Introduction
1. Human Rights Watch’s various reports on the respective trials. See www.hrw.org.
2. President George H. W. Bush, ‘Toward a New World Order’, speech to Congress, 11 September 1990.
3. ‘L’ère de « la contrainte des états» s’est ouverte, estime Louise Arbour’, Le Monde, 6 August 1999, 4.
4. Geoffrey Robertson, Crimes against Humanity: The Struggle for Global Justice (London: Penguin, 1999; 2nd edn, 2000), xviii.
5. Robertson, Crimes against Humanity, 338.
6. Trials of War Criminals before the Nuremberg Military Tribunal under Control Council Law no. 10, vol. III, ‘The Justice Case’ (Washington, DC, 1951), 969–70. See ch. 3, ‘Inverting Nuremberg’, in John Laughland, Travesty: the Trial of Slobodan Milošević and the Corruption of International Justice (London: Pluto Press, 2007).
7. On this, see Kjetil Tronvoll et al. (eds), The Ethiopian Red Terror Trials: Transitional Justice Challenged (Oxford: James Curry Publishers, forthcoming).
Chapter 1: The Trial of Charles I and the Last Judgement
1. Michael Walzer, The Revolution of the Saints (London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1965).
2. Geoffrey Robertson, The Tyrannicide Brief: The Story of the Man who sent Charles I to the Scaffold (London: Chatto & Windus, 2005; Vintage Books, 2006), 21.
3. Christopher Hill, The Bible in Seventeenth Century English Politics, The Tanner Lectures on Human Values, delivered at the University of Michigan, 4 October 1991, esp. 94 (published online at www.tannerlectures.utah.edu).
4. A. L. Rowse, The Regicides and the Puritan Revolution (London: Duckworth, 1994), 18.
5. William L. Sachse, ‘England’s “Black Tribunal”: an Analysis of the Regicide Court’, Journal of British Studies, 12 (1973). Other critics of the trial include Otto Kirchheimer, Political Justice: The Use of Legal Procedure for Political Ends ← 293 | 294 → (Princeton, NJ:, 1951), 304, and Ron Christenson, Political Trials: Gordian Knots in the Law (New Brunswick, NJ and Oxford: Transaction Publishers, 1986), 234.
6. This quotation, and much of the account of the trial which follows, is taken from the transcript and account of the trial in A Complete Collection of State Trials and Proceedings for High Treason, with a new preface by Francis Hargrave Esq. (London, 1776).
7. Leon Trotsky, Collected Writings and Speeches on Britain, eds R. Chappell and A. Clinton (New York: New Park Publications, 1974); see ch. 6 ‘Two traditions: the seventeenth-century revolution and Chartism’.
8. H. L. A. Hart, The Concept of Law (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1961), 66.
9. The most brilliant writing on this is that of Ernst Kantorowicz. See especially his great work The King’s Two Bodies: A Study in Medieval Political Theology (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1957) and his essay ‘Mysteries of State: An Absolutist Concept and its Late Mediaeval Origins’, in Selected Studies (Locust Valley, NY: J. J. Augustin Publisher, 1965), 381.
10. See on this, John Laughland, ‘The Crooked Timber of Humanity: sovereignty, jurisdiction and the confusions of human rights’, The Monist, vol. 90, no. 1 (January 2007).
11. A Complete Collection of State Trials and Proceedings for High Treason, 1043.
12. Patricia Crawford, ‘Charles Stuart, That Man of Blood’, Journal of British Studies, 16/2 (1977), 41–61.
13. William Allen, A Faithful Memorial of that Remarkable Meeting of Many Officers of the Army of England, at Windsor Castle, in the Year 1648 (1659); available e.g. in Clarendon Historical Society Reprints, series 2, no. 6 (Edinburgh, 1885).
14. René Girard, Le bouc émissaire (Paris: Editions Grasset, 1992), 65.
15. Girard, Le bouc émissaire, 62.
16. Henry Scudder, Gods Warning to England, 23; quoted in Crawford, ‘Charles Stuart, That Man of Blood’, 48. See Crawford, 48–9, for many other similar passages.
17. Ernst Lee Tuveson, Redeemer Nation: The Idea of America’s Millennial Role (Chicago, IL.: University of Chicago Press, 1968); Norman Cohn, The Pursuit of the Millennium: Revolutionary Millenarians and Mystical Anarchists of the Middle Ages (London: Paladin, 1970); Mark Bell’s Oxford D.Phil. thesis, ‘The Theology of Violence’ (2002), to which excellent work I am greatly indebted.
18. Stephen Marshall, A Divine Project to Save a Kingdom … A Sermon to the Lord Maior and Court of Aldermen of the Citie of London (1644); quoted by Mark Bell.
19. Thomas Case, Josephat’s Caveat to his Judges Delivered in a Sermon (1644); quoted by Bell.
20. Thomas Manton, A Practical Commentary … on the Epistle of St. James, 422–4; quoted by Bell.
21. For Marshall’s apocalypticism, see also his The Song of Moses and the Song of the Lambe (1643). ← 294 | 295 →
22. Sermon preached, inter alia, in the House of Commons on 23 February 1641.
23. Ian Gentles, The New Model Army in England, Ireland, and Scotland, 1645–1653 (Oxford: Blackwell, 1992), 93.
24. Quoted in Robert S. Paul, The Lord Protector (London: Lutterworth Press, 1955), 217.
25. John Calvin, Institutes 4: 20.4; see Bell, ‘The Theology of Violence’, 67 & 103.
26. Quoted in Bell, ‘The Theology of Violence’, 274.
Chapter 2: The Trial of Louis XVI and the Terror
1. Carl Schmitt, Politische Theologie, Vier Kapitel zur Lehre von der Souveränität (Berlin: Duncker & Humblot, 1922; repr. 1990), 49.
2. Albert Camus, L’homme révolté (Paris: Gallimard, 1951). See also Edmund Burke, Reflections on the Revolution in France (London, 1790); Jean Dumont, Les prodiges du sacrilège (Paris: Criterion, 1984).
3. Burke’s great tract, Reflections on the Revolution in France, is shot through with such overtly religious language. See Dumont, Les prodiges du sacrilège (the title is itself a quotation from the Reflections), and John Laughland, ‘The Prodigies of Sacrilege: Edmund Burke on Money’, The Salisbury Review (autumn 1999) and The University Bookman (spring 2000).
4. Marc Bloch, Les rois thaumaturges, études sur le caractère surnaturel attribué à la puissance royale, particulièrement en France et en Angleterre (Strasbourg: Publications de la Faculté de Lettres, 1924; 2nd edn, Paris: Librairie Armand Collin, 1961; Paris: Gallimard, 1983).
5. For this and the succeeding account of the way the trial evolved, see Paul and Pierette Girault de Coursac, Enquête sur le procès du roi (Paris: F.-X. de Guibert), 1992. I am greatly indebted to this work. For this reference see page 18, quoting Moniteur 1792, no. 186 (xiii–35).
6. Girault de Coursac, Enquête, 29; quoting Moniteur 1792, no. 267 Sup. (xiv–17).
7. Girault de Coursac, Enquête, 43; quoting Moniteur 1792, no. 238 bis (xiii–518).
8. Girault de Coursac, Enquête, 35; quoting Moniteur 1792, no. 230 (xiii–430).
9. Girault de Coursac, Enquête, 35; quoting Moniteur 1792, no. 230 (xiii–432).
10. Girault de Coursac, Enquête, 36.
11. Girault de Coursac, Enquête, 42–3.
12. Quoted in Edwin Bannon, Refractory Men, Fanatical Women: Fidelity to Conscience during the French Revolution (Leominster: Gracewing, 1992), 47–8.
13. Girault de Coursac, Enquête, 64.
14. For the text of Mailhe’s speech and of the other key speeches, see Michael Walzer, Regicide and Revolution: Speeches at the Trial of Louis XVI (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1974).
15. Quoted in Walzer, Regicide and Revolution. ← 295 | 296 →
16. On this, see Carl Schmitt, Der Nomos der Erde im Völkerrecht des Jus Publicum Europaeum (Berlin: Duncker & Humblot, 1950), 15 and passim, as well as in other shorter works, e.g. Land und Meer (Leipzig: Philipp Reclam, 1942); transl. S. Draghici, Land and Sea (Washington, DC: Plutarch Press, 1997).
17. Quoted in Jacques Vergès, Les crimes d’État: la comédie judiciare (Paris: Broché, 2004), ch. 6 ‘Un procès sacrilège’, 140, emphasis added.
