In the west, news of the victory at Jerusalem provoked explosive delight, although the crusade’s preacher, Urban II, died on 29 July 1099, a fortnight after the Holy City fell, unaware of the crowning if bloody success of his vision. Providence appeared to have vindicated western ambition and the Christian faith. News spread; those who had failed to honour their vows were shamed or bullied into joining up for new expeditions. In Syria, the associates of Baldwin of Boulogne and Bohemund were now able to make their pilgrimage, not without danger but assured of a welcome at the end of it. The memory of these remarkable events lingered, not least in popular media such as songs. A new legend had been created.
To lord Paschal, pope of the Roman Church, to all the bishops, and to the whole Christian people, from the archbishop of Pisa, Duke Godfrey, now, by the grace of God, defender of the church of the Holy Sepulchre, Raymond, count of St Gilles, and the whole army of God, which is in the land of Israel, greeting.
Multiply your supplications and prayers in the sight of God with joy and thanksgiving, since God has manifested his mercy in fulfilling by our hands what he had promised in ancient times. For after the capture of Nicaea, the whole army, made up of more than three hundred thousand soldiers, departed thence. And, although this army was so great that it could have in a single day covered all Romania and drunk up all the rivers and eaten up all the growing things, yet the Lord conducted them amid so great abundance that a ram was sold for a penny and an ox for twelve pennies or less. Moreover, although the princes and kings of the Saracens rose up against us, yet, by God’s will, they were easily conquered and overcome. Because, indeed, some were puffed up by these successes, God opposed to us Antioch, impregnable to human strength. And there he detained us for nine months and so humbled us in the siege that there were scarcely a hundred good horses in our whole army. God opened to us the abundance of his blessing and mercy and led us into the city, and delivered the Turks and all of their possessions into our power.
Inasmuch as we thought that these had been acquired by our own strength and did not worthily magnify God who had done this, we were beset by so great a multitude of Turks that no one dared to venture forth at any point from the city. Moreover, hunger so weakened us that some could scarcely refrain from eating human flesh. It would be tedious to narrate all the miseries which we suffered in that city. But God looked down upon his people whom he had so long chastised and mercifully consoled them. Therefore, he at first revealed to us, as a recompense for our tribulation and as a pledge of victory, his lance which had lain hidden since the days of the apostles. Next, he so fortified the hearts of the men, that they who from sickness or hunger had been unable to walk now were imbued with strength to seize their weapons and manfully to fight against the enemy.
After we had triumphed over the enemy, as our army was wasting away at Antioch from sickness and weariness and was especially hindered by the dissensions among the leaders, we proceeded into Syria, stormed Barra [al-Bara] and Marra [Ma’arrat al-Numan], cities of the Saracens, and captured the fortresses in that country. And while we were delaying there, there was so great a famine in the army that the Christian people now ate the putrid bodies of the Saracens. Finally, by the divine admonition, we entered into the interior of Hispania [Ruj], and the most bountiful, merciful and victorious hand of the omnipotent Father was with us. For the cities and fortresses of the country through which we were proceeding sent ambassadors to us with many gifts and offered to aid us and to surrender their walled places. But because our army was not large and it was the unanimous wish to hasten to Jerusalem, we accepted their pledges and made them tributaries. One of the cities forsooth, which was on the sea coast, had more men than there were in our whole army. And when those at Antioch and Laodicea and Archas [Arqah] heard how the hand of the Lord was with us, many from the army who had remained in those cities followed us to Tyre. Therefore, with the Lord’s companionship and aid, we proceeded thus as far as Jerusalem.
And after the army had suffered greatly in the siege, especially on account of the lack of water, a council was held and the bishops and princes ordered that all with bare feet should march around the walls of the city, in order that he who entered it humbly in our behalf might be moved by our humility to open it to us and to exercise judgement upon his enemies. God was appeased by this humility and on the eighth day after the humiliation he delivered the city and his enemies to us. It was the day indeed on which the primitive Church was driven thence, and on which the festival of the dispersion of the apostles is celebrated. And if you desire to know what was done with the enemy who were found there, know that in Solomon’s Porch* and in his Temple our men rode in the blood of the Saracens up to the knees of their horses.
Then, when we were considering who ought to hold the city, and some moved by love for their country and kinsmen wished to return home, it was announced to us that the king of Babylon had come to Ascalon with an innumerable multitude of soldiers. His purpose was, as he said, to lead the Franks, who were in Jerusalem, into captivity, and to take Antioch by storm. But God had determined otherwise in regard to us.
