Index
Abu Ghraib prison, 64
Acoli, Sundiata, 366
Acuña, Rodolfo, 19
Adams, David Wallace, 21
“administrative segregation,” 12, 83, 241n100, 327–28. See also solitary confinement
Affordable Care Act, 82
African Americans: and civil rights movement, 222–23, 250–51; class polarization among, 347; criminalization of, 10–11, 61, 79–80, 187, 236n61; disfranchisement of, 186, 188, 190, 202; George Jackson on situation of, 366–67; incarceration rate for, 6–8, 79–80, 202, 349n7, 363; and prison desegregation, 223, 225; in prison population, 6–8, 216, 233–34n34, 248–49; and racial separatism, 247, 252, 259–60, 261; and voting rights, 187, 198
African American women, 31–32, 173–82; in convict leasing system, 179–80; incarceration rate for, 349n7; lynching of, 178–79; and prisoners’ children, 173, 181–82; rape of in prison, 180; under slavery, 173–74, 175–77; struggle for citizenship and vote by, 31–32, 197–98, 199
aggravated felonies and misdemeanors, 80–81, 84
“aggravated identity theft,” 83, 92n106
Ah-wo-ke (High Feather; Lazy Jake), 391
Alabama, 174–75, 215, 280, 375
Albritton, J. R., 225
Alcatraz Prison takeover (1969), 398, 399
Alexander, Lamar, 291
“aliens ineligible to citizenship,” 81
American Civil Liberties Union, 268
American Correctional Association, 313
American Correctional Systems, 293
American Federation of State, County, and Municipal Employees, 291
American Indian Cultural Group, 396
American Indian Movement (AIM), 37, 385, 397, 398, 399, 406n51
American Legislative Exchange Council (ALEC), 295
American Magazine, 142
American Nazi Party, 262
American Saturday (Howard), 374
Ankersheil, Otto, 199
Antelope Indian Circle, 396
Anti-Drug Abuse Act, 80
Antiterrorism and Effective Death Penalty Act, 77
Apalachee Correctional Institution, 216, 222, 223, 235n48
Ard, Thomas Eugene, 211, 212, 225, 226
Arizona, 286, 290, 307; measures against prisoners and felons in, 194, 307; supermax prison in, 304, 305, 316–18, 320–21, 322, 331
Arizona State Penitentiary, 142, 143
Arkansas, 231n14
Armstrong, Gregory, 364
Armstrong, Julie, 178
Arnall, Ellis, 215
Arriaga, Camilo, 125
Aryan Brotherhood (AB), 255, 261–63, 264
Ashkenazy, Hannah, 200
Attica prison rebellion (1971), 253, 309, 371
August 21 Coalition, 373
Avon Park Correctional Institution, 219, 223, 235n48
Axelrod, Beverly, 364
Babbitt, Bruce, 343
Baltimore Afro American, 198
Banks, Dennis, 37, 397, 398, 406n50
Barbarous Mexico (Turner), 142
Barron, Dempsey, 225
Bayor, Ronald, 14
Beasley, Thomas, 291
Bechtel Inc., 293
Behavioral Systems Southwest, 294
Bellecourt, Clyde, 37, 397–98, 406n50
Ben-Moshe, Liat, 109
Bennett, Robert, 394, 396, 399
Benton, Eddie, 397–98
Berlin, Ira, 288
Bernard, Richard M., 14
Berry, Daina Ramey, 176
Berrydale Forestry Camp, 230
Biden, Joe, 346
Big Pine Key Road Prison, 216, 230
Black August protests, 372–73
Black Codes, 61
Black Culture Association, 264
Black Family, 259–60
Black Guerrilla Family (BGF), 255, 261, 264; and George Jackson, 259–60, 382n57
Black Hand, The (Blatchford), 314, 336n54
Black Liberation Army, 371
Black Lives Matter (BLM), 341, 376
Black Panther, 361
Black Panther Party, 251, 362, 372; and George Jackson, 259, 260, 361–62
Black Pride, 372
Black Prisoners and Their World (Curtin), 174
Blackwell, Cora, 196
Blonien, Rodney J., 310–11
Blood in My Eye (Jackson), 370
Blue, Ethan: Doing Time in the Depression, 149–50
Bluebirds, 261–62
Blue Ridge State Farm: conditions at, 150–52; creation and demise of, 149, 163; escapes from, 153; Mexican prisoners’ majority status in, 30, 149, 156, 163, 164; prisoner education in, 161–62; prisoner religious practices at, 152–53; during World War II, 162–63
Boerner, Glen, 222
Boone, Humberto, 158–59
Border Patrol, 74, 294; creation of, 23, 68–69
Border Patrol Training School (BPTS), 74
Bowes, John P., 20
Brazel, Carlos, 154–55, 166n55
Brewer, David J., 67–68
Brewer, Jan, 295
Brilliant, Mark, 246
Broussé, María, 137–39
Brown, Craig, 310, 313, 314, 315–16, 318, 319, 320–21
Brown, Jerry, 406n50
Brown, Joseph E., 176
Brown, Julia, 177
Bryant, C. Farris, 218
Bunker, Edward, 245
Bureau of Immigration, 59, 60, 70
Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA), 392, 393–94
Burns, Robert E., 215
Bush, George W., 8–9, 78, 82, 92n106, 294
“bus therapy,” 267
Calabrese, Wayne, 295
Calfy, John, 269
California: and carceral state, 12–13, 308; convict labor in, 215, 233n26; demographics of, 248; incarceration rate in, 16, 126, 248, 307, 334n21; infamous convictions in, 194; Native American prisoners in, 394; petitions for citizenship restoration in, 198–99; prison construction in, 16, 289; prison gangs in, 33, 245–71; prison overcrowding in, 329–30; prison population in, 79, 248–49, 256, 274n36; prison violence and tensions in, 246, 255; private prisons in, 284–85, 290; Proposition 13 in, 13, 289; sentencing laws in, 13, 304–5, 307, 311; supermax prisons in, 34–35, 303–32
California Correctional Peace Officers Association, 319–20
California Department of Corrections (CDC), 247, 249–50, 320, 329–30, 375; classification system of, 313, 326–27; name change of, 336n46; and prisoner isolation, 316, 327–28, 340n122; and prisoner protests, 254; and prison gangs, 255, 256, 264, 266–71
