Coins of the Roman Empire in the British Museum (London, 1923–62). |
| BMCRR | H.A. Grueber, Coins of the Roman Republic in the British Museum (London, 1910). |
| C | H. Cohen, Description historique des monnaies frappées sous l’Empire Romain (Paris, 1880–92). |
| CAH | A.K. Bowman et al., The Cambridge Ancient History, Volume X: The Augustan Empire, 43BC–AD69 (Cambridge, 1996). |
| Calicó | X. and F. Calicó, Catálogo de Monedas Antiguas de Hispania (Barcelona, 1979). |
| CBN | Catalogue des monnaies de l’empire romaine, Bibliothèque nationale (Paris, 1976–88). |
| CIG | Corpus Inscriptionum Graecarum (Berlin, 1828–77). |
| CIL | T. Mommsen et al., Corpus Inscriptionem Latinarum (Berlin, 1863–). |
| CRA | P. Erdkamp, A Companion to the Roman Army (Oxford, 2007). |
| EJ | V. Ehrenberg and A.H.M. Jones, Documents Illustrating the Reigns of Augustus and Tiberius (Oxford, 1949; Second revised edition, 1955). |
| Eph. Epig. | Ephemeris Epigraphica. IGR Inscriptiones Graecae et res Romanas pertinentes. |
| ILS | Inscriptiones Latinae Selectae. |
| ILTG | P. Wuilleumier, Inscriptions Latines des Trois Gaules (Paris, 1963). |
| JbSGU | Jahrbuch (Jahresbericht) der Schweizerischen Gesellschaft für Urgeschichte. |
| JRA | Journal of Roman Archaeology. |
| JRMES | Journal of Roman Military Equipment Studies. |
| JRS | Journal of Roman Studies. |
| Klose | D.O.A. Klose, Die Münzprägung von Smyrna in der römischen Kaiserzeit (Berlin, 1987). |
| MDAI(I) | Mitteilungen des Deutschen Archäologischen Instituts (Abteiling Instanbul). |
| RIC | H.B. Mattingly and E.A. Sydenham, Roman Imperial Coinage (London, 1913–56). |
| RIL | Rendiconti del Instituto Lombardo di scienza e lettere, Classe di Lettere. |
| RPC | A. Burnett et al., Roman Provincial Coinage, Vol. I (London, 1992). |
| RSC | H.A. Seaby et al., Roman Silver Coins, Volume 1, (London, 1978–87). |
| S | D.R. Sear, Roman Coins and Their Values (Fifth revised edition, London, 2000). |
| SIG3 | W. Dittenberger, Sylloge Inscriptionum Graecarum (Third revised edition, Leipzig, 1883). |
| SNG Aulock | H. von Aulock, Sylloge Nummorum Graecorum, Deutschland, Cilicia (Berlin, 1981). |
| SNG Copenhagen | Sylloge Nummorum Graecorum, Danish National Museum (Copenhagen, 1942–79). |
| SNG Levante | E. Levante, Sylloge Nummorum Graecorum, Switzerland 1: Cilicia (Bern, 1986). |
| Svoronos | J. Svoronos, Ta Nomismata tou Kratous ton Ptolemaion (Athens, 1904–08). |
(b) Ancient Authors
| Amm. Marc. | Ammianus Marcellinus, Rerum Gestarum. |
| App., Bell. Civ. | Appian, Bellum Civile. |
| App., Ill. | Appian, Illyrike. |
| Athen., Deipn. | Athenaeus, Deipnosophistai. |
| Aul. Gell., Noct. Att. | Aulus Gellius, Noctes Atticae. |
| Caes., Bell. Alex. | Caesar, Bellum Alexandrinum. |
| Caes., Bell. Gall. | Caesar, Bellum Gallicum. |
| Caes., Bell. Hisp. | Caesar, Bellum Hispanicum |
| Cato, Agr. | Cato the Elder, De Agricultura. |
| Cic., Amic. | Cicero, De Amicitia. |
| Cic., Att. | Cicero, Ad Atticum. |
| Cic., Brut. | Cicero, Brutus. |
| Cic., Div. | Cicero, De Divinatione. |
| Cic., Font. | Cicero, Pro Fonteio. |
| Cic., Leg. | Cicero, De Legibus. |
| Cic., Ora. | Cicero, De Oratore. |
| Cic., Prov. Cons. | Cicero, De Provinciis Consularibus. |
| Cic., Tusc. Disp. | Cicero, Tusculanae Disputationes. |
| Dio | Cassius Dio, Romaiki Historia. |
| Diog. Laert. | Diogenes Laertius, Bion kai Gnomon ton en Philosophiai. |
| Diod. Sic. | Diodorus Siculus, Bibliotheka Historika. |
| Ennius, Ann. | Ennius, Annales. |
| Eutrop., Brev. | Eutropius, Breviarium. |
| Frontin., Aq. | Frontinus, De Aquis. |
| Hdt. | Herodotus, Istorion. |
| Hor., Carm. | Horace, Carmina. |
| Joseph., Ant. Iud. | Josephus, Antiquitatae Iudaicae. |
| Joseph., Bell. Iud. | Josephus, Bellum Iudaicum. |
| Livy, AUC | Livy, Ab Urbe Condita. |
| Livy, Peri. | Livy, Periochae. |
| Nic. | Nikolaos of Damaskos, Bios Kaisaros. |
| Ov., Fast. | Ovid, Fasti. |
| Ov., Pont. | Ovid, Epistulae Ex Ponto. |
| Ov., Tr. | Ovid, Tristia. |
| Paus. | Pausanias, Ellados Periegisis. |
| Pliny, Ep. | Pliny the Younger, Epistulae. |
| Pliny, Nat. Hist. | Pliny the Elder, Naturalis Historia. |
| Plut., Ant. | Plutarch, Antonios. |
| Plut., Brut. | Plutarch, Broutos. |
| Plut., Caes. | Plutarch, Kaisar. |
| Plut., Cass. | Plutarch, Kassios. |
| Plut., De Invid. et Od. | Plutarch, De Invidiam et Odium. Plut., Mar. Plutarch, Marios. |
| Plut. Pomp. | Plutarch, Pompeios. |
| Polyb. | Polybius, Istoria. |
| Ptol., Geog. | Ptolemy, Geography. |
| RG | Augustus, Res Gestae. |
| Sen., Constant. | Seneca the Younger, De Constantia Sapientis. |
| Sen., Ep. | Seneca the Younger, Epistulae Morales. |
| Sen., Nat. Qu. | Seneca the Younger, Quaestiones Naturales. |
| Sen., Ira | Seneca the Younger, De Ira. |
| Sen., Polyb. | Seneca the Younger, De Consolatione ad Polybium. |
| Sen., Suas. | Seneca the Elder, Suasoriae. |
| Strab., Geog. | Strabo, Geographika. |
| Suet., Calig. | Suetonius, Caius. |
| Suet., Div. Aug. | Suetonius, Divus Augustus. |
| Suet., Div. Claud. | Suetonius, Divus Claudius. |
| Suet., Div. Iul. | Suetonius, Divus Iulius. |
| Suet., Div. Vesp. | Suetonius, Divus Vespasianus. |
| Suet., Grammat. | Suetonius, De Grammaticis. |
| Suet., Ner. | Suetonius, Nero. |
| Suet., Tib. | Suetonius, Tiberius. |
| Suet., Verg. | Suetonius, Vita Vergili. |
| Tac., Agr. | Tacitus, Agricola. |
| Tac., Ann. | Tacitus, Annales. |
| Tac., Germ. | Tacitus, Germania. |
| Tac., Hist. | Tacitus, Historiae. |
| Val. Max. | Valerius Maximus, Facta et Dicta Memorabilia. |
| Vell. Pat. | Velleius Paterculus, Historiae Romanae. |
| Xen., Anab. | Xenophon, Anabasis. |
| Zonar. | Zonaras, Epitome Istorion. |
Chapter 1: Seek and Destroy
1.Dio 50.10.1.
2. The tresviri rei publicae constituendae, which modern historians call the Second Triumvirate to distinguish it from the First (comprising C. Iulius Caesar, Cn. Pompeius Magnus and M. Licinius Crassus): Dio 46.55.1–4; Plut., Ant. 30.4; Suet., Div. Aug. 8.3, 12.1. On the legal basis of the Second Triumvirate, see Millar (1973).