Therefore, when we learned that the army of the Babylonians was at Ascalon, we went down to meet them, leaving our baggage and the sick in Jerusalem with a garrison. When our army was in sight of the enemy, upon our knees we invoked the aid of the Lord, that he who in our other adversities had strengthened the Christian faith might in the present battle break the strength of the Saracens and of the devil and extend the kingdom of the Church of Christ from sea to sea, over the whole world. There was no delay; God was present when we cried for his aid, and furnished us with so great boldness, that one who saw us rush upon the enemy would have taken us for a herd of deer hastening to quench their thirst in running water. It was wonderful, indeed, since there were in our army not more than five thousand horsemen and fifteen thousand foot-soldiers, and there were probably in the enemy’s army one hundred thousand horsemen and four hundred thousand foot-soldiers.* Then God appeared wonderful to his servants. For before we engaged in fighting, by our very onset alone, he turned this multitude in flight and scattered all their weapons, so that if they wished afterwards to attack us, they did not have the weapons in which they trusted. There can be no question how great the spoils were, since the treasures of the king of Babylon were captured. More than one hundred thousand Moors perished there by the sword. Moreover, their panic was so great that about two thousand were suffocated at the gate of the city. Those who perished in the sea were innumerable. Many were entangled in the thickets. The whole world was certainly fighting for us, and if many of ours had not been detained in plundering the camp, few of the great multitude of the enemy would have been able to escape from the battle.
And although it may be tedious, the following must not be omitted: on the day preceding the battle the army captured many thousands of camels, oxen and sheep. By the command of the princes these were divided among the people. When we advanced to battle, wonderful to relate, the camels formed in many squadrons and the sheep and oxen did the same. Moreover, these animals accompanied us, halting when we halted, advancing when we advanced, and charging when we charged. The clouds [of dust] protected us from the heat of the sun and cooled us.
Accordingly, after celebrating the victory, the army returned to Jerusalem. Duke Godfrey remained there; the count of St Gilles, Robert, count of Normandy, and Robert, count of Flanders, returned to Laodicea. There they found the fleet belonging to the Pisans and to Bohemund. After the archbishop of Pisa had established peace between Bohemund and our leaders, Raymond prepared to return to Jerusalem for the sake of God and his brethren.
Therefore, we call upon you of the Catholic Church of Christ and of the whole Latin Church to exult in the so admirable bravery and devotion of your brethren, in the so glorious and very desirable retribution of the Omnipotent God, and in the so devoutedly hoped-for remission of all our sins through the grace of God. And we pray that he may make you – namely, all bishops, clerks and monks who are leading devout lives, and all the laity – to sit down at the right hand of God, who liveth and reigneth God for ever and ever. And we ask and beseech you in the name of our Lord Jesus, who has ever been with us and aided us and freed us from all our tribulations, to be mindful of your brethren who return to you, by doing them kindnesses and by paying their debts, in order that God may recompense you and absolve you from all your sins and grant you a share in all the blessings which either we or they have deserved in the sight of the Lord. Amen.
Manasses, by grace of God archbishop of Rheims, to Lambert, his brother, bishop of Arras; greeting in Jesus Christ.
Be it known to you, dearest brother, that a true and joyful rumour has recently come to our ears, which we believe to have come down not from human knowledge, but from the divine majesty – to wit: Jerusalem stands on high with joy and gladness which it has so gloriously received from God in our times. Jerusalem, the city of our redemption and glory, delights with inconceivable joy, because through the effort and incomparable might of the sons of God it has been liberated from most cruel pagan servitude. And let us also be joyful, whose Christian faith in such times as these has been placed in a mirror of eternal clarity.
We, therefore admonished, summoned and compelled, not only through the letters of the lord Pope Paschal, but, also, through the most humble prayers of Duke Godfrey, whom the army of Christ by divine direction elevated as king, as well as through the mellifluous entreaties of Lord Arnulf, whom they have unanimously chosen as patriarch of the see of Jerusalem* – we command with equal affection that you have every one of your parish churches, without fail, pray with fasts and almsgiving that the King of Kings and the Lord of Lords crown the king of the Christians with victory against the enemy, and the patriarch with religion and wisdom against the sects and deceptions of heretics. We command, likewise, and admonish, through your obedience, that you constrain by threat all who vowed to go on the expedition and took the sign of the Cross upon themselves to set out for Jerusalem, if they are vigorous of body and have the means to accomplish the journey. As for the others, however, do not cease skilfully and most devoutly to admonish them not to neglect aiding the people of God, so that not only the first, but likewise the last, may receive the shilling which is promised to those labouring in the vineyard. Farewell.
Pray for the bishop of Le Puy, for the bishop of Orange, for Anselm of Ribemont, and for all the others who lie at rest, crowned with so glorious a martyrdom.
Fulcher of Chartres, who remained with Baldwin at Edessa, notes his master’s fulfilment of his vow.
Lord Bohemund, a man wise and strong, was at that time ruling in Antioch while Lord Baldwin, a brother of the aforesaid Godfrey, ruled Edessa and the neighbouring country on the other side of the River Euphrates.* When they heard that Jerusalem had been taken by their colleagues who had preceded them, they rejoiced and returned praise and prayers to God.
But if those who were first in speed of journey to Jerusalem had done well and advantageously, still it was not to be doubted that these latter two with their companions would be as brave although following later.
For it was necessary that the land and the cities taken from the Turks with such difficulty should be carefully guarded. These if rashly left unprotected might be conquered in a sudden attack by the Turks, now driven back as far as Persia. In this case great harm would befall all the Franks, both going to Jerusalem and returning. Perhaps it was divine providence which delayed Bohemund and Baldwin, judging that they would be more useful in what remained to be done than in what had been done.