18. Girault de Coursac, Enquête, 71; quoting Moniteur 1792, no. 340 (xiv–646). See also Walzer, Regicide and Revolution, for an English translation.
19. Quoted in Vergès, Les crimes d’État, 141.
20. Girault de Coursac, Enquête, 76; quoting Moniteur 1792, no. 343 (xiv–673 to 674).
21. Girault de Coursac, Enquête, 99; quoting Moniteur 1792, no. 348 (xiv–713).
22. See ch. 3 below.
23. Quoted in Vergès, Les crimes d’État, 148.
24. Girault de Coursac, Enquête, 101; quoting Moniteur 1792, no. 348 (xiv–718 to 720).
25. Jacques Isorni, Le vrai procès du roi (Paris: Atelier Marcel Jullian, 1980), 12.
26. The transcript of the interrogation of 11 December has been republished in Paul and Pierette Girault de Coursac (eds), La défense de Louis XVI par Malesherbes, Tronchet et Desèze, précédée du procès-verbal de l’interrogatoire du roi (Paris: F.-X. de Guibert, 1993), 39–50.
27. Girault de Coursac, Enquête, 112; quoting Journal de la République française, 12 December 1792.
28. Girault de Coursac, Enquête, 112–13; quoting Convention, Procès-verbaux (iv–187) and Moniteur 1792, no. 348 (xiv–722).
29. Girault de Coursac, Enquête, 113; quoting Moniteur 1792, no. 348 (xiv–723); Le Journal universel quoted by Les révolutions de Paris, no. 179, 550.
30. Girault de Coursac, Enquête, 114; quoting Convention, Procès-verbaux (iv–205).
31. Girault de Coursac, Enquête, 105–9.
32. Girault de Coursac, Enquête, 118; quoting Moniteur 1792, no. 349 (xiv–728 to 729)
33. Isorni, Le vrai procès du roi, 24.
34. Isorni, Le vrai procès du roi, 26.
35. Isorni, Le vrai procès du roi, 28.
36. De Sèze’s whole speech is reprinted, together with the amendments he made on his own notes, in Girault de Coursac (eds), La défense de Louis XVI.
37. Quoted in Isorni, Le vrai procès du roi, 175.
38. Isorni, Le vrai procès du roi, 209.
39. L. Saintmichael, Vie politique de tous les deputes à la Convention nationale pendant et après la Révolution, par M. R., ouvrage dans lequel on trouve la preuve que dans le procès de Louis XVI la peine de mort avait été rejetée à une majorité de six voix (Paris, 1814).
40. Marc Roche, Le Monde, 11 April 2006. ← 296 | 297 →
Chapter 3: War Guilt after World War I
1. On these two competing approaches to law, see John Laughland, ‘The Crooked Timber of Humanity: sovereignty, jurisdiction and the confusions of human rights’, The Monist, vol. 90, no. 1 (January 2007), drawing on the works of Michel Villey, esp. Le droit et les droits de l’homme (Paris: Presses Universitaires de France, 1983). For the transition from land-based law to sea-based universalism, see Carl Schmitt, Der Nomos der Erde (Berlin: Duncker & Humblot, 1950) and Land und Meer (Stuttgart: Philipp Reclam, 1942).
2. Gary Bass, Stay the Hand of Vengeance: The Politics of War Crimes Tribunals (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2000), 123. What follows is drawn from his ch. 4, ‘Constantinople’.
3. James F. Willis, Prologue to Nuremberg: The Politics and Diplomacy of Punishing War Criminals of the First World War (Westport and London: Greenwood Press, 1982), 30. I am greatly indebted to this excellent book for the following account.
4. Willis, Prologue to Nuremberg, 31.
5. Willis, Prologue to Nuremberg, 28–9.
6. On this, see Hans-Hermann Hoppe, Democracy, The God that Failed: The Economics and Politics of Monarchy, Democracy and Natural Order (New Brunswick, NJ, and London: Transaction Publishers, 2001), ix–xiv; Erik von Kuehnelt-Leddihn, Leftism Revisited: From De Sade to Pol Pot (Washington, DC: Regnery, 1990), 209–10.
7. Willis, Prologue to Nuremberg, 55.
8. Willis, Prologue to Nuremberg, 57.
9. Willis, Prologue to Nuremberg, 59.
10. Emphasis added.
11. Otto von Stülpnagel, Die Wahrheit über die deutschen Kriegsverbrechen (Berlin: Staatspolitischer Verlag, 1920).
12. Woodrow Wilson, Presidential Messages and Addresses and Public Papers (1917–1924), eds. Ray S. Baker and William E. Dodd (New York and London: Harper & Brothers, 1927), vol. 2, 414; quoted in Ernst Lee Tuveson, Redeemer Nation: The Idea of America’s Millennial Role (Chicago, Il. and London: University of Chicago Press, 1968), 211, emphasis added.
13. Margaret Macmillan, Paris 1919 (New York: Random House, 2001), 13.
14. Alain Besançon, Les origines intellectuelles du léninisme (Paris: Calmann-Lévy, 1977), 17.
15. See for instance, V. I. Lenin, On Dialectics, in Marx. Engel. Marxism (7th revised edn, Moscow: Progress Publishers, 1965), 271–2.
16. Trotsky’s Diary, entry for 9 April 1935, in Houghton Library, Harvard; quoted by Richard Pipes, The Russian Revolution 1899–1919 (London: Harvill Press, 1997), 763. See also Isaac Deutscher, The Prophet Armed: Trotsky 1879–1921 (Oxford: Oxford University Press), 418.
17. Elizabeth A. Wood, Performing Justice: Agitation Trials in Early Soviet Russia (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2005). ← 297 | 298 →
18. V. I. Lenin, ‘The Question of the Bolshevik Leaders Appearing in Court’, in Collected Works (Moscow: Progress Publishers, 1960–70, vol. 25, 174 (first published in Proletarskaya Revolyutsia, no 1 (36), 1925).
19. Quoted by Michael Llewellyn Smith, Ionian Vision: Greece in Asia Minor 1919–1922 (London: Allen Lane, 1973; facsimile edn, Hurst, 1998), 321.
20. This account is taken from the diplomatist Frangulis, quoted in Llewellyn-Smith, Ionian Vision, 329.
Chapter 4: Defeat in the Dock: the Riom Trial
1. Frédéric Pottecher, Le procès de la défaite, Riom Février–Avril 1942 (Paris: Fayard, 1989), 19.
2. Maurice Ribet, Le procès de Riom (Paris: Flammarion, 1945), 21.
3. Robert Badinter, Un antisémitisme ordinaire, Vichy et les avocats juifs (1940–1944) (Paris: Fayard, 1997).
4. See ch. 1 of my book The Tainted Source: the Undemocratic Origins of the European Idea (London: Little, Brown, 1997; 2nd edn, London: Warner Books, 1998), for a discussion of the pro-European groups in France before and during the war. On Abetz, see Barbara Lambauer, Otto Abetz et les Français, 1930–1958 (Paris: Fayard, 2001).
5. Text quoted by Pierre Béteille and Christiane Rimbaud, Le procès de Riom (Paris: Plon, 1973,) 33.
6. Appeal, 8 August 1940; quoted in Ribet, Le procès de Riom, 13.
7. Charles de Gaulle, preface to Pierre Tissier, Le procès de Riom (London: Harrap, 1943), 5.
8. Pottecher, Le procès de la défaite, 17.
9. Ribet, Le procès de Riom, 16.
10. This and the other key constitutional laws of the Vichy government can be consulted at http://mjp.univ-perp.fr/france/co1940.htm.
11. Henri Michel, Le procès de Riom (Paris: Albin Michel, 1979), 42–3. Michel’s is probably the best book on the Riom trial.
12. Michel, Le procès de Riom, 71.
13. Maurice Ribet, who gives a vibrant account of hearing the broadcast which was to affect him so deeply (Le procès de Riom, 23), gets the date wrong and says the speech was on 15 October.
14. Michel, Le procès de Riom, 51–2.
15. Michel, Le procès de Riom, 55–63.
16. Pottecher, Le procès de la défaite, 31.
17. James de Coquet, Le procès de Riom (Paris: Arthème Fayard, 1945), 20–1.
18. Pottecher, Le procès de la défaite, 117.
19. Pottecher quotes from Déat’s articles in L’Oeuvre of 24 February 1942 and a few days later in Le procès de la défaite, 65.