3. Dio 50.1–10.
4. Dio 47.1.1; Plut., Ant. 55.2; Suet., Div. Aug. 13.1.
5. Plut., Ant. 31.1–3, 53.5, 56.2, 57.2.
6. Plut., Ant. 54.1.
7. Plut., Ant. 37–53.
8. Plut., Ant. 54.3–4.
9. Plut., Ant. 55.1–2.
10. RG 25.2. For the text of a sacramentum see ILS 8781 (Gangra in Paphlagonia) dated to 3 BCE.
11. Florus 2.21.2.
12. Dio 50.4.5: ‘ἅπερ που λόγῳ μὲν πρὸς τὴν Κλεοπάτραν, ἔργῳ δὲ καὶ πρὸς τὸν Ἀντώνιον ἔτεινεν ’; 50.6.1.
13. Dio 50.4.2–3.
14. For examples of pre-war propaganda see Finley (1985). For examples of Divi filius on coins see Appendix 4.
15. Dio 50.4.4–5. Having the ceremony in Rome spared him the customary burden of delivering the message in person to the offender on foreign soil.
16. Dio 50.2.2–3.
17. Dio 50.2.5.
18. Vell. Pat. 2.84.2.
19. Nic. 11.
20. App., Bell. Civ. 3.9; Dio 45.1.7–8; Vell. Pat. 2.59.4.
21. Suet., Div. Aug. 10.3.
22. Perusine War: App., Bell. Civ. 5.32–35. War Against Sex. Pompeius: App., Bell. Civ. 5.93–128. L. Antonius was the younger brother and a supporter of M. Antonius.
23. App., Ill. 20; Pliny, Nat. Hist. 7.148; Dio 49.35.2, 38.4; Suet., Div. Aug. 20: He was wounded, too, in Dalmatia, being struck on the right knee with a stone in one battle, and in another having a leg and both arms severely injured by the collapse of a bridge | Delmatico etiam vulnera excepit, una acie dextrum genu lapide ictus, altera et crus et utrumque brachium ruina pontis consauciatus.
24. Suet., Div. Aug. 68.
25. Imp. Caesar’s comportment: Suet., Div. Aug. 79.1; height, eyes: Suet., Div. Aug. 79.2 citing Iulius Marathus. Hair: Suet., Div. Aug. 79.1.
26. Caesar’s limp: Suet., Div. Aug. 80 – perhaps related to the injury at Metulus: see note 23.
27. Suet., Div. Aug. 81.1: Graves et periculosas valitudines per omnem vitam aliquot expertus est.
28. Pre-battle sickness: e.g. Suet., Div. Aug. 8.1, 13.1 and 81.1; Dio 53.25.7.
29. Nic. 11.
30. Alföldi (1976), pp. 25–30. Balbus: Suet., Div. Iul. 81.2; Dio 54.25.2. Oppius: Suet., Div. Iul. 52.2, 53, 56.1, 72.
31. Suet., Div. Aug. 66.1. Q. Salvidienus Rufus, one of the select group of friends present with Caesar at Apollonia in the days following the Ides of March, had been executed in 40 BCE when it was discovered he had sought to switch allegiance to Antonius.
32. Dio 50.9.2–3, 50.14.1.
33. Suet., Div. Aug. 94.12; Vell. Pat. 2.59.5.
34. For an assessment of Agrippa’s origins see Powell (2015), pp. 200–02.
35. For an assessment of Agrippa’s abilities see Powell (2015), pp. 203–06.
36. Agrippa was 25 when he led his men across the Rhine, Iulius Caesar 45.
37. Agrippa’s naval crown – source.
38. Dio 50.9.2.
39. Dio 50.9.2–3.
40. Orosius 6.19.7: inde Corcyram cepit; fugientes navali proelio persecutus profligauit multisque rebus cruentissime gestis ad Caesarem venit.
41. Dio 50.12.1.
42. Orosius 6.19.6.
43. Dio 50.11.3; Orosius 6.19.6.
44. Dio 50.11.3 = Zonar. 10.29.
45. Plut., Ant. 34.6; Dio 50.14.2.
46. Dio 50.11.5, 50.88.2.
47. Dio 50.11.1; Plut., Ant. 62.2.
48. Dio 50.11.2–6.
49. Dio 50.12.7.
50. Dio 50.12.1.
51. Dio 50.12.8.
52. Dio 50.12.8: ταῦτ᾽ οὖν προκατασχόντες οἱ Ἀντωνίειοι ἐπί τε τοῦ στόματος πύργους ἑκατέρωθεν ἐπῳκοδόμησαν καὶ τὸ μέσον ναυσὶ διέλαβον, ὥστε σφίσι καὶ τοὺς ἔκπλους καὶ τὰς ἀναχωρήσεις ἀσφαλεῖς εἶναι: αὐτοί τε ἐπὶ θάτερα τοῦ 1 πορθμοῦ κατὰ τὸ ἔρόν, ἐν χωρίῳ ὁμαλῷ μὲν καὶ πλατεῖ, ἐμμαχέσασθαι δὲ ἢ ἐνστρατοπεδεύσασθαι ἐπιτηδειοτέρῳ, ἐνηυλίζοντο: ἐξ οὗπερ οὐχ ἥκιστα τῇ νόσῳ καὶ ἐν τῷ χειμῶνι, καὶ ἐν τῷ θέρει πολὺ μᾶλλον, ἐπιέσθησαν ; cf. 50.15.3.
53. Vell. Pat. 2.84.1.
54. Plut., Ant. 67.7 and 68.4–5.
55. Plut., Ant. 56.4; Dio 50.6.5.
56. Dio 50.12.4: καὶ ἐν αὐτῷ ἐπὶ μετεώρου, ὅθεν ἐπὶ πάντα ὁμοίως τῆς τε ἔξω τῆς πρὸς Πάξοις θαλάσσης καὶ τῆς εἴσω 1 τῆς Ἀμπρακικῆς τῆς τε ἐν τῷ μέσῳ αὐτῶν, ἐν ᾧ οἱ λιμένες οἱ πρὸς τῇ Νικοπόλει εἰσίν, ἄποπτόν ἐστιν, ἱδρύθη – the islands he refers to are Paxos and Antipaxos. Cf. Florus 2.21.11.4; Livy, Peri. 132.2.
57. Vell. Pat., 2.84.1.
58. Dio 50.12.4.
59. Dio 50.12.4: κἀκ τούτου καὶ ἐφήδρευε καὶ ἐφώρμει τῷ Ἀκτίῳ καὶ κατὰ γῆν καὶ κατὰ θάλασσαν. ἤδη μὲν γὰρ ἤκουσα ὅτι καὶ τριήρεις ἐκ τῆς ἔξω θαλάσσης ἐς τὸν κόλπον διὰ τοῦ τειχίσματος ὑπερήνεγκε, βύρσαις νεοδάρτοις ἀντὶ ὁλκῶν ἐλαίῳ ἐπαληλιμμέναις. cf. with Caesar’s later use of the diolkos.
60. Plut., Ant. 61.1–2; Vell. Pat. 2.84.1–2. Imp. Caesar’s army was drawn from the western half of the empire, Antonius’ from the east – Dio 50.6.3–6. Dio 50.16.2 mentions Antonius’ army comprised of hoplites, cavalry, slingers, peltasts, archers and mounted archers. Plut., Ant. 61.1–2 also lists the client kingdoms arrayed with him: Of subject kings who fought with him, there were Bocchus the king of Libya, Tarcondemus the king of Upper Cilicia, Archelaüs of Cappadocia, Philadelphus of Paphlagonia, Mithridates of Commagene, and Sadalas of Thrace. These were with him, while from Pontus Polemon sent an army, and Malchus from Arabia, and Herod the Jew, besides Amyntas the king of Lycaonia and Galatia; the king of the Medes also sent an auxiliary force | ἐν αἷς ὀκτήρεις πολλαὶ καὶ δεκήρεις κεκοσμημέναι σοβαρῶς καὶ πανηγυρικῶς, στρατοῦ δὲ μυριάδες δέκα, δισχίλιοι δ᾽ ἱππεῖς ἐπὶ μυρίοις. βασιλεῖς δὲ ὑπήκοοι συνεμάχουν Βόκχος ὁ Λιβύων καὶ Ταρκόνδημος ὁ τῆς ἄνω Κιλικίας, καὶ Καππαδοκίας μὲν Ἀρχέλαος, Παφλαγονίας δὲ Φιλάδελφος, Κομμαγηνῆς δὲ Μιθριδάτης, Σαδάλας δὲ Θρᾴκης. οὗτοι μὲν αὐτοὶ παρῆσαν, ἐκ δὲ Πόντου Πολέμων στρατὸν ἔπεμπε, καὶ Μάλχος ἐξ Ἀραβίας καὶ Ἡρώδης ὁ Ἰουδαῖος, ἔτι δὲ Ἀμύντας ὁ Λυκαόνων καὶ Γαλατῶν βασιλεύς: ἦν δὲ καὶ παρὰ τοῦ Μήδων βασιλέως ἀπεσταλμένη βοήθεια.