Oh, how many times, meanwhile, was this same Baldwin wearied in the battles against the Turks in the lands of Mesopotamia! How many Turkish heads were cut off there it would be impossible to say. Often it happened that Baldwin with his few men fought a great multitude of the enemy and with the help of God rejoiced in triumph.†
Now when Bohemund through messengers suggested to Baldwin that they both with their men should finish the journey to Jerusalem, which they had not yet completed, Baldwin in good time arranged his affairs and prepared to go.
But then when Baldwin heard that the Turks had invaded one section of his country he delayed starting on the trip. Since he had not yet gathered his little army for this journey to Jerusalem, he went against the Turks with only a few men. One day the Turks, thinking that Baldwin had already begun his journey, were feeling secure in their tents when they saw the white banner which Baldwin carried. They were terrified and fled as quickly as possible. After he had pursued them a little way with his few men he returned to the project which he had previously undertaken.*
Beginning the journey and passing Antioch to the right, he came to Latakiah where he bought provisions for the journey and reloaded the pack animals. Then we set out. It was in the month of November. After we had passed by Jabala we came up to Bohemund encamped in his tents before a certain town called Banyas.
With him was a certain Pisan archbishop named Daimbert, who had come by sea to the port of Latakiah with some Tuscans and Italians and there had waited to go with us. A certain bishop from Apulia was there too. A third was with Lord Baldwin.† Of those thus assembled in friendship we estimated the number to be twenty-five thousand of both sexes, mounted and on foot.
When we entered the interior lands of the Saracens, we were unable to obtain from the hostile inhabitants bread or anything else to eat. No one would give or sell, and as more and more of our provisions were being consumed it happened that many suffered grievously from hunger. The horses and beasts of burden suffered doubly from lack of food. They walked but had nothing to eat.
But in those cultivated fields through which we passed during our march there were certain ripe plants which the common folk called ‘honey-cane’ and which were very much like reeds.‡ The name is compounded from ‘cane’ and ‘honey’, whence the expression ‘wood honey’ I think, because the latter is skilfully made from these canes. In our hunger we chewed them all day because of the taste of honey. However, this helped but little.
Verily for the love of God we endured these and many other hardships such as hunger, cold and heavy rains. Many men, starving, ate horses, asses and camels. Moreover we were very often tormented by excessive cold and frequent rainstorms, for the heat of the sun was not sufficient to enable us to have our sodden clothes dried when another rain would harass us for four or five days.
I saw many people who had no tents die from chills from the rains. I, Fulcher of Chartres, who was with them, saw many persons of both sexes and a great many beasts die one day because of these freezing rains. It would be too long to tell and too tedious to hear since no anxiety, no misery missed the people of God.
Often many Franks were killed by Saracens lurking around the narrow paths along the way or were captured when they went in search of food. You might have seen knights of noble birth who had become foot-soldiers, having lost their horses in one way or another. You might have seen also, because of the lack of beasts of burden, goats and wethers taken from the Saracens greatly fatigued by the baggage loaded upon them and with their backs made sore by the chafing of their packs.
Twice on the way, and no oftener, we had bread and grain, purchased at a very high price, to wit, at Tripoli and at Caesarea.* From this it is evident that one cannot acquire anything great without corresponding effort. It was indeed a momentous event when we arrived at Jerusalem.
With this visit to Jerusalem our protracted task was finished. When we gazed upon the much-longed-for Holy of Holies we were filled with immense joy. Oh, how often we recalled to mind the prophecy of David which said, ‘We shall worship in the place where his feet have stood.’† Truly we saw that prophecy fulfilled in us at that moment, however much it likewise pertained to others. ‘Thither’ indeed we went up, ‘the tribes, the tribes of the Lord to confess his name’‡ in his Holy Place.
On the day of our entrance into Jerusalem the receding sun, having completed its winter descent, resumed its ascending course.§
When we had visited the Lord’s Sepulchre and his most glorious Temple and the other Holy Places, we went on the fourth day to Bethlehem to celebrate the Nativity of the Lord. We wanted to assist personally that night in the prayers at the manger where the revered mother Mary gave birth to Jesus.
After we had finished the appropriate devotions that night and had celebrated the third mass, we returned to Jerusalem in the third hour of the day.*
Oh, what a stench there was around the walls of the city, both within and without, from the rotting bodies of the Saracens slain by our comrades at the time of the capture of the city, lying wherever they had been hunted down!
After we and our beasts had been refreshed for a while with a much-needed rest, and after the duke and the other chief men had chosen the above-mentioned Lord Daimbert to be patriarch in the church of the Holy Sepulchre,† we replenished supplies, loaded our beasts and went down to the River Jordan.
Some of the army, the last to arrive, chose to remain in Jerusalem; others that had come first preferred to go with us. Duke Godfrey continued to rule the territory of Jerusalem with a firm hand as before.
One of many songs composed in celebration of the events of 1099 is the following, commonly referred to by the title ‘Nomen a Solemnibus’.