20. De Coquet, Le procès de Riom, 19–20.
21. De Coquet, Le procès de Riom, 30.
22. See Blum’s speech at the opening of the trial in de Coquet, Le procès de Riom, 27ff. ← 298 | 299 →
23. Ribet, Le procès de Riom, 18.
24. Pottecher, Le procès de la défaite, 48.
25. Michel, Le procès de Riom, 244.
26. Michel, Le procès de Riom, 369.
27. The military commander in France, General Carl-Heinrich von Stülpnagel, sent Hitler a secret report on the political situation in France on 31 March 1942, ‘Lagebericht Februar / März 1942’.
Chapter 5: Justice as Purge: Marshal Pétain Faces his Accusers
1. Vichy apologists say that the figure was nearer 100,000; the figure of 30,000 to 40,000 is from Robert Aron. Official French government statistics put the figure at 10,000, with which some historians agree. See Robert Aron, Histoire de Vichy (Paris: Fayard, 1954); see also Yves Beigbeder, Judging War Crimes and Torture: French Justice and International Criminal Tribunals (1940–2005) (Leiden and Boston, MA.: Martinus Nijhoff, 2006), 174–5.
2. For Renthe-Fink’s writings on European unity, especially his 1943 ‘Note on the Establishment of a European Confederation’, see John Laughland, The Tainted Source: the Undemocratic Origins of the European Idea (London: Little, Brown, 1997, and Warner Books, 1998), 33–4.
3. See Gaston Schmitt, La vérité sur le procès Pucheu (Paris: Plon, 1963), 37–8. Schmitt was the judge who had condemned Pierre Pucheu, formerly Vichy minister of the interior, to death.
4. José Augustin Martinéz, Les procès criminels d’après guerre: documents pour l’histoire contemporaine, trans. from Spanish by Francis de Miomandre, preface by Jacques Isorni (Paris: Albin Michel, 1958), 29–30.
5. See my essay on the trial of Maurice Papon: ‘Bad Judgment at Bordeaux’, The National Interest (summer 1998). For a Gaullist defence of Papon, see Maurice Papon, La vérité n’intéressait personne: entretiens avec Michel Bergès sur un procès contre la mémoire (Paris: F. -X. de Guibert, 1999) and Hubert de Beaufort, La Contre-Enquête (Paris: F.-X. de Guibert, 1999).
6. For these figures, see Henri Rousso, Le Syndrome de Vichy de 1944 à nos jours (Paris: Éditions du Seuil, 1987, 2nd edn 1990), 16. See also Beigbeder, Judging War Crimes and Torture, 176.
7. Henri Amouroux, La page n’est pas encore tournée (Paris: Robert Laffont, 1994), 483.
8. Jacques Isorni, preface to Pétrus Faure, Un procès inique (Paris: Flammarion, 1973), 20.
9. Jacques Isorni, Philippe Pétain (Paris: La Table Ronde, 1973), vol. 2, 459; see also Fred Kupferman, Le procès de Vichy (Brussels: Éditions Complexe, 1980), 79.
10. Procès du Maréchal Pétain: compte rendu officiel (Paris: Éditions Louis Pariente, 1976), 12–15.
11. Procès du Maréchal Pétain: compte rendu officiel, 15–16.
12. Charles de Gaulle, Mémoires de Guerre: L’Appel 1940–1942 (Paris: Plon, 1954), 57; see also Jean Lacouture, De Gaulle (Paris: Éditions du Seuil, 1969), 71. ← 299 | 300 →
13. Joseph Kessel, Jugements derniers: les procès Pétain et Nuremberg, préface de Francis Lacassin (Paris: Christian de Barthillat, 1995), 27.
14. Isorni read the letter out in the session of 24 July 1945; see Procès du Maréchal Pétain: compte rendu officiel, 43.
15. Procès du Maréchal Pétain: compte rendu officiel, 61.
16. Procès du Maréchal Pétain: compte rendu officiel, 173; for Reynaud’s reply, see 187.
17. Procès du Maréchal Pétain: compte rendu official, 175.
18. Hearing of Wednesday 1 August 1945, Procès du Maréchal Pétain: compte rendu officiel, 210.
19. Procès du Maréchal Pétain: compte rendu official, 131–2.
20. Procès du Maréchal Pétain: compte rendu official, 133.
21. Kessel, Jugements derniers, 80ff.
22. Pétrus Faure, Un procès inique, 46.
23. ‘The court was totally biased against Pétain: the trial was a political trial, in a general atmosphere in France of revenge stirred up by the Communists,’ Yves Beigbeder, Judging War Crimes and Torture, 188.
24. Faure, Un procès inique, 218.
Chapter 6: Treachery on Trial: the Case of Vidkun Quisling
1. This sequence of events is taken from ch. 7 of Paul M. Hayes, Quisling: The Career and Political Ideas of Vidkun Quisling 1887–1945 (Newton Abbot: David & Charles, 1971).
2. I am greatly indebted to Hans Fredrik Dahl, Quisling: A Study in Treachery (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999), for this account.
3. Dahl, Quisling, 377.
4. Dahl, Quisling, 379.
5. The Gaullist reasoning is well explained in Charles Zorgbibe, De Gaulle, Mitterrand et l’esprit de la constitution (Paris: Hachette, 1993).
6. Hayes, Quisling, 299 & 303.
7. Hans Fredrik Dahl, ‘Dealing with the Past in Scandinavia: Legal purges and popular memories of Nazism and World War II in Denmark and Norway after 1945’, in Jon Elster (ed.), Retribution and Restitution in the Transition to Democracy (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2006).
8. Stein Ugelvik Larsen, ‘Die Ausschaltung der Quislinge in Norwegen’, in Klaus-Dietmar Henke and Hans Woller (eds), Politische Säuberung in Europa (Munich: Deutscher Taschenbuch Verlag, 1991), 245 n. 3.
9. Para. 51 in Provisorisk anordning om tillegg til straffelovgivningen om forræderi (Provisional Decree on Supplements to the Penal Code), 15 December 1944; quoted in Dahl, ‘Dealing with the Past in Scandinavia’.
10. Antonio Cassese, ‘Introduction’ to B. V. A. Röling, The Tokyo Trial and Beyond: Reflections of a Peacemonger, ed. A. Cassese (Cambridge: Polity Press, 1993), 9.
11. Telford Taylor, The Anatomy of the Nuremberg Trials (New York: Knopf, 1992), 193. ← 300 | 301 →
12. Taylor, Anatomy, 413 & 578.
13. J. L. Brierly, The Law of Nations: An Introduction to the International Law of Peace (6th edn, Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1963), 405.
14. Maurice Hankey, Politics, Trials and Errors (Oxford: Pen-in-Hand, 1950), ch. 4.
15. Dahl, Quisling, 384.
16. Dahl, Quisling, 385.
17. Quoted by Franklin Knudsen, I was Quisling’s Secretary (London: Britons Publishing Company, 1967), 62.
18. The text is in Hans Werner Neulen, Europa und das 3. Reich: Einigungsbestrebungen im deutschen Machtbereich 1939–1945 (Munich: Universitas, 1987), 356.
19. Quoted in Ralph Hewins, Quisling: Prophet without Honour (London: W. H. Allen, 1965), 21–2; see also Hayes, Quisling, 12.
20. The best account of the trial itself is in Dahl, Quisling.
21. Dahl, Quisling, 393.
22. Dahl, Quisling, 396–7.
23. Dahl, Quisling, 403.
24. Hewins, Prophet without Honour, 367
25. Hayes, Quisling, 302.
26. Dahl, Quisling, 404.
27. Dahl, Quisling, 406.
28. Quoted in Hayes, Quisling, 302; for a longer version of the same quotation, see Hewins, Prophet without Honour, 367–8.
29. Quoted in Hewins, Prophet without Honour, 367–70.
Chapter 7: Nuremberg: Making War Illegal
1. Telford Taylor, The Anatomy of the Nuremberg Trials (New York: Knopf, 1992), xi.
2. Cicero, De Legibus, II, iv.
3. Taylor, Anatomy, 167.
4. Taylor, Anatomy, 54.
5. Quoted in Taylor, Anatomy, 575.
6. In his famous essay ‘Gesetzliches Unrecht und übergesetzliches Recht’, Süddeutsche Juristen-Zeitung 1 (1946), 105–8.
7. Istvan Déak makes this point in his excellent article ‘Misjudgement at Nuremberg’, New York Review of Books, 7 October 1993.