Cambra, Steve, 314–15
Camp, Carter, 385–86
Campbell, Lewis D., 192–93
“carceral continuum” / “carceral network,” 3–4, 6, 175
Carlisle Boarding School, 391, 403n25
Cash, Johnny, 309
Center for Juvenile and Criminal Justice, 386
Central Americans, 9
Chae Chan Ping v. United States, 66, 89n31
Chained in Silence (LeFlouria), 31, 174, 175, 181
chain gangs: in Jim Crow South, 10, 214–15, 220, 232n24; reintroduction of, 215, 229, 280, 307
Chicanos/as. See Mexican Americans and Chicanos/as
Chiles, Lawton, 343
Chinese “coolie” trade, 98–99, 119n32
Chinese Exclusion Act, 22, 23, 61, 97, 120n34
Chinese immigrants: on deportation trains, 103; directed to Mexico, 73–74; as “illegal aliens,” 83, 92n105; medical detentions and examinations of, 69–70, 71, 100; photographs and visual examinations of, 68; racial precepts toward, 22, 61, 71, 97, 114; and San Francisco earthquake, 69; Supreme Court on, 66–67
Cisneros, Abram, 151–52
citizenship: impact of loss of, 193–94; importance of, 198; and Native Americans, 387, 392, 407n59; and suffrage, 187, 188–90; women’s applications to restore, 195–201, 207–8n40
City of Inmates (Hernández), 18
City of Quartz (Davis), 12
Civil Rights Act, 223
civil rights movement, 222–23, 250–51
Clark, Andrew and Major, 178
Clark, Mickey, 279
Cleaver, Eldridge, 260, 309, 364, 365
Cleghorn, Rudy, 394–95
Clinton, Bill, 35–36, 294, 341, 343; and African American community, 347; death penalty embraced by, 345–46; as DLC chair, 344–45; and mass incarceration, 341–42, 348
Clinton, Hillary, 341–42, 346, 348
Clutchette, John, 362
Cochran, H. G., 219
Cole, Mary, 199
Collins, Chris, 1
Commission on Wartime Relocation and Internment of Civilians, 72
Committee for Prisoner Humanity and Justice, 268–69
Committee to End the Marion Lockdown, 373
Communist Party: Che-Lumumba Club of, 362
Community Correctional Centers (CCCs), 228, 229–30
community treatment concept, 228
comprehensive immigration reform (CIR), 59
Condemnation of Blackness (Muhammad), 10–11
Conner, Doyle, 226–27
Conner, Mr. and Mrs. J. A., 197
convict code, 252, 255, 256, 257, 266, 272n7, 274n31
convict labor: in Alabama, 280; in California, 215, 233n26; in chain gangs, 10, 214–15, 220, 229, 232n24, 280, 307; corporate incentives for, 286, 299n31; in Florida, 32–33, 179, 213–14, 215, 233n34; and labor unions, 285, 287; liberalization of laws toward, 15–16, 286, 299n28; and Native Americans, 386–87; and private prisons, 283–88; in Texas, 150–51, 231n14, 287. See also road prisons
convict leasing, 10, 175, 179–80, 215, 389
Cool Hand Luke (Pearce), 234n44
Coolies and Cane (Jung), 60, 61
Copeland road prison, 216
Corcoran State Prison, 308, 316, 328–29, 330, 339n114
Corplan Corrections, 293
correctional bureaucrats, 35, 304–5, 330–32
Correctional Industries, 284, 285, 287
Correctional Medical Services, 290
Corrections Corporation of America (CCA), 282, 290–91, 294–95
Corrections Today, 321
Cortez, Gregorio, 164n3
Court of Indian Offenses, 21
Creel, Enrique, 131–36
Cressey, Donald, 272n6
crime rate, 7, 40–41n15, 227, 240n90, 248–49
Criminal Alien Program (CAP), 85
“criminal aliens,” 4, 8–9, 77–78
criminalization, 81–82, 86; of African Americans, 10–11, 61, 79–80, 187, 236n61; of immigrants, 57, 64, 80–81; of Latinos/as, 23–24, 57, 75, 79–80
criminal justice system: denial of due process in, 26–27, 66, 77–78; growth of punitive practices in, 15, 80, 215, 229, 280, 282, 306–8, 318; immigration system’s merger with, 1–2, 4–5, 8–9, 20, 27, 28, 57, 59, 60, 79–85; infamous convictions in, 187, 190–91, 193–94; Native American encounters with, 20, 21, 392, 406n50; and privatization, 283, 296; racialized targets of, 10, 19, 77, 80; and sentencing laws, 13, 304–5, 307, 311, 359, 378n10, 400; women as victims of, 187, 201. See also incarceration rate; mass incarceration
crimmigration literature, 8–9
Critical Resistance, 373
Cuba: and Chinese “coolie” trade, 98–99, 119n32; refugees from, 76
Cummins, Eric, 246, 355–56, 369
Curtin, Mary Ellen, 174
Curtis, George William, 192, 195
Dakota people, 389–90
Dallas Morning News, 152
Daniel, Alice, 268
Daniels, Roger, 26
Davis, Angela: and George and Jonathan Jackson, 355, 364–65; on incarceration and prisons, 3, 4, 79, 80
Davis, Ralph, 226
Dawoo Corp., 293
Debs, Eugene, 140
Deer Island Prison, 388–89
Deferred Action for Childhood Arrivals, 86
de la Parte, Louis, 226
Dell Computers, 287
Democratic Leadership Council (DLC), 35, 343, 344–45, 348
Democratic National Committee (DNC), 343
Department of Homeland Security (DHS), 8, 294
deportations: under Bush, Obama, and Trump, 59, 64, 78, 82, 85, 86, 87, 92n111; of Central Americans, 9; and criminal justice system, 80–81; history of, 96–97; during Great Depression, 23–24, 75, 114; by ICE, 8, 9; and immigrant detention, 65, 66–67, 84; of Mexicans, 9, 23–24, 75–76, 91n79; in Operation Wetback, 75–76, 91n79; Supreme Court on, 66–67; via steamship, 107–8, 122n52; during World War II, 24, 26