61. Plut., Ant. 42.4; Career: Plut. Ant 34.6.
62. Vell. Pat. 2.87.3.
63. Dio 50.13.4.
64. Plut., Ant. 63.2.
65. Dio 50.13.4.
66. Dio 50.13.5.
67. Dio 50.13.5: Ἀγρίππας δὲ τότε μὲν τήν τε Λευκάδα καὶ τὰ ἐν αὐτῇ σκάφη αἰφνιδίως ἐπεσπλεύσαςἔλαβε.
68. Vell. Pat. 2.84.2: Denique in ore atque oculis Antonianae classis per M. Agrippam Leucas expugnata, Patrae captae, Corinthus occupata, bis ante ultimum discrimen classis hostium superata; Dio 50.13.5.
69. Dio 50.13.2–3: καὶ ἦλθε μὲν οὐ πολλῷ ὕστερον, οὐ μέντοι καὶ ἐς ἀγῶνα εὐθὺς κατέστη, καίτοι ἐκείνου τόν τε πεζὸν πρὸ τοῦ στρατοπέδου σφῶν συνεχῶς προπαρατάσσοντος καὶ ταῖς ναυσὶ πολλάκις σφίσιν ἐπιπλέοντος, τάς τε ὁλκάδας αὐτῶν κατάγοντος, ὅπως πρὶν πᾶσαν τὴν δύναμιν αὐτῷ συνελθεῖν, μόνοις τοῖς τότε παροῦσίν οἱ συμμίξῃ.
70. Orosius 6.19.7: Antonius defectu et fame militum suorum permotus bellum maturare instituit ac repente instructis copiis ad Caesaris castra processit et uictus est.
71. Orosius 6.19.8; Dio 50.14.3.
72. Dio 50.15.1.
73. Dio 51.15.2.
74. Dio 50.13.6 and 8; Plut., Ant. 63.2; Vell. Pat. 2.84.2.
75. Plut., Ant. 40.5.
76. Dio 50.11.1: τοιούτων δὴ σημείων προφανέντων σφίσιν οὔτε ἐφοβήθησαν οὔθ᾽ ἧττόν τι ἐπολέμησαν, ἀλλὰ τὸν μὲν χειμῶνα κατασκοπαῖς τε χρώμενοι καὶ παραλυποῦντες ἀλλήλους διετέλεσαν .
77. Dio 50.31.1.
78. Dio 51.14.6; Suet., Div. Aug. 17.4.
79. Dio 50.31.2.
80. Lange (2011), p. 608 n. 1, p. 609 n. 5 and 6 puts Velleius Paterculus, Plutarch, Florus, Ostorius, Ferrabino (1924), Tarn (1938) and Syme (1939) in this camp.
81. Lange (2011) p. 608 n. 3 puts Dio, Kromayer (1899), Gilles, Leake (1835), Merivale and Gravière (1885), Richardson (1937), Carter (1970), Grant (1972) and Kienast (1999) in this camp.
82. Lange (2011) p. 610 n. 14 cites Pelling (1988) – or as a modern day general has articulated, ‘the best plan is the one that gives the most options at the last possible minute’ (Lt Gen. Mike Flynn interviewed on Charlie Rose 2 February 2015, http://www.charlierose.com/watch/60510282 – accessed 29 February 2016).
83. Dio 50.15.1.
84. Plut., Ant. 63.3–5 cf. 56.2.
85. Dio 50.31.2; Plut., Ant. 65.1.
86. Vell. Pat. 2.85.1: Advenit deinde maximi discriminis dies, quo Caesar Antoniusque productis classibus pro salute alter, in ruinam alter terrarum orbis dimicavere.
87. Dio 51.1.1–2.
88. Plut., Ant. 61.1–2.
89. Florus 2.21.5.
90. Orosius 6.19.8.
91. Florus 2.21.6: Caesaris naves a bini remigum in senos nec amplius ordines creverant; itaque habites in omnia quae usus posceret, ad impetus et recursus flexusque capiendos, illas gravis et ad omnia praepeditas singulas plures adortae missilibus, simul rostris, ad hoc ignibus iactis ad arbitrium dissipavere.
92. Pitassi (2011), pp. 125–26; Rogers (2008), pp. 199–226.
93. Dio 50.23.2, 50.18.4 inferred.
94. Orosius 6.19.8; Plut., Ant. 65.1; Dio 50.31.3.
95. Plut., Ant. 61.1.
96. Florus 2.21.5: ducentae non minus hostium; Orosius 6.19.9: classis Antonii centum septuaginta navium fuit.
97. Plut., Ant. 64.1; Orosius 6.19.6–9; Dio 50.15.4, 50.12.1.
98. Dio 50.14.1–2, 50.31.2.
99. Plut., Ant. 61.1: ἐν αἷς ὀκτήρεις πολλαὶ καὶ δεκήρεις κεκοσμημέναι σοβαρῶς καὶ πανηγυρικῶς. 100. Dio 50.23.2.
101. Dio 50.18.4–6 has Antonius dismissing Agrippa’s fleet, putting into his mouth the words: so great is the difference between us two; but, as a rule, it is those who have the better equipment that secure the victories | τοσοῦτον μὲν ἀλλήλων διαφέρομεν, τὰ δὲ δὴ πολλὰ τῶν ἄμεινον παρεσκευασμένων καὶ αἱ νῖκαι γίγνονται .
102. Florus 2.21.5–6: sed numerum magnitudo pensabat. Quippe a sensis novenos remorum ordines, ad hoc turribus atque tabulatis adlevatae castellorum vel urbium specie, non sine gemitu maris et labore ventorum ferebatur; quae quidem ipsa moles exitio fuit.
103. Dio 50.23.3: καὶ ἐπ᾽ αὐτὰ πύργους τε ὑψηλοὺς ἐπικατεσκεύασε καὶ πλῆθος ἀνθρώπων ἐπανεβίβασεν, ὥστε καθάπερ ἀπὸ τειχῶν αὐτοὺς μάχεσθαι.
104. Plut., Ant. 64.2: λέγων ὅτι δεῖ μηδένα φεύγοντα τῶν πολεμίων διαφυγεῖν.
105. See the careful analysis of Lange (2011) pp. 612–15.
106. Dio 50.31.4; Plut., Ant. 65.4.
107. Vell. Pat. 2.85.2; Dio 15.19.1.
108. Vell. Pat. 2.77.3.
109. Plut., Ant. 65.3.
110. Dio 50.31.4.
111. On gens Luria see Syme (1984b), p. 169.
112. Dio 50.31.4.
113. Plut., Ant. 65.3; Dio 50.31.4.
114. (MA 4–135 Florus 2.21.3: Aureum in manu baculum, ad latus acinaces, purpurea vestis ingentibus obstricta gemmis.
115. Dio 47.24.3; Livy, Peri. 122; he is described as ‘Q[uaestor] P[ropraetore]’ on a silver denarius minted 41 BCE: Sydenham 1188, Sear Imperators 250, RBW 1800, Crawford 517–18.
116. Plut., Ant. 65.1. M Insteius: see Pandélis M. Nigdélis (1994). M. Octavius: Cic. Ad Fam. 8.2.2; Caes., Bell. Civ. 3.5; Dio, 41.40, 42.11; Oros. 6.15; Plut., Cat. 65.2, Ant. 65.1.