8. Elizabeth Borgwardt, A New Deal for the World: America’s Vision of Human Rights (Cambridge, MA.: Harvard University Press, 2005).
9. Robert H. Jackson, opening address before the International Military Tribunal, 21 November 1945 (second day).
10. International Conference on Military Trials, London, 1945, Minutes of Conference Session [hereafter London Conference], 29 June 1945; see www.yale.edu/lawweb/avalon/avalon.htm.
11. London Conference, 25 July 1945; emphasis added.
12. London Conference, 25 July 1945. ← 301 | 302 →
13. Arkady Vaksberg, The Prosecutor and the Prey: Vyshinsky and the 1930s Moscow Show Trials (London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1990), 101.
14. London Conference, 29 June 1945.
15. London Conference, 19 July 1945.
16. London Conference, 29 June 1945.
17. London Conference, 23 July 1945.
18. London Conference, 23 July 1945.
19. London Conference, 25 July 1945.
20. Aron Naumovich Trainin, Ugolovnaia interventsiia (Moscow, 1935); repr. in Izbrannye proizvedeniya: Zashchita mira i ugolovnyi zakon, ed. R. A. Rudenko (Moscow: Izdatel’stvo Nauk, 1969), 17–69.
21. Leon Trotsky, My Life (New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1930, ch. 29, ‘In Power’; also available on www.marxists.org.
22. Zashchita mira i ugolovnyi zakon (Moscow: 1937). I am greatly indebted to George Ginsburgs, Moscow’s Road to Nuremberg: The Soviet Background to the Trial, (The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff, 1996), 20 and passim.
23. Ginsburgs, Moscow’s Road to Nuremberg, 21.
24. See for instance Vyshinskii’s speech to the UN General Assembly, 25 September 1948, ‘The USSR on Guard over the Peace and Security of Nations’.
25. Taylor, Anatomy, 26.
26. Ginsburgs, Moscow’s Road to Nuremberg, 36.
27. Taylor, Anatomy, 28–9.
28. London Conference, 26 June 1945.
29. Antonio Cassese, ‘Introduction’ to B. V. A. Röling, The Tokyo Trial and Beyond: Reflections of a Peacemonger, ed. A. Cassese (Cambridge: Polity Press, 1993), 10.
30. Taylor, Anatomy, 80, and Bradley Smith, Reaching Judgement at Nuremberg (New York: Basic Books, 1977), 51, are surely wrong on this point.
31. London Conference, 19 July 1945; emphasis added.
32. Taylor, Anatomy, 583.
33. P. S. Romashkin, Voennye prestupleniia imperializma (Moscow: Nauk, 1953), 273.
34. See Report of Court Proceedings in the Case of the Anti-Soviet ‘Bloc of Rights and Trotskyites’ (Moscow: People’s Commissariat of Justice of the USSR, 1938), 695. See also Ginsburgs, Moscow’s Road to Nuremberg, 65.
35. A. Ya. Vyshinskii, Voprosy teorii gosudarstva i prava (2nd edn, Moscow: Gosudarstvennoe izdatel’stvo yuridicheskoy literatury, 1949), 110.
36. See Aaron Fichtelberg, ‘Conspiracy and International Criminal Justice’, Criminal Law Forum, vol. 17, no. 2 (June 2006).
37. Taylor, Anatomy, 211.
38. Vaksberg, The Prosecutor and the Prey, 259.
39. Taylor, Anatomy, 326.
40. Hans Kelsen, ‘Will the Judgement in the Nuremberg Trial constitute a Precedent in International Law?’, The International Law Quarterly, vol. 1, no. 2 (summer 1947).
41. Kelsen, ‘The Judgement in the Nuremberg Trial’, 171. ← 302 | 303 →
Chapter 8: Creating Legitimacy: the Trial of Marshal Antonescu
1. Antonescu Report of the International Commission on the Holocaust in Romania, submitted to President Ion Iliescu in Bucharest on 11 November 2004.
2. Arkady Vaksberg, The Prosecutor and the Prey, Vyshinsky and the 1930s Moscow Show Trials (London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1990), 246.
3. The decree-law is published as Document 3 in Procesul Mareşalului Antonescu, Documente, ed. Marcel-Dumitru Ciucă, 3 vols (Bucharest: Editura Saeculum, 1996–8), 55ff. (all references to this work are to vol. 1).
4. For a full translation of the charges, see Report of the International Commission on the Holocaust in Romania, ch. 12, ‘The Trials of the War Criminals’, 6.
5. Procesul Mareşalului Antonescu, ‘Introducere’, 32–3.
6. See Report of the International Commission on the Holocaust in Romania, ch. 12, ‘The Trials of the War Criminals’, 7–8.
7. François Furet, Le passé d’une illusion: essai sur l’idée communiste au XXe siècle (Paris: Robert Laffont/Calmann-Lévy, 1995), ch. 7.
8. Iosif Constantin Drăgan, ‘Cuvânt înainte’, in Procesul Mareşalului Antonescu, 6.
9. Procesul Mareşalului Antonescu, ‘Introducere’, 23.
10. Report of the International Commission on the Holocaust in Romania, ch. 12, ‘The Trials of the War Criminals’, 13.
11. Procesul Mareşalului Antonescu, ‘Actul de Accusare’, 64.
12. Procesul Mareşalului Antonescu, ‘Actul de Accusare’, 68 & 116.
13. Procesul Mareşalului Antonescu, ‘Actul de Accusare’, 63.
14. Procesul Mareşalului Antonescu, ‘Actul de Accusare’, 133.
15. Procesul Mareşalului Antonescu, ‘Interogatoriul lui Ion Antonescu’, 6 May 1946’, 201.
16. See for instance Romulus Rusan, Geografia si cronologia Gulagului românesc (‘The geography and chronology of the Romanian gulag’), which begins with a quotation from an NKVD directive (i.e. from Moscow), dated 2 June 1947, instructing the Romanian Communists to liquidate the political opposition. www.memorialsighet.ro.
17. Procesul Mareşalului Antonescu, document no. 6, 186.
18. Ileana, Princess of Romania and Archduchess of Austria, I Live Again (London: Victor Gollancz, 1952), 262–3.
19. Procesul Mareşalului Antonescu, ‘Interogatoriul lui Ion Antonescu’, 203.
20. Procesul Mareşalului Antonescu, ‘Interogatoriul lui Ion Antonescu’, 205.
21. Quoted by István Déak, ‘Retribution or Revenge: War Crimes Trials in Post World War II Hungary’, in Hungary and the Holocaust: Confrontation with the Past, symposium proceedings (Washington, DC: U. S. Holocaust Memorial Museum, Center for Advanced Holocaust Studies, 2001), 39.
22. Procesul Mareşalului Antonescu, ‘Interogatoriul lui Ion Antonescu’, 206–8. ← 303 | 304 →
Chapter 9: Ethnic Cleansing and National Cleansing in Czechoslovakia, 1945–1947
1. Telford Taylor, The Anatomy of the Nuremberg Trials (New York: Knopf, 1992), 69.
2. ‘National cleansing’ is appropriately the title of an excellent book on this. See Benjamin Frommer, National Cleansing: Retribution against Nazi collaborators in post-war Czechoslovakia (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2005).
3. Decree No. 17, para. 2.
4. Decree No. 16, 19 June 1945, para. 22.1.
5. Edvard Beneš, Světová krise, kontinuita práva a nové právo revoluční (‘The World Crisis: the continuity of law and new revolutionary law’), speech at the Charles University in Prague, December 1945 (Prague: V. Linhart, 1946); quoted in Frommer, National Cleansing, ‘Introduction’, 1.
6. Frommer, National Cleansing, 2.
7. Gottwald in April 1945; quoted in Frommer, National Cleansing, 6.
8. Frommer, National Cleansing, 271.
9. Frommer, National Cleansing, 281.
10. Frommer, National Cleansing, 283.
11. Bradley Abrams, ‘The Politics of Retribution: the Trial of Jozef Tiso in the Czechoslovak Environment’, in István Déak, Jan T. Gross, and Tony Judt (eds), The Politics of Retribution in Europe (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2000), 262.
12. Viliam Široký, Central Committee Meeting of the Czechoslovak Communist Party, 16 December 1946; quoted in Abrams, ‘The Politics of Retribution’, 262.