deportation trains, 28, 93–95, 102–13; cars aboard, 102–3, 104; command of, 95; creation of, 98–99; disorderly passengers aboard, 105–6; guards and staff on, 95–96, 99–102; racialized character of, 103; resistance by deportees in, 109–10, 111–12; and steamships, 107–9, 112–13; transfer to other transportation modes, 111, 112–13; women and children on, 104–5, 107
Determinate Sentencing Laws (DSL), 307
Deuel Vocational Institution, 257, 267, 268
Deukmejian, George, 315
Díaz, Modesto, 135
Díaz, Porfirio: anti-magonista efforts by, 125, 128, 130, 131; ouster of, 143; policies of, 127–28; Turner on tyranny of, 140–43
Dickson, Fred, 266
Discipline and Punish (Foucault), 325
Discovery of the Asylum (Rothman), 10
Dobie, J. Frank, 157
Doing Time in the Depression (Blue), 149–50
Dole, Sanford B., 194
Donovan, Dan, 1
Doochuk, Darren, 14–15
Douglass, Frederick, 347
Douglass, Helen Pitts, 180
Dreamer, Edward, 398
Drumgo, Fleeta, 362
DuBois, W. E. B., 11, 357, 373
due process, 25, 26–27, 66, 77–78
Dukakis, Michael, 344
Dunn, Timothy, 77
Dylan, Bob, 370
Echo, 155
Eckerd Foundation, 282
Edsall, Thomas and Mary, 343
Edwards, L. W., 182
Elder, Don, 264
Eloy, AZ, 294
El Reno Reformatory, 393, 394, 395
Emergency Advisory Committee for Political Defense (CPD), 25–26
Emerging Republican Majority, The (Phillips), 13
Emerson, Lee, 390
“enemy aliens,” 65, 71–72, 75, 81
“enemy combatants,” 81
Engelwood, CO, 393
Escobar, Efren, 161
Esmore Correctional Services, 292
Espy, Mike, 345
Executive Order 9066, 24
Fama, Steve, 315
Fear-Segal, Jacqueline, 391
Feimster, Crystal, 178
felon disfranchisement: and African American women, 199–201; Fourteenth Amendment’s allowance of, 189, 190; history of, 187–88, 190–91; today, 201–2, 209–10n66; and women’s suffrage, 187, 191–93
Ferguson, Roderick, 357
Firestine, Robert E., 13
First Born Son, 390
First Civil Right, The (Murakawa), 308
Flake, Floyd, 345
“Flocatex,” 16–17
Florence State Prison Complex, 316, 317–18, 322
Flores Juan “El Macho,” 156
Flores Magón, Enrique, 125, 126, 130–31
Flores Magón, Ricardo: arrest in U.S. of, 125, 135; biographical information on, 128; Creel pursuit of, 131–34; enters U.S., 128; imprisonment of in Mexico, 125–26; in Los Angeles, 135, 136–39; and Neutrality Act violation charge, 136, 139, 142; and PLM founding, 130; and Regeneración, 128, 134; release from prison, 143; in St. Louis, 129–30; U.S. imprisonment of, 29–30, 125, 127, 136–39, 140
Florida, 32–33, 211–30; chain gangs reintroduced in, 215, 230; convict labor in, 179, 213–14, 215, 233n34; desegregation of prisons in, 223, 225; economy of, 217; and felon franchise, 208–9n53; incarceration rate and prison population in, 16, 216–17; Jay prison fire in, 211–12, 214, 225–26, 229, 231nn11–12, 238–39nn78–80; money for prisons in, 219, 235n54; number of prison facilities in, 235n48; petitions for citizenship restoration in, 197; political patronage in, 217–18; prison construction in, 16–17, 305; prison education and vocational programs in, 220–21, 236n59; private prisons in, 282, 290
Folsom Prison, 267, 268, 309–10, 327, 328
Folsom Prison Work Stoppage, 252, 253, 260
Fong Yue Ting v. United States, 66–68
Foucault, Michel, 323, 404n27; on carceral continuum and network, 3–4, 175; on prisons, 4, 325, 326
Four Lightning, 390
Fourteenth Amendment, 187, 188–89, 190
Free, Laura, 189
Frey, John, 361
From, Al, 343
Fudge, L. H., 369
Fugitive Slave Law, 62
Furlong, Thomas, 130, 131–32, 133, 134, 135–36
Gaddafi, Muammar, 348
Galvan, Ramiro, 155
Gamble, Ella, 180–81
gangs, 19, 264; criminalization of affiliation to, 59, 88n6. See also prison gangs
Garcia, Mariano, 151
Gardner, Frederick, 196
Garnett, Henry Highland, 373
Garth, David, 345
Garvey, Marcus, 373
Garza, Arnold, 150–51
Garza, Cleofus, 151
Garza, Edward, 151
Gaulden, Jeffrey Khatari, 373, 382n57
Genet, Jean, 379n16
GEO Group, 295
Gephardt, Richard, 343
Geronimo, 21
Gerstle, Gary, 65
Gideon v. Wainwright, 221, 236n62
Gilmore, Ruth Wilson, 12–13, 80, 82, 328
Glades State Prison Farm, 216
Glymph, Thavolia, 177
Golden Gulag Prisons, Surplus, Crisis, and Opposition in Globalizing California (Gilmore), 12–13
Goldfield, David, 14
Goldman, Emma, 140
Goldwater, Barry, 281
Gompers, Samuel, 140
Gonzales, Evarisco, 151
Gonzales, Manuel, 154
Good-Good, Thomas, 390
Gore, Al, 345
Gottshalk, Marie, 40–41n15
Grace Commission, 289
Grateful Dead, 253
Great Depression, 23–24, 75, 114
Greenberg, Stanley, 344
Greene, Judith, 295
Greenspan, Alan, 348
Greyhound bus lines, 114
Grobsmith, Elizabeth, 21–22
Guantánamo Bay Naval Base, 26, 64, 71
Guevara, Che, 370
Guthrie, Philip, 268, 269, 270
Gutiérrez de Lara, Lázaro, 141
Gutiérrez-Jones, Carl, 19–20
Haley, Harold, 364
Hall, Arsenio, 347
Hanchard, Michael, 357
Hardin, MT, 293
Harrison, Shirley, 396
Hartman, Saidiya, 174
Hassan, Alfred, 264
Hauptman, Laurence M., 21
Hawkins, Gordon, 329
Hayden, Tom, 251–252
health care, 289–90
Hell’s Angels, 262
Heredia, Hector Frank, 397
Hernández, David, 26
Hernández, Kelly Lytle, 9, 73, 387; on Border Patrol, 23–24, 69, 74; City of Inmates, 18
Hiawatha Insane Asylum, 392
Higham, John, 97
High Plains Youth Center, 292
Hill, Joe, 152
Hilley, Bud, 173
Hinton, Elizabeth, 11–12, 282, 308