This feast is named from solemn rites it takes the name Solemnicum
Therefore we all will solemnise all except a certain monk,
Serracus, who has maimed himself by cutting off his private parts;
Because he has we will accept him just as if he were a demon;
Let him mourn, and mourn alone and stand accused before Aeacus!‡
Let us exalt, and let us sing a canticle of victory,
And let us sing, as sing we must, the praises due to glory’s king,
Who today has saved the city David’s city* from the pagans!
Refrain
The festival begins,
We cherish now the day
When Dagon lies in pieces smashed
And Amalek defeated, quashed†
The sons of Hagar driven back
Jerusalem is snatched away
Restored again to Christian ways,
And so we celebrate the day!
This city, the most beautiful, noblest of all, had first a King
In this city vast and great that King was pleasing to the Lord
Here on account of humankind that King wished to be crucified
Here to this city came the Spirit who resounded to apostles.
City wond’rous, fire descending, fire descending once a year,
This it shows us, generations, how God loves it through the ages,
Be it honoured, be it filled up, be it filled with kings and peoples!
Refrain
This city is from heaven blessed set in the heavens, how it loves
Of law the tabernacle true Temple of Ark of Covenant
Shelter of wretched of the earth of all the poor the sanctuary,
Never will you have to fear as long as you reside in it.
With the brightness of its light, the city outshines sun and moon
With its holiness this city conquers and absorbs all cities
Gebuseus Areuna* does not choose his place in vain.
Refrain
The view from the Near East was very different. In the volatile frontier region of Syria and Palestine, caught between the Seljuks of Iraq and Anatolia, the Fatimids of Egypt, the Armenians of Cilicia and Syria, and the Byzantines, conquest and changes in lordship were hardly uncommon. The greatest shock to the Muslim world lay rather in the massacres that accompanied the Frankish advance. The Franks’ assault and capture of Ma’arrat al-Numan (27 November–12 December 1098),† a desperate business for both sides, ended in the destruction and removal of its inhabitants, leaving a livid scar on the memory kept fresh by refugees:
I do not know whether it is a pasturing place for wild beasts or my house, my native residence …
I turned towards it and asked, my voice choked with tears, my heart torn with affliction and love.
‘O house, why has destiny pronounced such an unjust sentence on us?’‡
Ibn al-Qalanisi provides an equally mournful account of the sack of Jerusalem.
Thereafter they proceeded towards Jerusalem in the middle of June of this year, and the people fled in panic from their abodes before them. They descended first upon Ramleh, and captured it after the ripening of the crops. Thence they marched to Jerusalem, the inhabitants of which they engaged and blockaded, and having set up the tower against the city they brought it forward to the wall. At length news reached them that al-Afdal* was on his way from Egypt with a mighty army to engage in the Holy War against them, and to destroy them, and to succour and protect the city against them. They therefore attacked the city with increased vigour, and prolonged the battle that day until the daylight faded, then withdrew from it, after promising the inhabitants to renew the attack upon them on the morrow. The townsfolk descended from the wall at sunset, whereupon the Franks renewed their assault upon it, climbed up the tower, and gained a footing on the city wall. The defenders were driven down, and the Franks stormed the town and gained possession of it. A number of the townsfolk fled to the sanctuary [of David], and a great host were killed. The Jews assembled in the synagogue, and the Franks burned it over their heads. The sanctuary was surrendered to them on guarantee of safety on 14 July of this year, and they destroyed the shrines and the tomb of Abraham. Al-Afdal arrived with the Egyptian armies, but found himself forestalled, and having been reinforced by the troops from the Sahil,† encamped outside Ascalon on 4 August, to await the arrival of the fleet by sea and of the Arab levies. The army of the Franks advanced against him and attacked him in great force. The Egyptian army was thrown back towards Ascalon, al-Afdal himself taking refuge in the city.‡ The swords of the Franks were given mastery over the Muslims, and death was meted out to the footmen, volunteers and townsfolk, about ten thousand souls, and the camp was plundered. Al-Afdal set out for Egypt with his officers, and the Franks besieged Ascalon, until at length the townsmen agreed to pay them 20,000 dinars as protection money, and to deliver this sum to them forthwith. They therefore set about collecting this amount from the inhabitants of the town, but it befell that a quarrel broke out between the [Frankish] leaders, and they retired without having received any of the money. It is said that the number of the people of Ascalon who were killed in this campaign – that is to say of the witnesses, men of substance, merchants and youths, exclusive of the regular levies – amounted to 2,700 souls.
The carnage meted out to the citizens of Jerusalem after its fall on 15 July 1099 lived as a burning testimony to the Franks’ inhumanity not only among Muslims but also for the Jewish communities of the Near East whose brethren had been butchered, ransomed or expelled, their synagogue burnt, their holy books plundered. The Cairo Geniza (literally ‘lumber room’) preserved a uniquely rich collection largely of correspondence and legal and commercial documents deposited by the Jewish community of Old Cairo from the tenth to the thirteenth century. Most are written in Arabic but in Hebrew script, a significant example of cultural transmission and accommodation. A few record the immediate practical as well as psychological aftermath of the Jerusalem conquest and massacre, an example of the opposite. In the context described by Ibn al-Qalanisi, the Cairo Geniza documents provide urgent, personal details of a community, the Jews of Jerusalem, raped and destroyed by the zealots of Christianity.