117. Plut., Ant. 60.3.
118. Vell. Pat. 2.85.2.
119. Dio 50.31.4.
120. Plut., Ant. 65.4.
121. Dio 50.31.4.
122. Plut., Ant. 65.5; cf. Dio 50.31.4.
123. Dio 50.31.5.
124. Dio 50.31.6. Carter (1970) pp. 217–18 argues Antonius arrayed his fleet in two lines.
125. Plut., Ant. 65.4. Romans measured time as hours after sunrise. Sunrise in Athens on 2 September is 6.56am.
126. Carter (1970) p. 218.
127. Iapyx: Vergil, Aen. 8.710: fecerat ignipotens undis et Iapyge ferri.
128. Orosius 6.19.10.
129. Plut., Ant. 66.1–2: ἀρχομένου δὲ τοῦ ἀγῶνος ἐν χερσὶν εἶναι, ἐμβολαὶ μὲν οὐκ ἦσαν οὐδὲ ἀναρρήξεις νεῶν, τῶν μὲν Ἀντωνίου διὰ βάρος ῥύμην οὐκ ἐχουσῶν, ἣ μάλιστα ποιεῖ τὰς τῶν ἐμβόλων πληγὰς ἐνεργούς, τῶν δὲ Καίσαρος οὐ μόνον ἀντιπρῴρων συμφέρεσθαι πρὸς χαλκώματα στερεὰ καὶ τραχέα
φυλασσομένων, ἀλλὰ μηδὲ κατὰ πλευρὰν ἐμβολὰς διδόναι θαρρουσῶν. ἀπεθραύοντο γὰρ τὰ ἔμβολα ῥᾳδίως ᾗ προσπέσοιε σκάφεσι τετραγώνων ξύλων μεγάλων σιδήρῳ συνηρμοσμένων πρὸς ἄλληλα δεδεμένοις. ἦν οὖν πεζομαχίᾳ προσφερὴς ὁ ἀγών: τὸ δὲ ἀληθέστερον εἰπεῖν, τειχομαχία. τρεῖς γὰρ ἅμα καὶ τέσσαρες περὶ μίαν τῶν Ἀντωνίου συνείχοντο, γέρροις καὶ δόρασι καὶ κοντοῖς χρωμένων καὶ πυροβόλοις: οἱ δὲ Ἀντωνίου καὶ καταπέλταις ἀπὸ ξυλίνων πυργων ἔβαλλον.
130. Dio 50.32.1–8.
131. Dio 50.32.7: ἐδύναντο, αἱ δὲ ἔπασχον. ἐπονοῦντο δὲ καὶ ἔκαμνον τοῖς μὲν οἵ τε κυβερνῆται καὶ οἱ ἐρέται μάλιστα, τοῖς δὲ οἱ ἐπιβάται: καὶ ἐῴκεσαν οἱ μὲν ἱππεῦσι τοτὲ μὲν ἐπελαύνουσι τοτὲ δὲ ἐξαναχωροῦσι διὰ τὸ τούς τε ἐπίπλους καὶ τὰς ἀνακρούσεις ἐπ᾽ αὐτοῖς εἶναι, οἱ δὲ ὁπλίταις τούς τε πλησιάζοντάς σφισι φυλασσομένοις καὶ κατέχειν αὐτοὺς.
132. Plut., Ant. 66.3.
133. Carter (1970) pp. 222–23 argues breaking a hole in Agrippa’s line was Antonius’ battle plan from the start.
134. Dio 50.33.1–3; Plut., Ant. 66.3–4. The sixty ships, which escaped, represented 35 per cent of his fleet – no mean achievement under the circumstances.
135. Dio 50.33.3; Plut., Ant. 66.5; Vell. Pat. 2.85.3; Florus 2.21.9.
136. Plut., Ant. 67.1.
137. Plut., Ant. 67.2: ἐν τούτῳ δὲ λιβυρνίδες ὤφθησαν διώκουσαι παρὰ Καίσαρος: ὁ δὲ ἀντίπρῳρον ἐπιστρέφειν τὴν ναῦν κελεύσας τὰς μὲν ἄλλας ἀνέστειλεν.
138. ‘No battle plan ever survives contact with the enemy’, attributed to Helmuth Karl Bernhard Graf von Moltke.
139. Dio 50.33.4.
140. Dio 50.33.6–8: οἱ μὲν γὰρ τά τε κάτω τῶν νεῶν πάντα πέριξ ἐκακούργουν καὶ τὰς κώπας συνέθραυον τά τε πηδάλια ἀπήραττον, καὶ ἐπαναβαίνοντες ἐπὶ τὰ καταστρώματα τοὺς μὲν κατέσπων ἀντιλαμβανόμενοι τοὺς δὲ ἐώθουν, τοῖς δὲ ἐμάχοντο ἅτε καὶ ἰσοπληθεῖς αὐτοῖς ἤδη ὄντες: οἱ δὲ τοῖς τε κοντοῖς σφᾶς διεωθοῦντο καὶ ταῖς ἀξίναις ἔκοπτον, πέτρους τε καὶ ἄλλους τινὰς ὄγκους ἐπ᾽ αὐτὸ τοῦτο παρεσκευασμένους ἐπικατέβαλλον, καὶ τούς τε ἀναβαίνοντας ἀπεκρούοντο καὶ τοῖς ἐς χεῖρας ἰοῦσι συνεφέροντο. εἴκασεν ἄν τις ἰδὼν τὰ γιγνόμενα, ὡς μικρὰ μεγάλοις ὁμοιῶσαι, τείχεσί τισιν ἢ καὶ νήσοις πολλαῖς καὶ πυκναῖς ἐκ θαλάσσης πολιορκουμέναις. οὕτως οἱ μὲν ἐπιβῆναί τε τῶν σκαφῶν ὥσπερ ἠπείρου καὶ ἐρύματός τινος ἐπειρῶντο, καὶ πάντα τὰ ἐς τοῦτο φέροντα σπουδῇ προσῆγον: οἱ δὲ ἀπεωθοῦντο αὐτούς, ὅ τι ποτὲ ἐν τῷ τοιούτῳ φιλεῖ δρᾶσθαι μηχανώμενοι.
141. Florus 21.6: itaque habites in omnia quae usus posceret, ad impetus et recursus flexusque capiendos, illas gravis et ad omnia praepeditas singulas plures adortae missilibus, simul rostris, ad hoc ignibus iactis ad arbitrium dissipavere.