Hitler, Adolf, 261
HIV/AIDS, 71
Hobsbawm, Eric, 19
Hoffman, Earl Frank, 211, 212, 225, 226
Hogan, Michael J., 59
Holcomb, Robert F., 218
Holder, Willie, 268
Hoover, J. Edgar, 346
Horton, Willie, 344
Houhon, Tom, 1
Howard, Clark, 374
Huntsville prison, 154, 162; Prison Rodeo in, 156–58
Hutchinson, E. P., 120n34
Hyde, Arthur, 196
“illegal aliens” (term), 66, 81, 82–83
Illegal Immigration Reform and Immigrant Responsibility Act, 77–78
Illinois, 194
immigrant detention: for aggravated misdemeanors and felonies, 80–81; of children and families, 27, 88n7; and “criminal alien” enforcement, 8–9, 77–78; and criminal justice system, 28, 59, 77, 84; and deportation, 65, 66–67, 84; due process denied in, 26–27, 66, 77–78; expansion of infrastructure for, 24, 76–77, 87; growth of, 77–78, 86–87; and “illegal reentry,” 85, 92n111; and medical detention, 69–71; in post-9/11 America, 63–64; private facilities for, 113–14; racialized practices of, 58, 62–66, 71–72; statistics on, 8–9, 59, 294–95; unsafe and deadly conditions in, 84; of U.S. citizens, 58, 87n2
Immigration Act of 1891, 69
Immigration Act of 1917, 70, 97
Immigration and Customs Enforcement (ICE), 1, 8, 9, 27, 59–60, 86
Immigration and Naturalization Service (INS), 75, 77, 114; bureaucratic institutionalization of, 59–60; detention centers of, 290, 294; Operation Wetback of, 75–76
Immigration Bureau, 100–101, 121n47
Immigration Control and Financial Responsibility Act, 294, 301–2n67
immigration raids, 23, 59, 86, 92n106
immigration system, 28, 57–87; and anti-immigrant discourse, 64, 70, 72, 94, 95, 97; bureaucratic institiutionalization of, 59–60, 88n9; and criminalization of immigrants, 57, 64, 80–81; criminal justice system’s merger with, 1–2, 4–5, 8–9, 20, 27, 28, 57, 59, 60, 79–85; history of, 61–63; and immigration offenses, 9, 43n26; Mexicans as target of, 9, 23–24, 61, 73–75; racialized nature of, 60–63, 71–72, 99–100; restrictions against Chinese in, 22–23, 61, 68–70, 97, 120n34; Supreme Court decisions on, 66–67, 81; treatment of children and families by, 27, 88n7
“imposed liability,” 120n34
incarceration rate: for African Americans, 6–8, 79–80, 202, 349n7, 363; for Latinas/os, 6–8, 79–80, 126; for Native Americans, 386; skyrocketing, 6–7, 374; states with highest, 15, 47n55; in Sunbelt states, 15, 248, 280, 307, 334n21. See also mass incarceration
indeterminate sentencing, 359, 378n10
Indian boarding schools, 20, 21, 391, 403n25
Indian Inmates of the Nebraska Penitentiary v. Vitek, 396–97
Indian Religious Freedom Act, 397
Indian Removal Act, 20
Indians in Prison (Grobsmith), 21–22
Industrial Workers of the World (IWW), 103, 110
infrapolitics, 17–18
International Monetary Fund, 295
Irwin, Theodore, 122n57
Jackson, George, 36–37, 355–77; and Black Guerrilla Family, 259–60, 382n57; and Black Panthers, 259, 260, 361–62; early life of, 358–59; internationalism of, 368; killing of, 309, 370–71; literary talent of, 368; portrayed as bloodthirsty, 355, 357–58; posthumous message of, 374–75; responses to death of, 371–72; revolutionary political views of, 260, 360, 361, 363, 365–68, 369; at San Quentin, 259, 310, 359–60; scholarship on, 355–56; and Soledad Brothers case, 362–63; and Stender, 251, 361, 364, 370, 381n43; as symbol and inspiration, 355, 371–73, 374, 376–77. Works: Blood in My Eye, 370; Soledad Brother, 251, 259, 309–10, 355, 364–70, 381n43
Jackson, Jonathan, 364–65, 371–72
James, Forrest Hood “Fob,” 280
Janssen, Volker, 16; “Sunbelt Lock-Up,” 15
Japanese American internment, 24–25, 26, 53n113, 71, 72
Jayne, Jack, 393
Jay Road prison, 216, 220, 223
Jay Road prison fire (1967), 214, 225–26, 229, 231n11, 238–39nn78–80; recounting of events, 211–12
Jefferson, William, 345
Jeminez, Matias, 151
Jericho Movement to Free Political Prisoners, 373
Jiménez raid (1906), 132–33
Johnson, Andrew, 389
Johnson, David Giappa, 375
Johnson, Walter, 47n62
Johnson Reed Act, 23
Johnston, E. L., 178
Jones, James R., 343
Jones, Mother, 142
Jones-Rogers, Stephanie, 177
Jordan, Vernon, 347
Juarez (film), 155
Kahn, Mark, 10
Kanstroom, Daniel, 27, 62, 66, 75, 78
Kashima, Tetsuden, 24
Keeler, Clarissa Olds, 182
Kelley, Robin D. G., 17
Kennedy, John F., 11
Kennedy, Robert F., 245, 366, 395, 396
Keyssar, Alexander, 188
King, Martin Luther, Jr., 250, 366
King, Peter, 1
King, Rodney, 346
Kinney, Myrtle, 201
Kirk, Paul, 343
Kirkland, Rich, 320, 322–23, 325
Kissimmee Road Prison, 230
Kohler-Hausmann, Julilly, 246, 282
Kotler, Milton, 343
Kunzel, Regina, 363
labor unions, 139–40; and convict labor, 285, 287; of correction officers, 319–20; and private prisons, 291–92
La Force, Tony, 106
Lapeer State Home and Training School, 392
La Pinta: Chicana/o Prisoner Literature, Culture, and Politics (Olguín), 20
Larkin, Brian, 93
Larson, Carl: career of, 303–4; and Pelican Bay design, 317–18, 321; on Pelican Bay scale and capacity, 326–27, 329, 330, 340n118; supermax conception of, 309, 311, 312, 313–14, 317, 326, 331
Lasley, Walter, 396
Latinas/os: and Asians, 78; criminalization of, 23–24, 57, 75, 79–80; incarceration rate for, 6–8, 79–80, 126. See also Central Americans; Mexican Americans and Chicanos/as; Mexicans