13. Abrams, ‘The Politics of Retribution’.
14. Abrams, ‘The Politics of Retribution’, 263–4.
15. The text of the decree is published in Slovak and German in Němci a Maďaři v Dekretech Prezidenta Republiky, Studie a Dokumente 1940–1945 / Die Deutschen und Magyaren in den Dekreten des Präsidenten der Republik, Studien und Dokumente 1940–1945, ed. Karel Jech (Prague and Brno: Ústav pro soudobé dějiny AV ČR, Doplněk, 2003), 462–6. See also the official journal of the Slovak National Council, Sbierka nariadení Slovenskej národnei rady 1946 (Decrees 57 and 58 of 14 May 1946), 67–78.
16. Petition of the Slovak Action Committee to the United Nations in the Trial of Dr. Jozef Tiso, President and Other Representatives of the Slovak Republic Before the International Military Tribunal (New York: Slovak Action Committee, 1947), 10. This document is signed by Ferdinand Ďurčansky, Tiso’s foreign minister and co-defendant tried in absentia, who had fled to America.
17. I am greatly indebted to James Mace Ward, who kindly sent me his unpublished paper, ‘The Trial of Jozef Tiso’, which is to be included as the basis for a chapter in his forthcoming work on Tiso.
18. Ward, ‘The Trial of Jozef Tiso’, section entitled ‘The Indictment’.
19. See Anton Rašla and Ernest Žabkay, Proces s dr. J. Tisom, Spomienky (Bratislava: Tatra Press, Slovak Union of Journalists, 1990). ← 304 | 305 →
20. František Vnuk, Dr. Jozef Tiso, President of the Slovak Republic, in Commemoration of the Twentieth Anniversary of his Death at the Hands of the Enemies of Slovak Independence (Sydney: The Association of Australian Slovaks, Orbis Publishing, 1967), 34.
21. Ward, ‘The Trial of Jozef Tiso’.
22. Ward, ‘The Trial of Jozef Tiso’. On the decision about broadcasts, see Abrams, ‘The Politics of Retribution’, 267, quoting Joseph Mikus, Slovakia: A Political History (Milwaukee, WI: Marquette, 1963), 176.
23. Pravda, Bratislava, 4 March 1947; quoted in Vnuk, Dr Jozef Tiso, 37 n. 2.
24. Tiso’s speech is printed in German as Die Wahrheit über die Slowakei, ed. Jon Sekera (1948). The paragraphs which follow are a short summary of that long speech.
25. Tiso, Die Wahrheit über die Slowakei, 44.
26. Tiso, Die Wahrheit über die Slowakei, 48.
27. James Mace Ward, ‘People Who Deserve it: Jozef Tiso and the Presidential Exemption’, Nationalities Papers, vol. 30, no. 4 (December 2002), 571–601.
28. James Ramon Felak, ‘The Democratic Party and the Execution of Jozef Tiso’, Slovakia, vol. 38, nos 70–71(2005).
29. Abrams, ‘The Politics of Retribution’, 267.
30. On this, see Felak, ‘The Democratic Party and the Execution of Jozef Tiso’, n. 5.
31. Abrams, ‘The Politics of Retribution’, 273.
32. Felak, ‘The Democratic Party and the Execution of Jozef Tiso’.
33. Abrams, ‘The Politics of Retribution’, 274.
34. Quoted in Frommer, National Cleansing, 323.
35. Ward, ‘The Trial of Jozef Tiso’.
36. Radio Slovakia International German Service, Nachrichten, 13 April 2007.
Chapter 10: People’s Justice in Liberated Hungary
1. Karl P. Benziger, ‘The Trial of László Bárdossy. The Second World War and Factional Politics in Contemporary Hungary’, Journal of Contemporary History, vol. 40, no. 3 (2005), 472.
2. Margit Szöllösi-Janze, ‘Pfeilkreuzler, Landesverräter und andere Volksfeinde, Generalabrechnung in Ungarn’, in Klaus-Dietmar Henke and Hans Wolle (eds), Politische Säuberung in Europa (Munich: Deutscher Taschenbuch Verlag, 1991), 320 n. 17.
3. István Déak, ‘Retribution or Revenge: War Crimes Trials in Post World War II Hungary’, in Hungary and the Holocaust: Confrontation with the Past, symposium proceedings (Washington, DC: United States Holocaust Memorial Museum, Center for Advanced Holocaust Studies, 2001), 37–8.
4. The decree is quoted in Eugene (Jenö) Lévai, ‘The War Crimes Trials Relating to Hungary’, in Randolph L. Braham (ed.), Hungarian-Jewish Studies (New York: World Federation of Hungarian Jews, 1969), 260–1.
5. Szöllösi-Janze, ‘Pfeilkreuzler, Landesverräter und andere Volksfeinde’, 326. ← 305 | 306 →
6. Nemzetgyülési Napló (Diaries of the Temporary National Assembly), Eighth Session, 13 September 1945; quoted in Anna Wessely, ‘Overcoming the Fascist Legacy in Hungary’, in Stein Ugelvik Larsen (ed.), Modern Europe after Fascism (New York: Columbia University Press, 1998), 992.
7. Déak, ‘Retribution or Revenge’.
8. Lázlo Karsai, ‘Crime and Punishment: People’s Courts, Revolutionary Legality and the Hungarian Holocaust’, www.sipa.columbia.edu. Karsai quotes Major’s memoirs, Népbíráskodás, forradalmi törvényesség (‘People’s justice, revolutionary legality’) (Budapest: Minerva K., 1988), and a TV documentary from 1984, In the Name of the Hungarian People.
9. Robert H. Jackson, report to the president, 6 June 1945.
10. László Karsai, ‘The People’s Courts and Revolutionary Justice in Hungary, 1945–46’, in István Déak, Jan T. Gross, and Tody Judt (eds), The Politics of Retribution in Europe: World War II and its Aftermath (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2000) 237, quoting Major, Népbíráskodás, 147.
11. ICTY Appeals Chamber, Prosecutor v. Duško Tadić, Judgement, 15 July 1999, para. 121.
12. ICTY Annual Report, 29 August 1994, para. 72.
13. Quoted in Lévai, ‘The War Crimes Trials Relating to Hungary’, 256.
14. István Ries, ‘A népbíróság védelmében’, in Népbírósági Közlöny, 8 November 1945; quoted in Karsai, ‘People’s Courts’, 245.
15. Karsai, ‘People’s Courts’, 235, quoting the Documents of the National Council of the People’s Courts.
16. Karsai, ‘People’s Courts’.
17. The indictment and Bárdossy’s defence speech are published in Pál Pritz, The War Crimes Trial of Hungarian Prime Minister László Bárdossy (Boulder, CO: Center for Hungarian Studies and Publications, 2004), 77–81. See also Benziger, ‘The Trial of László Bárdossy’, 471.
18. Repr. in Pritz, War Crimes Trial, 81–116.
19. Repr. in Pritz, War Crimes Trial, 116–59.
20. Pritz, War Crimes Trial, 159.
21. Karsai, ‘People’s Courts’, 239.
22. Szöllösi-Janze, ‘Pfeilkreuzler, Landesverräter und andere Volksfeinde’, 311–12 esp. n. 3.
23. See The Trial of Dragoljub-Draža Mihailović: Stenographic Record and Documents from the Trial of Dragoljub-Draža Mihailović (Belgrade: Union of the Journalists’ Associations of the Federative Republic of Yugoslavia, 1946).
24. Stéphane Courtois, Le livre noir du communisme (Paris: Robert Laffont, 1997), 435.
25. Cardinal Mindszenty, Memoirs (London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1974), 127.
26. Time Magazine, 18 July 1949, www.time.com. ← 306 | 307 →
Chapter 11: From Mass Execution to Amnesty and Pardon: Postwar Trials in Bulgaria, Finland, and Greece
1. I take this phrase from Vesselin Dimitrov, Stalin’s Cold War: Soviet Foreign Policy, Democracy and Communism in Bulgaria, 1941–48 (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2007), ch. 3.
2. Nikolai Poppetrov, ‘Defascification in Bulgaria from 1944 to 1948: Real Dimensions and the Functions of Propaganda’, in Stein Ugelvik Larsen (ed.), Modern Europe after Fascism (New York: Columbia University Press, 1998), 797.
3. Quoted in Dimitrov, Stalin’s Cold War, ch. 3 n. 40.
4. Dimitrov, Stalin’s Cold War, ch. 3.
5. The terms of the sentence no. 2 of 1945, dated 1 February 1945, is quoted by the 1996 ruling of the Bulgarian Supreme Court overturning it; see Vrkhoven Sud na RB, Biuletin, Sudebna praktika, vol. 9 (1996, Year XII), 7–11 (Sofia: Vurkhoven sud, 1991–6), court ruling no. 243, dated 12 April 1996.