142. Dio 50.34.1; Vell. Pat. 2.85.4.
143. Dio 50.34.2–7: κἀνταῦθα ἄλλο αὖ εἶδος μάχης συνηνέχθη. οἱ μὲν γὰρ πολλαχῇ ἅμα προσπλέοντές τισι βέλη τε πυρφόρα ἐπ᾽ αὐτοὺς ἐξετόξευον καὶ λαμπάδας ἐκ χειρὸς ἐπηκόντιζον καί τινας καὶ χυτρίδας ἀνθράκων καὶ πίττης πλήρεις πόρρωθεν μηχαναῖς ἐπερρίπτουν: οἱ δὲ ταῦτά τε ὡς ἕκαστα διεκρούοντο, καὶ ἐπειδή τινα αὐτῶν διεκπίπτοντα τῶν τε ξύλων ἥπτετο καὶ φλόγα αὐτίκα πολλήν, ἅτε ἐν νηί, ἤγειρε, τὸ μὲν πρῶτον τῷ ποτίμῳ ὕδατι ᾧ ἐπεφέροντο ἐχρῶντο, καί τινα κατέσβεσαν, ἐπεὶ δὲ ἐκεῖνο καταναλώθη, ἤντλουν τὸ θαλάττιον. καὶ εἰ μὲν πολλῷ τε καὶ ἀθρόῳ αὐτῷ ἐχρῶντο, ἐπεῖχόν πως τῇ βίᾳ τὸ πῦρ: ἀδύνατοι δὲ δὴ πανταχῇ τοῦτο ποιεῖν ὄντες ῾οὔτε γὰρ πολλὰ ἢ καὶ μεγάλα τὰ ἀντλητήρια εἶχον, καὶ ἡμιδεᾶ αὐτὰ ἅτε ταραττόμενοι ἀνέφερον᾽ οὐχ ὅσον οὐκ ὠφελοῦντό τι, ἀλλὰ καὶ προσπαρώξυνον αὐτό: ἡ γὰρ ἅλμη ἡ θαλαττία ἂν κατ᾽ ὀλίγον ἐπιχέηται φλογί, ἰσχυρῶς αὐτὴν ἐκκαίει. ὡς οὖν καὶ ἐν τούτῳ ἥττους ἐγίγνοντο, τά τε ἱμάτια αὑτῶν τὰ παχέα καὶ τοὺς νεκροὺς ἐπέβαλλον: καὶ χρόνον μέν τινα ἐκολούσθη τε ὑπ᾽ αὐτῶν τὸ πῦρ καὶ ἔδοξέ πῃ λωφᾶν, ἔπειτα δὲ ἄλλως τε καὶ τοῦ ἀνέμου σφοδρῶς ἐπισπέρξαντος ἐπὶ πλεῖον ἐξέλαμψεν, ἅτε καὶ ὑπ᾽ αὐτῶν ἐκείνων αὐξανόμενον. καὶ μέχρι μὲν μέρος τι νεὼς ἐκαίετο, προσίσταντό τέ τινες αὐτῷ καὶ ἐς αὐτὸ ἐσεπήδων, καὶ τὰ μὲν ἀπέκοπτον τὰ δὲ διεφόρουν: καὶ αὐτὰ οἱ μὲν ἐς τὴν θάλασσαν οἱ δὲ καὶ ἐπὶ τοὺς ἐναντίους ἐρρίπτουν, εἴ πως καὶ ἐκείνους τι λυμήναιντο. καὶ ἕτεροι πρὸς τὸ ἀεὶ ὑγιὲς αὐτῆς μεθιστάμενοι ταῖς τε χερσὶ ταῖς σιδηραῖς καὶ τοῖς δόρασι τοῖς μακροῖς τότε δὴ καὶ τὰ μάλιστα ἐχρῶντο, ὅπως τινὰ ἀντίπαλον ναῦν προσαρτήσαντές σφισι μάλιστα μὲν μετεκβῶσιν ἐς αὐτήν, εἰ δὲ μή, καὶ ἐκείνην συγκαταφλέξωσιν. During explorations of the sea floor off the coast of Preveza in 1993 and 1994, divers of The University of South Florida and The Greek Ministry of Culture found what are believed to be stone balls (12cm, 4.7ins, in maximum diameter) fired by ballistas or catapults, presumably during the Battle of Actium (online at http://luna.cas.usf.edu/~murray/actium/brochure.html – accessed 29 February 2016).
144. Dio 50.35.1–4.
145. Orosius 6.19.10: ab hora quinta usque in horam septimam incerta uincendi spe grauissimae utrimque caedes actae; reliquum diei cum subsequente nocte in uictoriam Caesaris declinauit.
146. Suet., Div. Aug. 17.2: Nec multo post navali proelio apud Actium vicit, in serum dimicatione protacta, ut in nave victor pernoctaverit.
147. Plut., Ant. 68.1.
148. Orosius 6.19.10.
149. Dio 51.1.1–2, 56.30.5.
150. Florus 2.21.7: Quippe inmensae classis naufragium bello factum toto mari ferebatur, Arabumque et Sabaeorum et mille aliarum Asiae gentium spolia purpura auroque inlita adsidue mote ventis maria revomebant.
151. Plut., Ant. 68.1.
152. Plut., Ant. 68.1; Orosius 6.19.12.
153. Plut., Ant. 68.3.
154. Plut., Ant. 68.3; Vell. Pat. 2.85.5–6.
155. Lobur (2008) p. 123 highlights the error in Vell. Pat. 2.87.3, which lists Crassus among those who committed suicide.
156. Suet., Div. Aug. 17.2; Appian, Bell. Civ. 5.73; Dio 51.1.4.
157. Vell. Pat. 2.86.
158. Dio 51.2.1–5.
159. Dio 51.1.4.
160. Dio 51.3.2.
161. Vell. Pat. 2.84.2; Dio 50.13.5.
162. Plut., Ant. 68.4; Dio 51.4.1.The rejection of Paul Graindor’s argument that there were riots in Athens during his visit in 31/30 BCE by Hoff (1989) p. 268 – citing Bowersock (1964) who places the civil unrest in 22/21 BCE – is accepted here.
163. Dio 51.15.2.
164. Plut., Ant. 68.4–5.
165. Strabo 7.7.6.
166. Dio 51.1.2–3: the foundations with the sockets for the captured ships’ rostra can still be seen at the site.
167. Dio 51.3.1.
168. Dio 51.3.1, 51.3.4.
169. Dio 51.3.5.
170. Vell. Pat. 2.88.2.
171. Dio 51.3.5–6. Whenever Caesar wrote a letter to Agrippa and Maecenas or any of his other close friends containing confidential information, he would use a monoalphabetic substitution cipher, a coding system which shifted each letter of a word a single place in the alphabet, according to Dio 51.3.7 and Suet., Div. Aug. 88.
172. Plut., Ant. 73.3.
173. Vell. Pat. 2.88.3; Appian 4.50; Dio 54.15.4; Livy, Peri. 133; Suet., Div. Aug. 19.1.
174. Dio 51.4.3.
175. Dio 51.1, 51.4.3.
176. Dio 51.4.3 infers the search party included veterans.
177. Dio 51.4.4–5: Dio notes all senior officials went except the tribunes and two praetors, who remained in Rome in pursuance of a decree.
178. Orosius 6.19.14: Brundisium uenit; ibi orbis terrarum praesidia diuisis legionibus conposuit.
179. Dio 51.4.2–8; Orosius 6.19.14; Suet., Div. Aug. 17.3.
180. Dio 51.4.6.
181. Dio 51.4.7–8: it was an ironic reversal of the proscriptions of 43 and 42 BCE.
182. Dio 51.5.1.
183. Suet., Div. Aug. 17.5 says twenty-seven days; Dio 51.5.1 says thirty days.
184. Suet., Div. Aug. 17.3; Orosius 6.19.14.
185. Dio 51.5.6, 9.1; Orosius 6.19.15.
186. Orosius 6.19.15; Dio 51.9.1. Dio 51.5.6 reports that after Actium, Antonius had tried to land in Africa but he was denied entry by Scarpus – it was a bitter exchange because Antonius had appointed Scarpus to the command against encroachment from Caesar. Scarpus minted a silver denarius, among the very first struck immediately after Actium, showing an open hand on the obverse signalling a gesture of friendship toward Caesar with the legend IMP CAESARI SCARPVS IMP, and a winged Victory standing right on globe, holding palm-branch and wreath on the reverse with DIVI F AVG PONT: Crawford 546/6; CRI 413; RIC I 534; Sydenham 1282; RSC 500.
187. Dio 51.6.1.
188. Dio 51.6.1: ἵν᾽ οἵ τε Αἰγύπτιοι ὡς καὶ ἀνδρός τινος ἤδη βασιλεύοντός σφων προθυμηθῶσι, καὶ οἱ ἄλλοι προστάτας ἐκείνους, ἄν γέ τι δεινόν σφισι συμβῇ, ἔχοντες καρτερήσωσι.
189. Dio 51.6.4.
190. Dio 51.6.5.
191. Dio 51.6.6: ὁ δὲ τὰ μὲν δῶρα ἔλαβεν οἰωνὸν ποιούμενος, ἀπεκρίνατο δὲ τῷ μὲν Ἀντωνίῳ οὐδέν, τῇ δὲ Κλεοπάτρᾳ φανερῶς μὲν ἄλλα τε ἀπειλητικὰ καὶ ὅτι, ἂν τῶν τε ὅπλων καὶ τῆς βασιλείας ἀποστῇ, βουλεύσεται περὶ αὐτῆς ὅσα χρὴ πρᾶξαι, λάθρᾳ δὲ ὅτι, ἐὰν τὸν Ἀντώνιον ἀποκτείνῃ, καὶ τὴν ἄδειαν αὐτῇ καὶ τὴν ἀρχὴν ἀκέραιον δώσει.