law-and-order politics, 1, 11–12, 16, 279, 295–96, 374
Law Enforcement Assistance Administration (LEAA), 285–86, 287
LeFlouria, Talitha, 186; Chained in Silence, 31, 174, 175, 181
Lehman Brothers, 294
Lepore, Jill, 388
Leung Kai Main, 108–9
Leupp, Francis, 392
Lewis, John, 345
Lichtenstein, Alex, 16–17, 282
Liliuokolani, Queen, 194–95, 196
Lincoln, Abraham, 389
Lipsitz, George, 17
Livermore, Daniel Parker, 192
loan sharking, 257
Lockhart prison, 287
Lomeli, A. V., 125
Long, Gilles, 343
Los Angeles, CA, 131–32, 135; magonista prisoners in, 125–26, 136–39; Mexican community in, 136; unionism and socialism in, 139–40
Louisiana, 15, 334n21; and prison road lab, 231n14
Lovett, A. O., 211, 212, 225, 238n79
Lowell Correctional Institution, 216, 223, 226
LTI, 287
Madero, Francisco, 143
Magón, Richardo Flores. See Flores Magón, Ricardo
magonistas, 125–43; and Mexican Revolution, 29, 97, 125, 126, 143; raids in Mexico by, 131, 132–33, 139; Turner’s publicizing of, 142–43; U.S. and Mexican pursuit of, 131–36; in U.S. jails, 125, 135, 137–39, 142, 143. See also Partido Liberal Mexicano: Flores Magón, Ricardo
Maine, 209n66
Mankato executions (1862), 389
Martinez, Ascension, 150–51
Maryland, 194
Mary Turner and the Memory of Lynching (Armstrong), 178
mass incarceration: California at forefront of, 35, 246, 248–49, 254–55, 274n36; Clintons’ embrace of, 36, 341–42, 348; and death penalty, 345–46; explanations for origins of, 4, 7, 11–12, 18, 308; and Great Society liberalism, 11–12, 282; and national security, 72; and Native Americans, 37, 387, 388, 400–401; as “new Jim Crow,” 202; prison society reshaped by, 33, 246–47; racial disparity in, 2, 7; statistics on, 6–8; Sunbelt’s association with, 16, 33, 187, 282; and Texas, 12, 16. See also incarceration rate; supermax prisons
Mbembe, Achiele, 122n51
McAlester State Penitentiary, 385, 401n3
McCollum, Bill, 299n28
McKeown, Adam, 120n34
McNeil Island, WA, 393
McPherson, Harry, 343
McRuer, Robert, 109
medical detention and examination, 69–71, 100
Megan’s Law, 307
Meranze, Michael, 206n18
Meriwether, Elizabeth Avery, 192
Merkel, Angela, 348
Metacom’s (King Philip’s) War, 388
Mexican Americans and Chicanos/as: historiography on, 18–20; and immigrant detention, 24; in prison system, 126, 153–54, 248–49; resistance against criminalization by, 18–19; tensions with Mexicans, 257–58
Mexican Mafia (La Eme), 255; The Black Hand on, 314, 336n54; described, 257–58; relations with other gangs, 263–64, 267–68
Mexicans: binational dimension of incarceration of, 126–27; campaigns targeting, 9, 23–24, 61, 73–75; Chicanos’ tensions with, 257–58; criminalization of, 23–24, 75; deportation of, 9, 23–24, 75–76, 91n79, 114; as “illegal aliens,” 66, 83; illiteracy among, 161–62; immigration enforcement shift from Chinese to, 73–75, 78; medical detention and examination of, 70–71, 100; “México de afuera” in U.S. for, 19, 129, 136, 138; and Nuestra Familia, 258–59, 275n50; and Operation Wetback, 24, 75–76; racist prejudice against, 162; resistance acts in captivity by, 30, 109; in Texas prisons, 149–64
Mexico: Chinese immigration to, 73–74; Díaz regime in, 127–28, 133, 140–43; magonista raids on, 132–33, 139; revolution in, 29, 97, 125, 126, 143; Texas prisoners’ imagining of, 155–56; Trump’s proposed wall against, 296
Midnight Special, 372
Minimum Foundation Program, 228
Mirandé, Alfredo, 19
Missouri, 194, 196, 197–98, 200, 207n34
Mitford, Jessica, 364
Moloney, Deirdre, 100
Mondale, Walter, 343
Montejano, David, 19
Moody, Dan, 154
Moody, Joe, 264
Moreno, Alberto, 151
Morris, Paul, 267
Morrison, Toni, 347
Mounted Guard of Chinese Inspectors, 69
MS-13 (La Mara Salvatrucha) gang, 88n6
Muhammad, Khalil Gibran, 10–11, 236n61
Muller, Eric L., 25
Mullins, G. W., 196–97
Municipal Capital Market Group, 293
Muntaqim, Jalil, 372
Murch, Donna, 246
Mynor, George, 264
Myrdal, Gunnar, 11
Nash, Gerald, 280
National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP), 178, 348
National Council for Incarcerated and Formerly Incarcerated Women and Girls, 376
National Institute of Justice, 313
Nation of Islam, 360, 366, 407n58
Native American Rights Fund, 396
Native Americans, 37, 385–401; and AIM, 37, 385, 397, 398, 399, 406n51; and citizenship, 387, 392, 407n59; civil suits by, 21; cultural identity and traditions of, 395, 396–97, 398, 399; disfranchisement of, 205n7; history of imprisonment of, 388–92; incarceration rate for, 8, 386; prisoner activism by, 396; and prisoners’ rights movement, 392–93; and Red Power movement, 37, 386, 398–99, 400, 406n51; reservation confinement policy for, 392; and settler colonialism, 2, 20–21, 387–88, 400–401; and urban relocation programs, 393–94; vocational training for, 395–96
Nebraska State Penitentiary, 386–87, 396–97
Nelson, Louis, 370
New Jersey, 307
New Jim Crow, The (Alexander), 346
New York Times, 142–43, 213, 230, 343, 395
Ngai, Mae, 23
Nicholoson, Rex, 24–25
Nickerson, Michelle, 14–15
Nineteenth Amendment, 186, 196
Nordwall, Adam, 396
North Carolina, 193
Norwood, Stephen H., 118–19n25
Novey, Don, 319