6. Cyril E. Black, ‘The Start of the Cold War in Bulgaria: a Personal View’, Review of Politics, vol. 41, no. 2 (April 1979), 174. Black seems to have got the numbers of the defendants slightly wrong.
7. Stéphane Courtois, Le Livre noir du communisme (Paris: Robert Laffont, 1997), 430.
8. Courtois, Le Livre noir du communisme, 436.
9. The letter is reproduced in French translation in Tzvetan Todorov, La Fragilité du bien: le sauvetage des juifs bulgares (Paris: Albin Michel, 1999), 96–9.
10. Supreme Court of the Republic of Bulgaria, court ruling no. 243, dated 12 April 1996 (see n. 5 above).
11. Bulgarian Telegraph Agency, 26 August 1996.
12. See the excellent article by Klaus Reichel, ‘An Hitlers Seite’, Die Zeit, 2 March 2006.
13. Reichel, ‘An Hitlers Seite’.
14. Lesse Lehtinen and Hannu Rautkallio, Kansakunnan sijaiskärsijät (Helsinki: WSOY), 2005).
15. Daniele Glaser, Nato’s Secret Armies: Operation Gladio and Terrorism in Western Europe (London and New York: Frank Cass, 2005), 213–14.
16. C. M. Woodhouse, The Struggle for Greece, 1944–1949 (London: Hart-Davis MacGibbon, 1976), 147.
17. Mark Mazower, After the War Was Over: Reconstructing the Family, Nation and State in Greece, 1943–1960 (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2000), 35.
18. I am grateful to Takis Nitis for looking.
Chapter 12: Politics as conspiracy: the Tokyo trials
1. Official Transcript of the Proceedings of the International Military Tribunal for the Far East, 29 April 1946–12 November 1948, 21.
2. B. V. A. Röling and C. F. Rüter (eds), The Tokyo Judgement (Amsterdam: APA-Amsterdam University Press), 1977. ← 307 | 308 →
3. R. John Pritchard (ed.), The Tokyo Major War Crimes Trial (Lewiston and, New York: Edwin Mellen Press, 1998), 124 vols.
4. Maurice Hankey devotes an entire chapter to Shigemitsu in Politics, Trials and Errors (Oxford: Pen-in-Hand, 1950).
5. Douglas MacArthur, Reminiscences (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1964), 288.
6. Kirsten Sellars, The Rise and Rise of Human Rights (Stroud: Sutton Publishing, 2002), 55.
7. Richard H. Minear, Victors’ Justice: The Tokyo War Crimes Trial (Tokyo: Charles E. Tuttle Company, 1971), 88–9.
8. Barton J. Bernstein, ‘The Atomic Bombs Reconsidered’, Foreign Affairs, January/February 1995; quoted in Sellars, The Rise and Rise of Human Rights, 48.
9. Minear, Victors’ Justice, 53.
10. Sellars, The Rise and Rise of Human Rights, 51.
11. Sellars, The Rise and Rise of Human Rights, 52.
12. Commission on the Responsibility of the Authors of the War and on the Enforcement of Penalties, Report Presented to the Preliminary Peace Conference, 29 March 1919.
13. Pritchard, The Tokyo Major War Crimes Trial, General Preface, xxxv.
14. Francis B. Sayre, ‘Criminal Conspiracy’, Harvard Law Review, 35 (1922), 393–427.
15. Minear, Victors’ Justice, 156–8.
16. Henri Bernard, ‘Dissenting Opinion’, in Pritchard (ed.), The Tokyo Major War Crimes Trial, vol. 105, 18 & 20.
17. Antonio Cassese, ‘Introduction’ to B. V. A. Röling, The Tokyo Trial and Beyond: Reflections of a Peacemonger, ed. A. Cassese (Cambridge: Polity Press, 1993), 81.
18. Cassese, ‘Introduction’, 87.
19. Minear, Victors’ Justice, 89–90 & 141.
20. Bernard, ‘Dissenting Opinion’, 20–1.
21. Bernard, ‘Dissenting Opinion’, 21.
22. Bernard, ‘Dissenting Opinion’, 19.
23. Radhabinod Pal, International Military Tribunal for the Far East: Dissentient Judgment (Calcutta: Sanyal & Co., 1953).
24. Pal, Dissentient Judgment, 17.
25. Pal, Dissentient Judgment, 59.
26. Robert H. Jackson, report to the president, 6 June 1945.
27. Pal, Dissentient Judgment, 114–15.
28. Pritchard, The Tokyo Major War Crimes Trial, General Preface, li.
29. Sellars, The Rise and Rise of Human Rights, 54.
30. Pal, Dissentient Judgment, 620.
31. Minear, Victors’ Justice, 92–3.
32. Joseph Keenan and Brendan Francis Brown, Crimes Against International Law (Washington, DC: Public Affairs Press, 1950), 155.
33. Keenan and Brown, Crimes Against International Law, 156 & 157, emphasis added. ← 308 | 309 →
Chapter 13: The Yassıada Trial, the Greek Colonels, Emperor Bokassa and the Argentine generals: Transitional justice 1960–2007
1. Walter F. Weiker, The Turkish Revolution 1960–1961, (Washington DC: The Brookings Institution, 1963), p. 28.
2. Weiker, p. 33.
3. C. M. Woodhouse, The Rise and Fall of the Greek Colonels (New York: Franklin Watts, 1985), 31; quoting Richard Clogg’s essay in Richard Clogg and George Yannopoulos, Greece Under Military Rule (London: Secker & Warburg, 1972).
4. On Gladio, see Daniele Glaser, Nato’s Secret Armies: Operation Gladio and Terrorism in Western Europe (London and New York: Frank Cass, 2005); on Greece, see ch. 16.
5. Quoted in Brian Titley, Dark Age: The Political Odyssey of Emperor Bokassa (Montreal: McGill-Queens University Press, 1997), 157, to whom I am indebted for the account of this trial and of Bokassa’s trial in person in 1986. Titley’s source for this quotation is Bokassa’s Ma vérité, 95–6, who in turn was quoting an article by Jacques-Marie Bourget published in the French weekly magazine, VSD (December 1980), to show how absurd the charges were. Bokassa’s book was banned by the French courts in 1985, on the grounds that it violated the privacy of the former president, Valéry Giscard d’Estaing, and most copies were destroyed.
6. See Human Rights Watch report, Bolivia: The Trial of Responsibilities, The García Meza Tejada Trial, 10 September 1993.
7. Carlos Santiago Nino, Radical Evil on Trial (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1996), 72. I am indebted to Nino for the account which follows.
Chapter 14: Revolution Returns: the Trial of Nicolae Ceauşescu
1. See e.g. Krishan Kumar, ‘The Revolutions of 1989: Socialism, Capitalism, and Democracy’, Theory and Society, vol. 21, no. 3 (June 1992), 309–56.
2. Kurt Hager (member of the Central Committee of the Socialist Unity Party), interview, Stern, 28 March 1987.
3. Austrian agency, Kathpress; quoted in Radu Portocala, Autopsie du coup d’état roumain, au pays du mensonge triomphant (Paris: Calmann-Lévy, 1990), 59.
4. International Herald Tribune, 19 December 1989.
5. Philip Knightley, The First Casualty: The War Correspondent as Hero and Myth-Maker from the Crimea to Kosovo (1st edn 1975; London: Prion Books, 2000), 86.
6. Transcripts of the Politburo meeting of 17 December 1989; quoted in Portocala, Autopsie, 43.
7. Victor Loupan, La révolution n’a pas eu lieu: Roumanie, l’histoire d’un coup d’État (Paris: Robert Laffont, 1990), 92.
8. Portocala, Autopsie, 67.
9. The text of the speech is given in Portocala, Autopsie, 74–6.
10. Quoted in Loupan, La revolution n’a pas eu lieu, 25.
11. For the quotations from Braude and Kaznacheyev, see Arkady Vaksberg, The Prosecutor and the Prey: Vyshinsky and the 1930s Moscow Show Trials (London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1990), 96–7. ← 309 | 310 →
Chapter 15: A State on Trial: Erich Honecker in Moabit
1. Case concerning the Arrest Warrant of 11 April 2000 (Democratic Republic of Congo v. Belgium), Judgement, 14 February 2000; see esp. para. 60.