192. Dio 51.8.1–4.
193. Dio 51.8.5. Orosius 6.19.13 states Antonius and Kleopatra had a fleet stationed at Paraetonium and Pelusium ready to take them to renew the war effort elsewhere.
194. Dio 51.8.6.
195. Dio 51.8.5; Orosius 6.19.14. Pelusium lay 30km (20 miles) to the southeast of the modern Port Said. Dio, 51.9.5 suggests Kleopatra secretly allowed it to be taken by Imp. Caesar in the hope of receiving his clemency, being allowed to keep her kingdom and a later chance at fulfilling her imperial ambition.
196. Dio 51.10.1; Suet., Div. Aug. 17.3.
197. Val. Max. 3.8.8; cf. Plut., Ant. 64.2 for the story of a centurion on Antonius’ side.
198. Val. Max. 3.8.8: Idem constantiae propositum secutus Maeuius centurio diui Augusti, cum Antoniano bello saepe numero excellentes pugnas edidisset, inprouisis hostium insidiis circumuentus et ad Antonium Alexandriam perductus interrogatusque quidnam de eo statui deberet, ‘iugulari me’ inquit ‘iube, quia non salutis beneficio neque mortis supplicio adduci possum ut aut Caesaris miles <esse> desinam aut tuus incipiam. ceterum quo constantius uitam contempsit, eo facilius impetrauit: Antonius enim uirtuti eius incolumitatem tribuit.
199. Dio 51.10.2.
200. Dio 51.10.3.
201. Dio 51.19.6: τήν τε ἡμέραν ἐν ᾗ ἡ Ἀλεξάνδρεια ἑάλω, ἀγαθήν τε εἶναι καὶ ἐς τὰ ἔπειτα ἔτη ἀρχὴν τῆς ἀπαριθμήσεως αὐτῶν νομίζεσθαι. The date was thereafter considered auspicious: see Ch. 3, n. 88–89.
202. Dio 51.10.4.
203. Dio 51.10.5.
204. Dio 51.10.5–6.
205. Dio 51.10.7–14.6; Livy, Peri. 133.2; Eutropius 7.7; Suet., Div. Aug. 17.4; Strabo, Geog. 17.10.
206. Dio 51.10.7; Suet., Div. Aug. 17.4.
207. Caesarion: Dio 51.15.5; Plut., Ant. 81.2. Antyllus: Plut., Ant. 81.1 and 87.1.
208. Suet., Div. Aug. 18.2; Livy, Peri. 133.2; Orosius 6.19.16, 19.
209. Eutropius 7.7.
210. Dio 51.17.1.
211. Strabo, Geog. 17.8. Iulius Caesar had seen it too, seventeen years before.
212. Suet., Div. Aug. 18.1: Per idem tempus conditorium et corpus Magni Alexandri, cum prolatum e penetrali subiecisset oculis, corona aurea imposita ac floribus aspersis veneratus est, consultusque, num et Ptolemaeum inspicere vellet, ‘regem se voluisse ait videre, non mortuos’. The memory of Alexander exerted a great power over the two Caesars. Thirty-eight years before, when his great uncle had been a quaestor, a junior administrator, serving in Hispania Ulterior he had noticed a statue of Alexander the Great in the Temple of Hercules at Gades (modern Cadiz), cf. Suet., Div. Iul. 7.1: he heaved a sigh, and as if out of patience with his own incapacity in having as yet done nothing noteworthy at a time of life when Alexander had already brought the world to his feet, he straightway asked for his discharge, to grasp the first opportunity for greater enterprises at Rome. | ubi cum mandatu praetoris iure dicundo conventus circumiret Gadisque venisset, animadversa apud Herculis templum Magni Alexandri imagine ingemuit et quasi pertaesus ignaviam suam, quod nihil dum a se memorabile actum esset in aetate, qua iam Alexander orbem terrarum subegisset, missionem continuo efflagitavit ad captandas quam primum maiorum rerum occasiones in urbe.
213. Dio 51.16.5.
214. Suet., Div. Aug. 18.2: Aegyptum in provinciae formam redactam ut feraciorem habilioremque annonae urbicae redderet, fossas omnis, in quas Nilus exaestuat, oblimatas longa vetustate militari opere detersit.
215. Dio 51.18.1: ὁ δ᾽ οὖν Καῖσαρ ὡς τά τε προειρημένα ἔπραξε, καὶ πόλιν καὶ ἐκεῖ ἐν τῷ τῆς μάχης χωρίῳ συνῴκισε.
216. Strabo, Geog. 17.10.
217. Dio 51.17.6–7: χρήματα δὲ πολλὰ μὲν ἐν τῷ βασιλικῷ εὑρέθη ῾πάντα γὰρ ὡς εἰπεῖν καὶ τὰ ἐκ τῶν ἁγιωτάτων ἱερῶν ἀναθήματα ἡ Κλεοπάτρα ἀνελομένη συνεπλήθυσε τὰ λάφυρα τοῖς Ῥωμαίοις ἄνευ τινὸς οἰκείου αὐτῶν μιάσματος , πολλὰ δὲ καὶ παρ᾽ ἑκάστου τῶν αἰτιαθέντων τι ἠθροίσθη. καὶ χωρὶς οἱ λοιποὶ πάντες, ὅσοι μηδὲν ἴδιον ἔγκλημα λαβεῖν ἐδύναντο, τὰ δύο μέρη τῶν οὐσιῶν ᾐτήθησαν. καὶ ἀπ᾽ αὐτῶν πάντες μὲν οἱ στρατιῶται τὰ ἐποφειλόμενά σφισιν ἐκομίσαντο, οἱ δὲ δὴ καὶ τότε τῷ Καίσαρι συγγενόμενοι πεντήκοντα καὶ διακοσίας δραχμάς, ὥστε μὴ διαρπάσαι τὴν πόλιν, προσεπέλαβον.
218. Dio 51.17.8.
219. Dio 51.25.2.
220. Dio 50.6.3–6.
221. Dio 51.21.6.
222. Fast. Capitol.
223. The campaign of M. Crassus is described by Dio in remarkable detail. In 51.27.2 he writes: All these operations took a long time; but the facts I record, as well as the names, are in accordance with the tradition which has been handed down. | ταῦτα μὲν ἐν χρόνῳ ἐγένετο, γράφω δὲ τά τε ἄλλα ὥς που παραδέδοται, καὶ αὐτὰ τὰ ὀνόματα (Cf. 51.25.2). He may have consulted chronicles, official histories or even the biography of Crassus in preparing his account.
224. Dio 51.22.1.
225. Dio 51.22.3, 51.22.6, 51.23.3–4.
226. Dio 51.23.3.
227. Dio 51.23.4.
228. Dio 51.23.4: τὸ δὲ δὴ πλεῖστον περὶ τῇ Μακεδονίᾳ φοβηθεὶς ἀντεπῆλθέ σφισι.
229. Dio 51.23.4: καὶ αὐτοὺς ἐκ τῆς προσόδου μόνης καταπλήξας ἐξέωσεν ἀμαχεὶ ἐκ τῆς χώρας .
230. Dio 51.23.5.
231. Florus, 2.26: Vnus ducum ante aciem postulato silentio: ‘Qui vos estis?’, inquit, responsum invicem: ‘Romani gentium domini’. Et ille ‘ita’ inquit ‘fiet, si nos viceritis’. Accepit omen Marcus Crassus.
232. Dio 51.24.1.
233. Dio 51.24.2.
234. Dio 51.24.3: Κράσσος δὲ ἐν τούτῳ τῆς νυκτὸς ἐς ὕλην τινὰ προχωρήσας, καὶ προσκόπους πρὸ αὐτῆς καταστήσας, ἀνέπαυσέ τε τὸ στράτευμα, καὶ μετὰ τοῦτο τῶν Βασταρνῶν μόνους τε ἐκείνους εἶναι νομισάντων καὶ ἐπιδραμόντων σφίσιν, ἔς τε τὰ λάσια ἀναχωροῦσιν ἐπακολουθησάντων, πολλοὺς μὲν ἐνταῦθα πολλοὺς δὲ καὶ.