Boundless [blessings …] from the Lord of Peace, who makes peace, [and the angels of peace, and from the Torah,] [the per]fect, all the paths of which are peace, [may come upon] the excellent [congrega]tions, the communal assembly of Ascalon [with greetings from us,] the community at Cairo, known as the residential city, your loving brothers, who enquire about your welfare and wish you all the best. May it please our God to accept from us all prayers and supplications on your behalf.
We beg to inform you – may God grant you permanent welfare and bestow upon you his mercy and grace – that we received tidings of the great disaster and all-comprising visitation, which befell our brothers, the Jews living in the Holy City, may God restore it for ever, the holy Torah scrolls, and the captives, suffering multiple vexations inflicted upon them by the enemies of God and haters of his people. We assembled at His Excellency, our lord, His Hon(our), Great(ness) and Hol(iness), our master and teacher Mevorakh, ‘Leader of the Deliberations’, ‘Sage of the Yeshiva’, ‘the Great Council’, etc.,* and found him, his garments rent, sitting on the floor, and shedding tears about what had happened. He addressed us, admonishing and urging us to donate sums for redeeming the Torah scrolls and the people of God held in captivity by the wicked kingdom, may God destroy and exterminate it.
We were moved by his warm and heart-winning words – may God preserve his high rank – and, responding to him, collected 123 dinars for retrieving the Torah scrolls and ransoming the remnants of Israel who had escaped from the sword.
This sum we handed over to Mr Mansur, son of Mr——, known as ‘the son of the schoolmistress’, to bring it to Ascalon. He will let you know what he is carrying and how he acted. We explained to him how he should proceed in this matter. We are sending you these lines in a great hurry because we are afraid lest our sins may cause failure and, God forbid, our iniquities will be visited upon us. For indeed we are unable to control and console ourselves. Our kidneys are in flames, because of the burning of the house of our God, our glorious sanctuary, may God forgive – our sun has darkened and our stature is bent …
We thank the Most High who gave us the opportunity of fulfilling this pious deed, and granted to you to take a share in it with us. We spent the money for the ransom of some of the captives, after due consideration of the instructions contained in your letter, that is, we send what was available to those who [had already been ransomed(?)].
We did not fail to reply to what you had written us, and indeed we answered, but we were seeking a man who would bring our reply to you. Afterwards it happened that these illnesses came upon us: plague, pestilence and leprosy, which filled our minds with anxiety, that we ourselves or some of our relatives might be stricken with disease. A man whom we trust went from here and must have explained to you the position with respect to the sums you had sent: that they reached us safely and that they were spent in the manner indicated [in your letter].
News still reaches us that among those who were redeemed from the Franks and remained in Ascalon some are in danger of dying of want. Others remained in captivity, and yet others were killed before the eyes of the rest, who themselves were killed afterwards with all manner of tortures; [for the enemy murdered them] in order to give vent to their anger on them.
We did not hear of a single man of Israel who was in such plight without exerting ourselves to do all that was in our power to save him.
The Most High has granted opportunities of relief and deliverance to individual fugitives, of which the first and most perfect instance – after the compassion of heaven – has been the presence in Ascalon of the honourable sheikh Abu ’l-Fadl Sahl son of Yusha son of Shaya (may God preserve him), an agent of the sultan (may God bestow glory upon his victories), whose influence is great in Alexandria where his word is very much heeded. He arranged matters wisely and took great pain in securing the ransom; but it would require a lengthy discourse to explain how he did it. But he could only ransom some of the people and had to leave the others. In the end, all those who could be ransomed from them [the Franks] were liberated, and only a few whom they kept remained in their hands, including a boy of about eight years of age, and a man, known as [?] the son of the Tustari’s wife. It is reported that the Franks urged the latter to embrace the Christian faith of his own free will and promised to treat him well, but he told them, how could he become a Christian priest and be left in peace by them [the Jews], who had disbursed on his behalf a great sum? Until this day these captives remain in their [Franks’] hands; as well as those who were taken to Antioch, but these are few; and not counting those who abjured their faith because they lost patience as it was not possible to ransom them, and because they despaired of being permitted to go free.
We have not heard, praise be to the Most High, that the accursed ones who are called Ashkenazim [Germans] violated or raped women, as did the others.*
Now, among those who have reached safety are some who escaped on the second and third days following the battle and left with the governor who was granted safe conduct; and others who, after having being caught by the Franks, remained in their hands for some time and escaped in the end; these are but few. The majority consists of those who were ransomed. To our sorrow, some of them ended their lives under all kind of suffering and affliction. The privations which they had to endure caused some of them to leave for this country without food or protection against the cold, and they died on the way.