Nuestra Familia (NF), 255; described, 258–59, 275n50; relations with other gangs, 263–64, 267–68
Obama, Barack, 9, 86, 88n7, 348; deportations under, 59, 64, 78, 82, 85, 87, 92n111
Occupy Wall Street, 376
Ocen, Priscilla, 173–74
Office of Research of the Assembly (ORA), 284
Oklahoma, 290
Oklahoma State Penitentiary, 385, 393, 401n3
Omnibus Crime Control and Safe Streets Act, 346
Operation Streamline, 92n111
Ortega, F., 163
Oshinsky, David M., 150
Otis, Harrison Gray, 139, 140–41
overcrowding, prison, 293, 329–30, 340n118
Oviedo Road Prison, 218, 219, 222, 226, 227
Owens, Deirdre Cooper, 173–74
Pacific Mail Steamship Company, 98
Padilla v. Kentucky, 81
Painter, Nell Irvin, 376
panopticon, 324–25
Paredes, Américo, 19
Park, John, 69
Parkey, James, 293
Partido Liberal Mexicano (PLM): founding of, 130; “Manifesto to the American People” by, 141; raids on Mexico organized by, 131, 132–33, 139; U.S. arrests and jailings of, 131, 135–36, 137–39
Pattern of Dependent Poverty in California, The (CDC), 249
Pearce, Russell, 295
Pegler-Gordon, Anna, 68, 71, 74
Pelican Bay State Prison: administrative goals of, 308, 312–13; and Arizona SMU model, 316–23, 324; building of, 310–11, 374; design and construction plans for, 317–23; isolation and segregation in, 324–25, 327–28; legal challenge to, 311; overcrowding at, 330; prisoner protests at, 375; role of bureaucrats in creating, 304–5, 330–31; scale and size in, 326–30; T-shaped design in, 324–26
Pell, Eve, 257
Pena, Albert, 19
Perkinson, Robert, 12
Perry, David C., 13–14
Personal Responsibility and Work Opportunity Reconciliation Act, 341
Phillips, Kevin, 13
photographic identification, 68
plea bargains, 80–81
Plessy v. Ferguson, 103
Pompano Beach Road Prison, 230
Portillo, Noe, 155
Potter, George C., 195
Pow Wow Club, 395
Pratt, Richard Henry, 391
Presley, Robert, 310
prisoner classification system, 217, 313, 326–27
prisoner isolation and segregation, 12, 15; of Mexican prisoners, 149; and prisoner violence, 266–68; at supermax prisons, 315–16, 323–25, 326–28, 330, 331, 340n122. See also solitary confinement
prisoner labor. See convict labor
prisoner newspapers, 252–53, 256, 372, 375
prisoner protests: Attica takeover, 253, 309, 371; Black August, 373; against convict labor, 150–51; Folsom Prison Work Stoppage, 252, 253, 260; national prison strike against slavery, 375–76; San Quentin Unity Day Strikes, 252–53
prisoners’ rights movement, 250–54, 270, 371, 373–74; and civil suits, 21–22; and George Jackson, 259–60; and Native Americans, 392–93; outside support to, 253–54; scholarship on, 246, 355–56, 405n35; use of racial tensions to undermine, 265
Prisoners Union, 268
prisoner violence, 211, 225, 269, 372; and gangs, 247, 264, 265–66; prison guards’ encouragement of, 265; and racial tensions, 246, 254–55; reasons for, 270; and supermax prisons, 314–16
prison gangs, 33, 245–71; administrative responses to, 266–71; alliances by, 263–64; and convict code, 255, 256, 257, 266; motivations for joining, 255–56, 269–70; political ideology of, 247, 252, 264; prison staff ties to, 264–65; and prison transfers, 267; as protection, 255–56, 262, 268, 270; rise of, 254–66; secretive nature of, 247; as social units, 256–57; violence by, 247, 264, 265–66. See also Aryan Brotherhood; Black Guerrilla Family; Mexican Mafia; Nuestra Familia
prison guards: beating of prisoners by, 151–52; deaths of, 260, 276n69, 303, 309, 362; and gangs, 265; and guns, 321, 338n81; killing of prisoners by, 152, 339n113, 362, 366; in private prisons, 292; racial tensions stoked by, 265; wages and salaries of, 217, 222, 237n67
Prison Health Services (PHS), 290
“prison industrial complex,” 79, 296
Prison Industries Reorganization Act, 15–16
Prison Policy Initiative, 126
prison population: in California, 79, 248–49, 256, 274n36; in Florida, 16, 216–17; in immigration detention centers, 294; in private prisons, 282–83; U.S. statistics on, 6–8, 306. See also mass incarceration
prisons: African American women in, 173–82; charging prisoners for living expenses in, 307; childbearing in, 173–75; classification of prisoners in, 217, 313, 326–27; construction boom for, 274n36, 288–89, 305, 306, 327; custodial functions prioritized in, 269, 270–71, 282; desegregation of, 211, 223, 225; educational and vocational programs in, 220–21, 227–28, 236n59, 395–96; George Jackson on, 366, 368; health care in, 289–90; historical narratives of Southern, 10, 44n35; historiography of, 10–11, 44n35; jobs in, 217–18; militarization of, 323; number of institutions, 6; overcrowding at, 293, 329–30, 340n118; post-slavery reform of, 61; purpose of, 4, 245; racial tensions in, 245, 246, 254–55, 265; rehabilitation rhetoric of, 229; riots in, 255, 292, 294, 385; telephones in, 290. See also private prisons; road prisons; supermax prisons
Private Prison Information Act, 292
private prisons, 33–34, 279–96; and convict labor, 283–88; corruption in, 293; cost to prisoners of, 292; federal contracts for, 301–2n67; growth of, 16, 282–83, 288–95; protests against, 291–92
privatization ideology, 14, 281–82, 295
Procunier, Raymond, 267–68
Proposition 13 (California), 13, 289