235. The theme of women and children trapped by wagons occurs frequently in accounts of battles: Compare to Marius’ attack on the Cimbri, Suetonius on Boudicca.
236. Dio 51.24.4.
237. Dio 51.24.5.
238. For spolia opima see Harrison (1989) and Rich (1999).
239. Florus 2.26: Non minimum terroris incussit barbaris Comicius centurio satis barbarae, efficacis tamen apud tales homines stoliditatis, qui foculum gerens super cassidem, agitatum motu corporis, flamman velut ardenti capite funditabat.
240. Dio 51.24.5.
241. Dio 51.24.6.
242. Dio 51.24.7. On the policies determining distribution of war booty see Shatzman (1972).
243. Dio 51.25.2.
244. Dio 51.25.1: πράξας δὲ ταῦτα ὁ Κράσσος ἐπὶ τοὺς Μυσοὺς ἐτράπετο, καὶ τὰ μὲν πείθων τινὰς τὰ δὲ ἐκφοβῶν τὰ δὲ καὶ βιαζόμενος, πάντας μὲν πλὴν πάνυ ὀλίγων, ἐπιπόνως δὲ δὴ καὶ ἐπικινδύνως κατεστρέψατο.
245. Dio 51.25.2.
246. Dio 51.25.2.
247. Dio 51.18.2.
248. Dio 51.18.2: πρόφασιν μὲν ὡς καὶ περὶ τὴν Αἴγυπτον ἀσχολίαν ἔχων, ἔργῳ δὲ ἵν᾽ ἐκτρυχωθεῖεν ἐν τούτῳ μαχόμενοι πρὸς ἀλλήλους.
249. Dio 51.18.3: papers on hostages?
250. RG 8; Dio 52.42.5; Tac., Ann. 11.25.3.
251. The Lex Saenia de plebeiis in patricios adlegendis: Tac., Ann. 11.25; Dio 52.42.5; RG 8.1. For a full discussion see Botsford (1908) and Nicholls (1967).
252. Dio 51.23.1, 53.18; Suet. Div. Aug. 29.5; Strabo, Geog. 5.3.8; Tac., Ann. 3.72.
253. Dio 51.23.1: καὶ διὰ τοῦτο στρατηγὸν ἕνα παρὰ τοῦ δήμου κατ᾽ ἔτος αἱρεῖσθαι ἐλάμβανε .
254. Dio 51.25.3.
255. Dio 51.25.3: οὕτω καὶ ἄκων ἐξανέστη, καὶ σπουδῇ χωρήσας ἀνέλπιστός τε αὐτοῖς ἐπέπεσε, καὶ κρατήσας σπονδὰς ὁποίας ἠθέλησεν ἔδωκεν.
256. Dio 51.25.4.
257. Dio 51.25.5.
258. Dio 51.26.1–2: καὶ ὃς ἐπικουρήσας οἱ τήν τε ἵππον τῶν ἐναντίων ἐς τοὺς πεζοὺς ἐσήραξε, καὶ συμφοβήσας ἐκ τούτου καὶ ἐκείνους μάχην μὲν οὐδεμίαν ἔτ᾽ ἐποιήσατο, φόνον δὲ δὴ φευγόντων ἑκατέρων πολὺν εἰργάσατο. καὶ μετὰ τοῦτο τὸν Δάπυγα πρὸς φρούριόν τι καταφυγόντα ἀπολαβὼν ἐπολιόρκει: κἀν τῇ προσεδρείᾳ ἑλληνιστί τις αὐτὸν ἀπὸ τοῦ τείχους ἀσπασάμενος ἔς τε λόγους οἱ ἦλθε καὶ προδοσίαν συνέθετο. ἁλισκόμενοι οὖν οὕτως οἱ βάρβαροι ἐπ᾽ ἀλλήλους ὥρμησαν, καὶ ὅ τε Δάπυξ ἀπέθανε καὶ ἄλλοι πολλοί. τὸν μέντοι ἀδελφὸν αὐτοῦ ζωγρήσας ὁ Κράσσος οὐχ ὅτι τι κακὸν ἔδρασεν, ἀλλὰ καὶ ἀφῆκε.
259. Dio 51.26.3–4.
260. Dio 51.26.5. Cf. Dio 38.10.1–3.
261. Dio 51.26.6.
262. Dio 51.27.1: ἐπὶ δὲ Ἀρτακίους ἄλλους τε τινας οὔθ᾽ ἁλόντας ποτὲ οὔτ᾽ αὖ προσχωρῆσαί οἱ ἐθέλοντας, καὶ αὐτούς τε μέγιστον ἐπὶ τούτῳ φρονοῦντας καὶ τοῖς ἄλλοις ὀργήν τε ἅμα καὶ νεωτερισμὸν ἐμποιοῦντας, αὐτός τ᾽ ἐπεστράτευσε, καί σφας τὰ μὲν βίᾳ, δράσαντας οὐκ ὀλίγα, τὰ δὲ καὶ φόβῳ τῶνἁλισκομένων προσηγάγετο .
263. On spolia opima see Drogula (2015), pp. 352–53 and McPherson (2009).
264. Suet., Div. Aug. 30.2; Livy, AUC 4.20.7; Dio 44.4.3. It was a modest building regarded by many Romans as the city’s first temple dating back to the time of its founder Romulus, to commemorate his winning of the spolia opima from Acron, king of the Caeninenses, and to serve as a sacred repository for them.
265. Livy, AUC 4.20.7.
266. RG 19. Cf. Nepos, Atticus 20.3: Atticus suggested that it be restored; cf. RG 19.
267. Dio 44.4.3: σκῦλά τέ τινα ὀπῖμα ἐς τὸν τοῦ Διὸς τοῦ Φερετρίου νεὼν ἀναθεῖναί οἱ ὥσπερ τινὰ πολέμιον αὐτοστράτηγον αὐτοχειρίᾳ πεφονευκότι, καὶ τοῖς ῥαβδούχοις δαφνηφοροῦσιν ἀεὶ χρῆσθαι, μετά τε τὰς ἀνοχὰς τὰς Λατίνας ἐπὶ κέλητος ἐς τὴν πόλιν ἐκ τοῦ Ἀλβανοῦ ἐσελαύνειν ἔδοσαν.
268. Dio 51.25.2. Dio states: he did not receive the title of imperator, as some report | οὐ μέντοι καὶ τὸ τοῦ αὐτοκράτορος ὄνομα, ὥς γέ τινές φασιν, ἔλαβεν . For a discussion see Cartledge (1975), p. 36, who notes Crassus was ‘lucky to escape with his life’. See Ch. 4, n. 90 on the refusal of Nero Claudius Drusus’ imperatorial acclamation in 11 BCE.
269. Dio 51.25.2. Theodor Momsen placed this event in the autumn of the year: see Schumacher (1985), pp. 209–10.
270. Dio 51.25.2.
271. Dio 51.21.5.
272. ILS 895: unlike Crassus, based on the inscription that shows Gallus was permitted to retain the title.
273. On the history of the Roman conquest of the Iberian Peninsula see Keay (1988), pp. 8–44, and Curchin (1995), pp. 7–52.
274. Dio 51.20.5. Taurus may have won one of his three imperatorial acclamations here, but it is nowhere recorded.
275. Dio 51.20.5: ἄλλα τε ὡς καθ᾽ ἑκάστους ταραχώδη συχνὰ ἐγίγνετο: ἀλλ᾽ ἐπειδὴ μηδὲν μέγα ἀπ᾽ αὐτῶν συνηνέχθη, οὔτε ἐκεῖνοι τότε πολεμεῖσθαι ἐνόμιζον οὔτε ἐγὼ ἐπιφανές τι περὶ αὐτῶν γράψαι ἔχω .
276. Lange (2009a), p. 93, convincingly shows that Augustus was acknowledged to have won both a civil war – the Actian War – as well as an external or foreign war – viz. the Alexandrian War.
277. Dio 51.20.2; cf. Aul. Gell., Noct. Att. 5.6.1–7: the crown of laurels on Imp. Caesar’s profile begins to appear more frequently on coins from this time. The privilege had been accorded to Pompeius Magnus in 61 (Cic., Att. 1.18.6, Dio 37.21.4, Vell. Pat. 2.40.4) and Iulius Caesar in 45/44 BCE (Suet., Div. Iul. 45.2).