Others in a similar way perished at sea; and yet others, after having arrived here safely, became exposed to a ‘change of air’; they came at the height of the plague, and a number of them died. We had, at the time, reported the arrival of each group.
And when the aforementioned honoured sheikh arrived, he brought a group of them, i.e., the bulk of those who had reached Ascalon; he spent the sabbath and celebrated Passover with them on the way in the manner as is required by such circumstances. He contracted a private loan for the sum that he had to pay the camel drivers and for their maintenance on the way, as well as the caravan guards and for other expenses, after having already spent other sums of money, which he did not charge to the community. All this is in addition to the money that was borrowed and spent in order to buy back 230 volumes, one hundred codices and eight Torah scrolls. All these are communal property and are now in Ascalon.
The community, after having disbursed about 500 dinars for the actual ransom of the individuals, for maintenance of some of them and for the ransom, as mentioned above, of the sacred books, remained indebted for the sum of 200 dinars. This is in addition to what has been spent on behalf of those who have been arriving from the beginning until now, on water and other drinks, medical treatment, maintenance and, in so far as possible, clothing. If it could be calculated how much this has cost over such a long period, the sum would indeed be great.
Had the accepted practice been followed, that is, of selling three Jewish captives for 100 [dinars], the whole available sum would have been spent for the ransom of only a few. However, the grace of the Lord, may his name be exalted, and his ever-ready mercy, have been bestowed upon these wretched people, the oppressed, the captives, the poor and indigent, who may, indeed, groan, lament and cry out as it is written: ‘Thou hast given us like sheep appointed for meat, and hast scattered us among the heathen. Thou sellest thy people for nought and dost not increase thy wealth by their price.’* And we ourselves may say: ‘Except the Lord of hosts had left unto us a very small remnant, we should have been as Sodom, and we should have been like unto Gomorrah.’† We declare that all the silver which we have weighed [i.e. the money we have spent] in this catastrophe, from the beginning until now is but light and insignificant in relation to its magnitude and the greatness of the sorrow it has entailed.
Some adduce as an excuse the impoverishment of this class of financial magnates and property holders … and [?] the harshness of the winter season … and … enfeebled it.
We could not refrain ourselves from reporting what we know and the outcome of what we have done in this juncture, for we are convinced that you, just like ourselves, regret and mourn for those who have died and strive for the preservation of those who are alive; especially since your determination to distinguish yourselves was clearly shown and the loftiness of your aspiration and generosity became apparent. You were the first and the most consistent in the fulfilment of this ‘good deed’ which you were granted to perform, and which gained for you great superiority over the other communities as well as much honour. Thus, you may be, indeed, compared with that class of people to whom it was assigned to perform generous deeds and to strive to do praiseworthy acts, as it is written: ‘And he came with the heads of the people, he executed the justice of the Lord, and his judgement with Israel.’*
We have already indicated that we remained in debt of over 200 dinars, apart from the moneys that are required for the maintenance of the captives who remained in Ascalon – they number more than twenty persons – for their transfer and other needs until they arrive here. Among those who are in Ascalon is the honoured elder Abi al-Khayr Mubarak, the son of the teacher Hiba ibn Nasan (may God protect him for a long time). It is well known how much he is revered, wise, God-fearing and endowed with high virtues; he is bound by an old vow not to benefit in anything from charity together with the whole of the community, but only from what is explicitly destined for him by name. [He should be enabled] to come here, after [you] our lords, elders and masters – may God preserve your happiness – have graciously offered us the sum needed for cancelling the debt incurred for the ransom of our and your brethren. Gird now your loins together with us in this matter, and it will be accounted for you as a mark of merit in the future, as it has been in the past … the generous deed which you began, by helping us to lighten our burden and by assisting us with your generosity in order to put us back on our feet, for we have no one in this country to whom we could write as we are writing to you. It is proper that we should turn to you and cause you some disturbance. The main tenor of this letter ought to be read out to your [entire] community, after you have announced that everyone must attend [the meeting]. For the benefit will [thus] be complete and general, both to those who pay and to those who receive payment. For it is unlikely that there should lack among the public those who had made a vow, or those who had undertaken an obligation to perform ‘holy deeds’ which have not yet been determined; such should, then, be invited to contribute as much as may be seen fitting. Or there may be those who had previously intended to make contribution to charity, or others may wish to make a specific contribution to one cause rather than to another. In this manner you will achieve your purpose, and deal with us in your accustomed generosity and excellent manner … and you will deserve, through this charitable act, to acquire ‘both worlds’. Only rarely does such a juncture present itself, in which ‘commerce’ is beneficial and ‘business’ entirely profitable. We do not call your attention to such a matter in order to remind you of the duty of doing it, but … your own lofty [virtues] are the strongest urger and reminder.
We despatched a messenger to you and what he will tell you about the details of this misfortune exempts us from discoursing on it at a greater length. We beg of you, may God preserve you in long life, to deal with him kindly until he returns; and concerning that which God may cause him [to collect] amongst you – may God preserve you – if you could write out for him a bill of exchange, it would make things easier for him, since he is but a messenger, and speed up his return. If this cannot be done, arrange that an exact statement of how much has been collected be made, and have your letter sent through him [the messenger] and mention the sum in it. The God of Israel, etc. …
The writer of the above, the pained, sorrowful and grieving Yeshaya ha-Kohen ibn Masliah the Enlightened sends respectful greetings to all the gentlemen, and begs them to accept his apology. They are not unaware of what he has gone through from the time he took leave of them until this day.