Prosser, Gabriel, 373
Public Law 503, 24
public-private partnership, 17, 97–99, 118–19n25. See also private prisons; privatization ideology
Pullman cars, 98, 103, 105, 119n31
Punishment, Prisons, and Patriarchy (Kahn), 10
Quixote’s Soldiers (Montejano), 19
Rabinowitz, Howard, 14
racialization: of African Americans, 10–11, 61, 79–80, 187, 236n61; of Chinese, 22, 61, 71, 97, 100, 114; by criminal justice system, 10, 19, 77, 80; on deportation trains, 103; by immigration system, 58, 60–66, 71–72, 99–100; of Latinos/as, 23–24, 57, 75, 79–80, 162
Racial Justice Act, 347
racial profiling, 63–64
racial tensions, 245, 246, 254–55, 265
Raeder, Valentine, 107
Raiford state prison, 216, 217, 241n100
Ramirez, Camillo, 157
Ramirez, Mike, 157
Ramparts, 364
Re, Christopher, 189
Re, Richard, 189
Reagan, Ronald, 12, 267–68, 281, 342, 343, 348, 371; and privatization, 289, 294
Red Power movement, 37, 386, 398–99, 400, 406n51
refugees, 76
Regeneración, 128, 129–30, 133, 134
Reid, Willie, 218–19, 234–35n46
Reifel, Ben, 395
Reiter, Keramet, 246
Rethinking the Borderlands (Jones), 19–20
Reyes, Rodolfo, 151
Rice, Bradley R., 14
Rico, Thomas, 135
Riggs, Stephen R., 389–90
Rise and Fall of California’s Radical Prison Movement, The (Cummins), 355–56
Rise of the Sunbelt Cities, The (Perry and Watkins), 13–14
Rivera, Librado, 130, 134, 136, 137, 142, 143
road prisons, 32–33, 211–30; African Americans in, 233–34n34; and CCCs, 228, 229–30; and chain gangs, 214–15; educational and vocational programs in, 227–28; escapes from, 221; fire safety in, 226–27; and Jay fire, 211–12, 225–26; number of prisoners in, 216, 219, 227; original Florida, 215–19; and prisoner violence, 211, 225; and rehabilitation rhetoric, 220–21, 228, 229; reinvention and modernization of, 212–14, 219–22, 227–28
Robb, Charles, 343
Roberts, Dorothy, 173–74
Rodriguez, Baltazar, 161–62
Rodríguez, Dylan, 356
Rodriguez, Felipe, 157
Romero, Gloria, 336n54
Romero, Robert Chao, 68–69, 74
Roosevelt, Eleanor, 348
Roosevelt, Franklin D., 24–25
Rosenbaum, Nelson, 343
Rosenthal, Nicolas G., 406n51
Ross, Luana, 21
Rosser, Paul, 313
Rothman, David, 10
Rozzell, J. H., 151
Ruiz v. Estelle, 289
Russell, Bud, 154–55
Russell, Jennie, 193
Russia, 6
Sacred Heart Hospital, 287
Safe Street and Crime Act, 11
Salazar, Candelario, 153
Sallas, J. D., 152
Sanchez, J. T., 156
Sandstone, MN, 393
San Francisco Chronicle, 255
San Francisco earthquake, 69
San Quentin News, 396
San Quentin State Prison, 265, 286, 310–11; Black August protest at, 372–73; history of, 359; isolation and lockdown at, 268, 327, 328; Jackson at, 259, 309, 310, 359–60, 370–71; Native American prisoners at, 396, 397; prisoner violence at, 269, 372; prison gangs at, 262, 267
San Quentin Unity Day Strikes, 252–53
Sarabia, Juan, 125, 130–31, 133
Sarabia, Manuel, 130, 134, 135, 142
Schell, Jonathan, 81–82
Schulman, Bruce, 217
Schwartz, Marie Jenkins, 173–74
Schwarzenegger, Arnold, 355
Scott, James C., 17
Seagoville Enemy Alien Detention Station, 26
Seale, Bobby, 365
Searching for the Sunbelt (Goldfield and Rabinowitz), 14
Secure Communities program, 85, 294
segregation: “administrative,” 12, 83, 241n100, 327–28; on deportation trains, 103; and desegregation, 211, 223, 225. See also prisoner isolation and segregation
Senate Subcommittee on Civil Disorder and Gang Violence in Penal Institutions, 256, 258
sentencing, 400; California laws on, 13, 304–5, 307, 311; indeterminate, 359, 378n10
Sentencing Project, 209–10n66
settler colonialism, 18, 30, 94; and Native Americans, 2, 20–21, 387–88, 400–401
“settler custodialism,” 8, 37, 387–88, 392, 396, 402n13
severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS), 71
Shades of the Sunbelt (Bayor), 14
SHU (Security Housing Unit), 308, 313–14, 316–17, 320, 321, 324–25, 326; as label, 328–29
Sillman, Ron, 268–69
Simmons, Lee, 155
Simon, Jonathan, 344
Siquieros, David, 147n74
slavery: black women and childbearing in, 173–74, 175–77; Fugitive Slave Law under, 62; and infamy, 190–91; legacy of, 2, 3, 60, 126, 150; and Middle Passage, 117n16, 365
Smith, J. C., 197
Snyder Act, 392
Sodexho Alliance, 294
Soledad Brother (Jackson), 259, 309–10, 355; contents of, 251, 365–69; Jackson dislike of, 370, 381n43; original publication of, 364; prison officials’ attempt to ban, 369–70
Soledad Brothers case, 362–63
Soledad Prison, 260, 267, 268, 359
solitary confinement, 226, 355, 360; as “administrative segregation,” 12, 83, 241n100, 327–28; lawsuits and protests against, 375–76; and Native American prisoners, 396–97; in supermax prisons, 305, 328
Soul on Ice (Cleaver), 309, 364
Southern Horrors (Feimster), 178
Southern Pacific Railroad, 29, 98–99, 111
Spain, John, 257
Special Service Unit (SSU), 266
Spivak, Gayartri, 17
Spivak, John, 215
Stanley, Leo L., 29, 100–102, 104–7, 110–12
Stanton, Elizabeth Cady, 192
steamships, 107–9, 112–13, 122n52
Stender, Fay, 251, 361, 364, 370, 381n43
Stevens, John Paul, 81
Stevenson, Coke R., 158
Stillwater Correctional Facility, 317, 397
Strange Passage (Irwin), 122n57
Stronge, William, 217