278. Dio 51.19.1, 51.19.5.
279. Dio 51.19.2.
280. Dio 51.19.3, 51.19.5.
281. Dio 51.19.7.
282. Suet., Div. Aug. 53.2; cf. Dio 54.10.4: Caesar generally preferred to arrive at night to avoid sycophantic crowds.
283. Dio 51.1.5; Suet., Div. Aug. 22; RG 13.
284. Dio 51.1.5, 24.37.1–2. The augurium salutis was an augural inquiry of the gods for the wellbeing of the Roman People (salus populi Romani). It had last been performed in 63 BCE (Dio 37.24.1–3). Revived by Augustus (Dio 51.20.4), performing this annual rite in combination with the closure of the doors of the Temple of Ianus publicly marked the phases of war making and its ending. See Lange (2009a) pp. 140–1.
285. E.g. RIC2 263, 264, 265. Gurval (1998), pp. 47–50, but cf. Zanker (1990), pp. 53–57.
286. Dio 51.21.3: καὶ ἐτίμησεν ὥσπερ εἴθιστο, καὶ τόν τε Ἀγρίππαν ἄλλοις τέ τισι καὶ σημείῳ κυανοειδεῖ ναυκρατητικῷ προσεπεσέμνυνε.
287. Livy, Peri. 129.4. Reinhard (1933), p. 60, notes that the award was unique in the recorded history of antiquity.
288. Dio 51.21.3.
289. See Aegyptische Urkunden aus den Koeniglichen Museen zu Berlin, Griechische Urkunden, 4.1047, II, 13–14 (Berlin 1912). Maecenas also had an estate in Egypt.
290. Dio 53.27.5. Probably the Domus Rostrata, the house grotesquely decorated with beaks captured from pirates’ ships in 67 BCE, which he had taken from Pompeius Magnus.
291. Servius, Ad Georg. 3.29. They would stand near the columna rostrata commemorating the victory of C. Duilius over the Carthaginians at Mylae in 260 BCE.
292. Keppie (1971) cites CIL, V 890 (Aquileia), 2389 (Ferrara), 2501 (Ateste), 2503 (Ateste) and 2339 (Patavium). Each man had the simple form praenomen and nomen gentile, and adopted Actiacus as his cognomen.
293. The battle honour appears on tombstones from several, but not all, veterans at Ateste: e.g. CIL V, 2495, 2497(?), 2399, 2501–2503, 2507, 2508, 2514–2516, 2518–2520.
294. RG 4; Livy, Peri. 113; Dio 51.21.5–9; Strabo, Geog. 12.3.6, 12.3.25; Vell. Pater. 2.89.1; Suet., Div. Aug. 22, 41.1, Tib. 6; Florus 2.21.10; Servius, ad Aen. 8.714; Orosius 6.20.1.
295. Beard (2007), p. 81–82.
296. Suet., Tib. 6.4. An inscription at Nikopolis depicts Augustus in the triumphator’s chariot with the members of his familty: see Beard (2007), p. 224.
297. Dio 51.21.5–6.
298. Dio 51.21.7.
299. Dio 51.21.8. After the triumph the children were taken into the care of Caesar’s sister, Octavia, and raised in her household – Plut., Ant. 87.1.
300. Dio 51.20.2, 51.21.9.
301. Dio 51.2.2. The execution was likely by strangulation or beheading, as had been the fate of Vercingetorix, the Gallic war chief under Iulius Caesar.
302. Dio 51.24.7.
303. Dio 51.22.1.
304. For a discussion of Augustus’ promotion of the Caesar cult as a precursor to a cult of his own after his death, see White (1988).
305. Dio 51.22.1: ἐνέστησε δὲ ἐς αὐτὸ τὸ ἄγαλμα τὸ τῆς Νίκης τὸ καὶ νῦν ὄν, δηλῶν, ὡς ἔοικεν, ὅτι παρ᾽ αὐτῆς τὴν ἀρχὴν ἐκτήσατο . Dio remarks that the statue was still in existence at the time he was writing his book.
306. Dio 53.2.3. The wealth of Egypt was immense – see Maddison (2007), p. 27. The Visual Capitalist suggests that the wealth of Egypt represented ‘at least 25% of global gross domestic product (GDP) at the time’; it contributed very significantly to Augustus’ estimated $4.6 trillion net worth (http://www.visualcapitalist.com/richest-people-human-history).
307. Dio 51.21.3.
308. Suet., Div. Aug. 41.1: the rate of interest fell, and the value of real estate rose greatly | ut faenore deminuto plurimum agrorum pretiis accesserit. Cf. Dio 51.21.5 writes the interest charged on loans rose to 12 per cent.
309. Dio 51.21.4: τῶν τε δυσχερῶν πάντων οἱ Ῥωμαῖοι ἐπελάθοντο, καὶ τὰ ἐπινίκια αὐτοῦ ἡδέως ὡς καὶἀλλοφύλων ἁπάντων τῶν ἡττηθέντων .
310. For a full discussion of damnatio memoriae see Flower (2006), pp. 116–21. On the damnatio memoriae of Antonius see Lange (2009a), pp. 136–40. Lange notes that Antonius’ name was scratched from the Fasti Consulares in 30 BCE, but restored after Imp. Caesar’s return to Rome in 29 BCE. Augustus conspicuously and purposely omitted the dishonored triumvir’s name from his own monumental record of achievements (e.g. see RG 24.1).
311. Dio 51.19.3; Plut., Ant. 86.5.
312. The colossal statue now stands in the Venice Archaeological Museum; see plate 24 in Powell (2015).
313. Dio 51.21.3.
314. Dio 53.1.2: τὸν γὰρ Ἀγρίππαν ἐς ὑπερβολὴν ἐτίμα .
315. Dio 53.1.1.
316. Dio 53.1.6.
317. Dio 53.17.2–3.
318. On the meaning of Res Publica Restituta see Judge and Harrison (2008), pp. 140–66 and 314–46, for excellent reviews of current academic thought; Syme (1959), p. 36; Bay (1972), p. 120; Cartledge (1975), p. 37, who notes the opinion of Millar (1973) that after Actium Imp. Caesar was ‘ever a monarch’; and Galinsky (1996), pp. 64–67, proposes the restoration also had a moral dimension, invoking old Roman values and virtues.
319. Aureus: obverse – LEGES ET IURA P R RESTITUIT, Imp. Caesar, togate, sitting on curule chair, holding scroll, facing left; reverse – IMP CAES DIVI F COS VI, laureate head of Imp. Caesar facing right. (Cf. RG 34). For a discussion see Abday and Harling (2005). The coin, discovered in England, is now in the British Museum.
320. Dio 53.2.1 records that Imp. Caesar provided funds for the grain dole, ordering two ex-praetors to supervise the budget, and Dio 53.2.3 that he appointed the praetor urbanus. Cf. RG 15.
321. Dio 53.1.3. The formal title was Princeps Senatus.
322. Dio 53.17.6.
323. Suet., Div. Aug. 35; cf. 300 at the time of the founding of the Republic reported in Livy, Peri. 60, and how numbers were augmented by Iulius Caesar to 900 members as reported in Dio 43.47 and Suet., Div. Caes. 80, but restated as 1,000 in Div. Aug. 35.1 and Dio 52.42.1.
324. Dio 52.42.4–5. See Ch. 1, n. 250.
325. Dio 52.42.6–7.
326. Dio 52.42.8.
327. RG 20.
328. RG 19; Dio 53.1.3.
329. Dio 51.19.2.
330. Dio 53.1.4–5.
331. Beacham (1999), p. 24.
332. Dio 53.1.4–5.
333. Fast. Capitol.
334. Strabo, Geog. 17.1.53.
335. EJ 21 = ILS 8995 (Philae); Strabo, Geog. 17.1.54.
336. RG 26; Ptol. 4.7.32. The 30 miles refers to the distance heading south from Philae. The text on the stele, in Latin, Greek and Egyptian hieroglyphs, refers to the king being ‘taken under protection’ of Gallus. For a full discussion and reconstructions of the text see Hoffman, Minas-Nerpel and Pfeiffer (2009), and Judge and Harrison (2008), pp. 72–75.