2. Vertrag zwischen der Bundesrepublik Deutschland und der Deutschen Demokratischen Republik über die Herstellung der Einheit Deutschlands (Kapitel IX, Anlage I Kapitel III C II Sachgebiet C – Strafrecht und Ordnungswidrigkeitenrecht).
3. Horst Sendler, ‘Über Rechtsstaat, Unrechtsstaat und anderes’, Neue Justiz, no. 9 (1991), 379–81.
4. Roman Grafe, Deutsche Gerechtigkeit: Prozess gegen DDR-Grenzschützen und ihre Befehlshaber (Munich: Siedler Verlag, 2004).
5. St Augustine, De libero arbitrio, I, 5; St Thomas Aquinas, Treatise on Law, question 96, article 4 (Summa theologiae, Prima Secundae Partis).
6. Gustav Radbruch, Rechtsphilosophie (3rd edn, Leipzig: Quelle & Meyer, 1932), 32; quoted in Uwe Wesel, Ein Staat vor Gericht: Der Honecker-Prozess (Frankfurt: Eichborn, 1994), 39. I am greatly indebted to Wesel for his excellent account of the trial.
7. Wesel, Ein Staat vor Gericht, 40.
8. A. James McAdams, ‘The Honecker Trial: The East German Past and the German Future’, Review of Politics, vol. 58, no. 1 (winter 1996). See also McAdams, Judging the Past in Unified Germany (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001), 35–41.
9. Transcript in Wesel, Ein Staat vor Gericht, 64–83.
10. This extraordinary episode is recounted in Wesel, Ein Staat vor Gericht, 95–7.
Chapter 16: Jean Kambanda, Convicted without Trial
1. Paul Belien, A Throne in Brussels: Britain, the Saxe-Coburgs and the Belgianisation of Europe (Exeter: Imprint Academic, 2005), 295.
2. Amnesty International Report, ‘The Grenada 17: The Last Cold War Prisoners?’, 2003 (AI Index: AMR 32/001/2003).
3. Amnesty International, Public Statement, 1 June 2007 (AI Index: AFR 34/005/2007 (Public)), ‘The trial of Charles Taylor must be made relevant to Sierra Leoneans and Liberians’. See also Human Rights Watch, 31 May 2007, www.hrw.org.
4. Report of the Secretary-General Pursuant to Paragraph 2 of Security Council Resolution 808 (1993), presented 3 May 1993 (S/25704), para. 19. See also ch. 4 of my book Travesty: the Trial of Slobodan Milošević and the Corruption of International Justice (London: Pluto Press, 2007).
5. Final Report of the Commission of Experts Established Pursuant to Security Council Resolution 935 (1994), UNSC, UN Doc. S/1994/1405 (1994), Annex.
6. Letter from Filip Reyntjens to Hassan B. Jallow, Office of the Prosecutor, ICTR, 11 January 2005. The author wishes to thank Professor Reyntjens for giving him a copy of this letter. See also Filip Reyntjens, ‘Rwanda, Ten ← 310 | 311 → Years on: from Genocide to Dictatorship’, African Affairs, vol. 103, no. 411, 177–210.
7. Prosecutor v. Édouard Karemera, Mathieu Ngirumpatse, Joseph Nzirorera, Case No. ICTR-98-44-AR73(C), Decision on Prosecutor’s Interlocutory Appeal of Decision on Judicial Notice, Appeals Chamber Decision, 16 June 2006.
8. Alex Obote-Odora, ‘Conspiracy to Commit Genocide: Prosecutor v. Jean Kambanda and Prosecutor v. Alfred Musema’, Murdoch University Electronic Journal of Law, vol. 8, no. 1 (March 2001), para. 39.
9. ICTR press release, 20 June 2006, ‘ICTR Appeals Chamber takes Judicial Notice of Genocide in Rwanda’.
10. ‘Rwanda “plane crash probe halted”’, Mark Doyle, BBC News, 9 February 2007.
11. Délivrance de Mandats d’arret internationaux, Tribunal de Grande Instance de Paris, Cabinet de Jean-Louis Brugière, Premier Vice-President, Paris, 17 November 2006.
12. ‘Rwanda breaks diplomatic relations with France’, Associated Press, International Herald Tribune, 24 November 2006.
13. On these procedural shortcomings, see my book Travesty, ch. 5.
14. The Prosecutor v. Jean-Paul Akayesu, Case No. ICTR-96-4-T, Judgement, 2 September 1998, paras 130–44.
15. Statement from Dr Agwu U. Okali, Registrar of the ICTR, Concerning the Case of Mr Esdras Twagirimana, 20 September 1997.
16. The Prosecutor v. Jean Kambanda, Case No. ICTR 97-23-S, para. 39.
17. The letter is quoted by www.hirondelle.org.
18. ICTY Prosecutor v. Dražen Erdemović, 5 March 1998.
19. Kelly Ranasinghe, ‘The Sacrifice of Jean Kambanda’, Chicago-Kent Journal of International and Comparative Law, vol. 5 (spring 2005), 32.
20. Jean Kambanda, Déclaration, signed at Bamako on 23 September 2003, submitted to the ICTR on 31 May 2006 as Document ID32 (Ndindiliyimana). The author is grateful to Chris Black for sending him this document.
21. Testimony in trial of Bagosora et. al., Case No. ICTR-98-41-T, 11 July 2006.
Chapter 17: Kosovo and the New World Order: the Trial of Slobodan Milošević
1. Judgement, 30 September 1945; quoted in Telford Taylor, The Anatomy of the Nuremberg Trials (New York: Knopf and Little, Brown, 1992), 575.
2. SHAPE (Supreme Headquarters Allied Powers Europe), News Summary and Analysis, 12 May 1999.
3. Václav Havel, ‘Kosovo and the End of the Nation-State’, New York Review of Books, 10 June 1999.
4. Tony Blair, ‘Doctrine of the International Community’, speech, Chicago, 22 April 1999.
5. See for instance David Scheffer, later Bill Clinton’s ambassador for war crimes, ‘Toward a Modern Doctrine of Humanitarian Intervention’, University of Toledo Law Review, 23 (winter 1992). ← 311 | 312 →
6. In 2007 he boasted of ‘liberal interventionism’ as the thing of which he was most proud (interview in the Guardian, 26 April 2007).
7. ‘Interim Agreement for Peace and Self-Government in Kosovo’, Rambouillet, February 23, 1999, Appendix B: Status of Multi-National Military Implementation Force.
8. This revisionist version of history has proved stubbornly popular. It was peddled, for instance, in the Independent on 11 December 2007, which had in a chronology: ‘1998: Serbs crack down on the separatist Kosovo Liberation Army (KLA), and hundreds of thousands of Albanian Kosovans begin to flee across the border. This prompts Nato to warn Milošević on the treatment of Albanians.’ In fact, there were no refugees until after the bombing started in March 1999.
9. Tony Blair, ‘My pledge to the refugees’, BBC News Online, 14 May 1999.
10. Fox News, 18 April 1999. See also ‘U.S. fears 100,000 Kosovar men slain’, Detroit News wire service, 19 April 1999.
11. CBS News, Face the Nation, 16 May 1999.
12. Noel Malcolm, ‘Yes, there were mass killings’, Spectator, 4 December 1999, 25.
13. ‘No bodies at rumoured grave site in Kosovo’, Reuters, 13 October 1999. Kelly Moore, a spokesperson for the ICTY, said after ICTY investigators had examined Trepča, ‘They found absolutely nothing.’ See my book Travesty: the Trial of Slobodan Milošević and the Corruption of International Justice (London: Pluto Press, 2007), ch. 1.
14. John Laughland, ‘The Massacres that Never Were’, Spectator, 30 October 1999, and ‘I was Right about Kosovo’, Spectator, 20 November 1999. Other journalists who wrote about this include Daniel Pearl, the Wall Street Journal reporter who in 2002 was decapitated on video by Islamist extremists in Pakistan. See Daniel Pearl and Robert Block, ‘Body Count: War in Kosovo was Cruel, Bitter, Savage: Genocide it Wasn’t. Tales of Mass Atrocity Arose and Were Passed Along, Often With Little Proof, No Corpses in Mine Shaft’, Wall Street Journal, 31 December 1999.