David ben Rabbi Shelomo ben Rabbi … sends his greeting to your excellencies and begs you to note … al-Fadl Abu …
Hanina ibn Mansur ibn Ubayd (peace be on him) reserves for the venerable lords and masters, may God preserve Their Excellencies, the best greeting and most excellent salutation and attention; expresses his longing for them and begs them to take note of the contents of this letter. Peace.
At some point in 1100 a Jewish pilgrim in Egypt, unable to reach Palestine because of the war, wrote home to North Africa or Spain expressing his frustration.
If I attempted to describe my longing for you, my lord, my brother and cousin – may God prolong your days and make permanent your honour, success, happiness, health and welfare; and […] subdue your enemies – all the paper in the world would not suffice. My longing will but increase and double, just as the days will grow and double. May the Creator of the world presently make us meet together in joy when I return under his guidance to my homeland and to the inheritance of my fathers in complete happiness, so that we rejoice and be happy through his great mercy and his vast bounty; and thus may be his will!
You may remember, my lord, that many years ago I left our country to seek God’s mercy and help in my poverty, to behold Jerusalem and return thereupon. However, when I was in Alexandria God brought about circumstances which caused a slight delay. Afterwards, however, ‘the sea grew stormy’, and many armed bands made their appearance in Palestine; ‘and he who went forth and he who came had no peace’, so that hardly one survivor out of a whole group came back to us from Palestine and told us that scarcely anyone could save himself from those armed bands, since they were so numerous and were gathered round … every town. There was further the journey through the desert, among [the bedouins] and whoever escaped from the one, fell into the hands of the other. Moreover, mutinies [spread throughout the country and reached] even Alexandria, so that we ourselves were besieged several times and the city was ruined; … the end however was good, for the sultan – may God bestow glory upon his victories – conquered the city and caused justice to abound in it in a manner unprecedented in the history of any king in the world; not even a dirham was looted from anyone. Thus I had come to hope that because of his justice and strength God would give the land into his hands, and I should thereupon go to Jerusalem in safety and tranquillity. For this reason I proceeded from Alexandria to Cairo, in order to start [my journey] from there.
When, however, God had given Jerusalem, the blessed, into his hands* this state of affairs continued for too short a time to allow for making a journey there. The Franks arrived and killed everybody in the city, whether of Ishmael or of Israel; and the few who survived the slaughter were made prisoners. Some of these have been ransomed since, while others are still in captivity in all parts of the world.
Now, all of us had anticipated that our sultan – may God bestow glory upon his victories† – would set out against them [the Franks] with his troops and chase them away. But time after time our hope failed. Yet, to this very present moment we do hope that God will give his [the sultan’s] enemies into his hands. For it is inevitable that the armies will join in battle this year; and, if God grants us victory through him [the sultan] and he conquers Jerusalem – and so it may be, with God’s will – I for one shall not be amongst those who will linger, but shall go there to behold the city; and shall afterwards return straight to you – if God wills it. My salvation is in God, for this [is unlike] the other previous occasions [of making a pilgrimage to Jerusalem]. God, indeed, will exonerate me, since at my age I cannot afford to delay and wait any longer; I want to return home under any circumstances, if I still remain alive – whether I shall have seen Jerusalem or have given up the hope of doing it – both of which are possible.
You know, of course, my lord, what has happened to us in the course of the last five years: the plague, the illnesses and ailments have continued unabated for four successive years. As a result of this the wealthy became impoverished and a great number of people died of the plague, so that entire families perished in it. I, too, was affected with a grave illness, from which I recovered only about a year ago; then I was taken ill the following year so that (on the margin) for four years I have remained [ … ]. He who has said: ‘The evil diseases of Egypt’* … he who hiccups does not live … ailments and will die … otherwise … will remain alive.
At about the same time, a noblewoman in Tripoli, left destitute and a refugee by the fall of Jerusalem, wrote to her relatives describing her plight and begging for aid for herself and her children.
[My lord and] illustrious master, may God make your welfare and happiness permanent. [I have to convey] to you, my dear boy, something which I shall immediately describe … Abu ’l-Khayr [was] with al-Muntasir. Al-Muntasir died [and Abu ’l-Khayr disappeared]. Consequently we are lacking clothing and food to a degree I am unable to describe. But [our relative] Joseph was not remiss in providing us with cash, wheat and other things. Moreover, he returned to me the collaterals, which I had given him, so that I could place them with someone else. God the exalted deserves thanks and has imposed on us to thank him. You must write him a letter of thanks …
About the books of Abu ’l-Khayr I learned only in Tripoli. For the crate was locked and I learned about its contents only in Tripoli … I witnessed much bloodshed and experienced everything terrible. I was told that, as soon as al-Muntasir died, Abu ’l-Khayr disappeared. He had books and I [pawned] his books and yours for 5 dinars. Your letters concerning them have arrived. If the nagid [head of the Egyptian Jews] – may God keep him in his honoured position – manages to send 5 dinars, he will do so in the way of charity and thus ransom all the books, whereupon I shall send them to you. If he [Abu ’l-Khayr] is all right, he will ransom them and send them [to you].