Sunbelt: carceral regime in, 15–17; conservatism in, 94, 279, 280; correctional bureaucrats’ role in, 304–5; incarceration rate in, 15, 248, 280, 307, 334n21; mass incarceration associated with, 16, 33, 187, 282; political economy of, 217, 279–83; prison construction boom in, 288–89; private prisons in, 33–34, 288–95, 296; studies of, 13–15; supermax prisons as innovation of, 15, 305, 306–9
Sunbelt Cities (Bernard and Rice), 14
“Sunbelt Lock-Up: Where the Suburbs Met the Super-Max” (Janssen), 15
Sunbelt Rising (Doochuk and Nickerson), 14–15
supermax prisons, 34–35, 303–32; in Arizona, 304, 305, 316–18, 320–21, 322, 331; bureaucrats’ role in designing, 35, 304–5, 330–32; checks and balances lacking at, 331; isolation and segregation at, 315–16, 323–24, 326–27, 330, 331, 340n122; and militarization, 323; number of prisoners at, 15, 305, 326–30; prisoner capacity and overcrowding at, 329–30, 340n118; reasons for, 312–16; as Sunbelt innovation, 15, 305, 306–9. See also Pelican Bay State Prison
Supreme Court decisions, 66–67, 81, 221, 236n62
“suspected terrorist” label, 81
Sykes, Gresham, 272n7
Symbionese Liberation Army, 264
Talamantez, Luis Bato, 259, 375
Talavera Broussé, María, 135, 136
Tallahassee Road Prison, 219–20, 230
Tannenbaum, Frank, 215
Tate, Willie Sundiata, 360, 375
Taylor, Margaret, 85
Tehachapi prison, 316, 328, 330, 339n112
Tennessee, 231n14, 291; Woman Suffrage Memorial in, 192
Texas, 30, 149–64; convict labor in, 150–51, 231n14, 287; mass incarceration in, 12, 16; Mexican prisoners’ view of, 153; Prison Rodeo in, 156–58; prison segregation and racial classification in, 153–54, 163; private prisons in, 282, 290, 293; restrictions for felons in, 194; San Jacinto Day in, 162
Texas Tough (Perkinson), 12
Thatcher, Margaret, 348
They Left Great Marks on Me (Williams), 178
Thirteenth Amendment, 389
Thirty Minutes Behind the Walls, 153, 155, 158–60, 162
Thomason, William B., 264–65
Thompson, Michal, 262
Thorne, John, 370
“Three Strikes” laws, 13, 35, 289, 307, 346
Thurmond, Strom, 281
Topa, Wakanhdi, 389–90
Toussaint v. McCarthy, 311
Trinkle, E. Lee, 196
TRUE magazine, 218–19
Trump, Donald J.: anti-immigrant campaign by, 1–2, 38–39n1, 85–86, 87; and border wall, 296; and deportations, 59, 78, 82, 86; and immigrant criminalization, 9, 27
Truth, Sojourner, 376–77
Tule Lake detention center, 25
Turcheneske, John Anthony, 21
Turner, Hayes, 178
Turner, John Kenneth, 141–43, 147n74
Turner, Nat, 373
TWA, 286–87
Unicor, 288
United Automobile Workers, 287
United States Commission on Civil Rights (USCCR), 386–87
Universal Negro Improvement Association (UNIA), 373
urban relocation programs, 393–94
USA Patriot Act, 8
U.S. Neutrality Act, 136, 139, 142
U. S. West, 290
Van Vleck, William, 118n22
Venceremos Organization, 264
Vermont, 209n66
Vertrees, John J., 191
Vietnam, 76
Villarreal, Antonio, 130, 135, 136, 137, 142, 143
Violence Against Women Act, 346
Violent Crime Control and Law Enforcement Act, 35, 342, 346
vocational programs, 220–21, 227–28, 236n59, 395–96
voting rights: for African Americans, 187, 198; applications to restore, 193–94, 195–96; and citizenship, 187, 188–90; and Fourteenth Amendment, 187, 188–89, 190; for women, 189–90, 191–93, 198, 201. See also felon disfranchisement
Voting Rights Act, 342
Wackenhut Corporation, 282, 287, 290–91, 295
Wainwright, Louie L., 219, 220–21, 223, 226–27, 229, 239n87
Wall, Mrs. Hay Long, 200
Walters, William, 22
Ward, William, 176
War on Crime, 7, 11–12, 66, 344
War on Drugs, 7, 66, 77, 79, 294–95; and Clintons, 341–48
War on Poverty to the War on Crime (Hinton), 308
War Relocation Authority (WRA), 25
Washington, Harriet, 173–74
Watkins, Alfred J., 13–14
Watkins, Sylvia, 176
Weather Underground, 371
Weaver, Vesla M., 7
Weinstein, Bernard L., 13
Welch, Blanche, 198–99
Wells, Warren, 263
Western Federation of Miners, 142
White, Robert, 391
White Slavery Act, 104
“Why Mass Incarceration Matters” (Thompson), 7
Whyte, Ed, 201
Williams, Kidada, 178
Williams, Stanley Tookie, 355
Wilson v. Dukmejian, 311
Wolfe, Patrick, 400
Wolf Pack, 259–60
women, 186–205; African American, 31–32, 173–82; and children in prison, 173, 181–82; and citizenship rights restoration, 31–32, 196–98, 199–201, 207–8n40; and felon disfranchisement, 202; as Immigration Bureau matrons, 101, 121n47; infamous convictions of, 193–94; prison population of, 201, 349n7; and rape, 180
women’s suffrage, 189–90, 191–93, 198, 201
Wong Wing v. United States, 66–67
work-release programs, 228, 239n87, 292
Works Progress Administration, 24–25
World Bank, 295
World War II, 24–26; “enemy aliens” during, 71–72; German and Italian incarceration during, 25, 53n117, 72; Japanese American internment during, 24–25, 26, 53n113, 71, 72; and Mexican prisoners, 162–63
“Worse than Slavery”: Parchman Farm and the Ordeal of Jim Crow Justice (Oshinsky), 150
Wounded Knee occupation (1973), 398
Wright, Ronald, 85
Wynder, Joseph, 211, 212, 225, 226
Yancey, Daunasia, 341
Yazzie, Robert, 401
Ybarra-Frausto, Tomás, 165–66n36
Yee, Min, 360
Zavala, Jose, 151
Zeldin, Lee, 1
Zephyrhills Road Prison, 228
Zimring, Franklin, 329
Zolberg, Aristide, 22, 120n34, 122n52
Zoley, George, 294