I learned that Abu ’l-Wafa was taken by the bedouins at the time when his brother disappeared. I am a luckless young woman, suffering both by the hunger of the family, and especially the baby girl, who are with me, and by the bad news I heard about my boy. If my lord, the nagid, has sworn that he would not go to my aid and visits on me the iniquities committed by Abu ’l-Khayr, have mercy upon me, your sister and your mother, as far as you are able to do so.
As far as I am concerned, by our religion, it is better to be captured by the crusaders, for the prisoners find someone who gives them food and drink, but I, by our religion, am completely without clothing, and I and my children are starving.
Now, do not neglect me. Be mindful of the family bonds and the blood. Show your affection for me by writing to me.
The brother of this man was not remiss towards him, when he first arrived here, until he sued them for an inheritance. This led to a complete rupture between them, and no one of them talks to me … Miserable days have come upon me. Must it be so? At the time when I was in Jerusalem, your letters and contributions came to me plentifully, as is proper between two sisters, but now you cut me.
I am writing these lines while the people are on the point of sailing. I have not described in this letter even a fraction of my real state.
Accept for yourself my greeting of peace. And may God extend his peace to my lord the nagid and my lord the Haver.* Greetings also to your mother and sister, and to his excellency, your paternal uncle. And regards to everyone under your care.
To my lord and illustrious master … Abu ’l-Ala, may God keep him.
[From] his grate[ful] A[bu ’l-] Rida. Convey and be rewarded!
The Muslims had no less cause to lament. The contemporary Iraqi poet, Abu ’l-Muzaffar al-Abiwardi (d. 1113), looked to turn the catastrophe into a call for Islamic renewal.
We have mingled blood with flowing tears, and there is no room left in us for pity.
To shed tears is a man’s worst weapon when the swords stir up the embers of war.
Sons of Islam, behind you are battles in which heads rolled at your feet.
Dare you slumber in the blessed shade of safety, where life is as soft as an orchard flower?
How can the eye sleep between the lids at a time of disasters that would waken any sleeper?
While your Syrian brothers can only sleep on the backs of their chargers, or in vultures’ bellies!
Must the foreigners feed on our ignominy, while you trail behind you the train of a pleasant life, like men whose world is at peace?
When blood has been spilt, when sweet girls must for shame hide their lovely faces in their hands!
When the white swords’ points are red with blood, and the iron of the brown lances is stained with gore!
At the sound of sword hammering on lance young children’s hair turns white.
This is war, and the man who shuns the whirlpool to save his life shall grind his teeth in penitence.
This is war, and the infidel’s sword is naked in his hand, ready to be sheathed again in men’s necks and skulls.
This is war, and he who lies in the tomb at Medina seems to raise his voice and cry: ‘O sons of Hashim!*
I see my people slow to raise the lance against the enemy: I see the faith resting on feeble pillars.
For fear of death the Muslims are evading the fire of battle, refusing to believe that death will surely strike them.’
Must the Arab champions then suffer with resignation, while the gallant Persians shut their eyes to their dishonour?
Some heeded such appeals. In 1105, Ali ibn Tahir al-Sulami (d. 1106), a Damascene religious lawyer and philology teacher at the Great Mosque, read to seminar groups from his new book the Kitab al-jihad (The Book of Jihad, or Holy War). While the Muslim obligation to perform jihad (i.e. struggle) referred chiefly to internal spiritual self-improvement, the so-called lesser jihad, the external armed struggle against the infidel, could be revived when the faith was threatened. Al-Sulami, reminding his audience of this, explained the need for a new Holy War to restore Islam in a decidedly secular but acute historical analysis of the past that simultaneously supplied a clear blueprint for a future Muslim counter-attack.
A number fell upon the island of Sicily at a time of difference and competition, and likewise they gained possession of town after town in Spain.* When mutually confirmatory reports reached them of the state of this country – the disagreement of its lords, the dissensions of its dignitaries, together with its disorder and disturbance – they carried out their resolution of going out to it, and Jerusalem was the summit of their wishes.
Then they looked down from Syria on disunited kingdoms, hearts in disagreement and differing opinions, linked with secret resentments. Thereby their ambitions grew in strength, and extended to what they beheld. They continued assiduously in the Holy War against the Muslims, while the Muslims did not trouble about them or join forces to fight them, leaving to each other the encounter until they [i.e. the Franks] made themselves rulers of lands beyond their utmost hopes … Their hopes expand inasmuch as they see their enemies content to be at peace with them, so that they are convinced that all the lands will become theirs, and all the people prisoners in their hands. May God who is near and answers in his munificence humble their thoughts by uniting the community and setting it in order.