15. See for example Xavier Raufer, ‘Albanian Organised Crime’, Geopolitical Affairs, vol. I, no. 2 (summer 2007), The Long March to the West, eds Michel Korinman and John Laughland (London and Portland, Oregon: Vallentine Mitchell Academic, 2007), 395–404.
16. Trial transcript, 24 November 2004, 33, 849.
17. In December 1999 I personally interviewed a Serb witness in Peć, near the Montenegrin border, who had seen such an operation.
18. This hypothesis was discussed in the Milošević trial and in that of his coindictee, Milan Milutinović. See testimony of Patrick Ball in Milošević trial, 13–14 March 2002 and cross-examination of Ball in the Milutinović trial, 21 February 2007; transcripts available on www.un.org/icty. For other evidence, see Eve-Ann Prentice, One Woman’s War: Life and Death on Deadline (London: Duckworth, 2000), 113; also the German TV documentary, Es began mit einer Lüge (‘It began with a lie’) broadcast on ARB on 8 February 2001, transcript available at: http://www.wdr.de/online/news/kosovoluege/sendung_text.pdf. ← 312 | 313 → See also the discovery of Serb police uniforms in a KLA arms cache, reported by Agence France Presse on 3 December 1999, ‘Illegal arms cache found in homes of Kosovo Corps members’.
19. Jonathan Steele, ‘KLA Player Longs to Retire from World Stage’, Guardian, 30 June 1999.
20. Tony Allen-Mills, ‘Truth Chokes on the Fog of War’, Sunday Times, 28 March 1999.
21. Scheffer was speaking at the International Conference on the Trial of Slobodan Milošević, National University of Ireland in Galway on 29–30 April 2006.
22. See Laughland, Travesty, 26–7.
23. ICTY press briefing, 21 April 1999.
24. Press conference given by NATO spokesman Jamie Shea and SHAPE spokesman Major General Walter Jertz, NATO HQ, Brussels, 16 May 1999, www.nato.int/kosovo.
25. Press conference given by NATO spokesman Jamie Shea and SHAPE spokesman Major General Walter Jertz, NATO HQ, Brussels, 17 May 1999, www.nato.int/kosovo.
26. Milošević trial, 24 January 2005, transcript, 35550–1, emphasis added.
27. Remarks at the US Supreme Court, 5 April 1999; see ICTY Press Release Archive, www.un.org/icty.
28. On the illegality of the Kosovo war, see Professor Ian Brownlie, QC, Kosovo Crisis Inquiry: Memorandum on the International Law Aspects, 6 October 1999, and UK Parliament Foreign Affairs Select Committee, Report, 23 May 2000; Antonio Cassese, ‘Ex iniuria ius oritur: Are we Moving towards International Legitimation of Forcible Humanitarian Countermeasures in the World Community?’, European Journal of International Law, 10 (1999), 23–30; International Commission on Kosovo, The Kosovo Report, 1 October 2000.
29. Lawrence Eagleburger, ‘The Need to Respond to War Crimes in the Former Yugoslavia’, speech, 28 December 1992.
30. Lawrence Eagleburger, opening statement from a news conference, Geneva, en route to Brussels, 17 December 1992.
31. Anson Laytner, Arguing with God: a Jewish Tradition (Northvale, NJ and London: Jason Aronson, 1990); Louis I. Newman, The Hasidic Anthology: Tales and Teachings of the Hasidim (New York and London: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1934), 56–9, ‘Controversy with God’, esp. ‘1. A Judgement for the Rabbi’ and ‘10. A Trial with God’; Elizabeth A. Wood, Performing Justice: Agitation Trials in early Soviet Russia (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2005).
32. See Paul R. Williams and Michael P. Scharf, Peace with Justice? War Crimes and Accountability in the Former Yugoslavia (Lanham, MD and Oxford: Rowman & Littlefield, 2002), passim.
33. Lord Carrington, the then EU envoy for Bosnia, has testified in private correspondence that the United States government sent a telegram to Alija Izetbegović in 1992 advising him to rescind his signature on the Cutileiro ← 313 | 314 → agreement. So has Cutileiro himself: see his letter to the Economist, 9–15 December 1995.
34. See Robert M. Hayden, Blueprint for a House Divided: the Constitutional Logic of the Yugoslav Conflicts (Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press, 2000), ch. 5.
35. On Bosnia see David Chandler, Bosnia: Faking Democracy after Dayton (London: Pluto Press, 1999).
36. On the events of 5 October 2000, see my paper, ‘The Technique of the Coup d’État’, on www.sandersresearch.com; ‘Anatomie einer Revolution, Zoran Djindjić im Gespräch mit Paul Lendvai’, Europäische Rundschau, 2001/4, pp. 3–20; Dragan Bujošević and Ivan Radovanović, October 5: a 24-hour coup (Belgrade: Media Center, 2000); Michael Dobbs, ‘U.S. Advice Guided Milošević Opposition; Political Consultants Helped Yugoslav Opposition Topple Authoritarian Leader’, Washington Post, 11 December 2000; and Tim Marshall, Shadowplay (Belgrade: Samizdat B92, 2003).
37. On joint criminal enterprise, see the excellent paper by Allison M. Danner and Jenny S. Martinez, ‘Guilty Associations: Joint Criminal Enterprise, Command Responsibility and the Development of International Criminal Law’, California Law Review, vol. 93 (2005).
38. On joint criminal enterprise generally, see my book Travesty, ch. 6.
39. Prosecutor v. Brdjanin, Appeals Chamber Decision on Interlocutory Appeal, 19 March 2004, para. 7.
40. Kvočka, Appeals Chamber Judgement, 28 February 2005, para. 99.
41. Trial Chamber Decision on Motion for Acquittal, 16 June 2004, para. 291.
42. Prosecution’s Motion for Joinder, 27 November 2001, para. 13.
43. Trial transcript, 12 February 2002, 30–1; quoted in my Travesty, 138–9.
44. Tanić testified on 14 and 15 May 2002, and on 15 May 2002 Dušan Mihajlović denounced him; see Beta Press Agency report, 15 May 2002. A video of Mihajlović’s statement was played in court on 21 May 2002. For the text of his intervention, see Milošević Trial transcript, 21 May 2002, 5170.
45. Trial transcript, 6 September 2002, 9806.
46. Germinal Civikov, Der Milošević-Prozess: Bericht eines Beobachters (Vienna: Pro Media, 2006), 69–70. This book is an excellent account of the trial.
47. Trial transcript, 9 January 2003, 14605.
48. Trial transcript, 6 June 2002, 6365.
49. Trial transcript, 6 June 2002, 6386–7.
50. On all this, see the excellent account in Civikov, Der Milošević-Prozess, 89–99.
51. See ch. 7 of my book Travesty.
52. On all this, see ch. 9 of my book Travesty.
53. ‘Milošević given wrong medicine’, by Cees Banning and Petra de Koning, NRC Handelsblad, 23 November 2002.
54. Itar-Tass, 15 March 2006. ← 314 | 315 →
Chapter 18: Regime change and the trial of Saddam Hussein
1. On American millenarianism and its influence on politics, see Ernest Lee Tuveson, Redeemer Nation: the Idea of America’s Millennial Role (Chicago, Ill.: University of Chicago Press, 1968).
2. Claes G. Ryn, America the Virtuous: The Crisis of Democracy and the Quest for Empire (New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Publishers, 2003).
3. Richard Perle and David Frum, An End to Evil: How to Win the War on Terror (New York: Random House, 2003), 9.
4. See ‘President Bush Discusses Freedom in Iraq and Middle East’, remarks to the National Endowment of Democracy, 6 November 2003.
5. ‘President Discusses War on Terror at Fort Hood’, 12 April 2005; also remarks to the National Endowment of Democracy, 6 November 2003; both available on www.whitehouse.gov.
6. Jules Lobel and Michael Ratner, ‘Bypassing the Security Council: Ambiguous Authorizations to Use Force, Cease-Fires and the Iraqi Inspection Regime’, American Journal of International Law, 124 (1999).
7. See the excellent analysis of the legal situation in Michael Mandel, How America Gets Away with Murder (London: Pluto Press, 2004), ch. 1.
8. ‘President Says Saddam Hussein Must Leave Iraq Within 48 Hours’, remarks by the president in address to the nation, The Cross Hall, 8:01 p.m. EST, 17 March 2003, Office of the Press Secretary, The White House, www.whitehouse.gov.
9. Prime minister’s address to the nation, 20 March 2003, http://www.number-10.gov.uk.
10. Hansard, House of Commons, 25 February 2003.
11. Jean S. Pictet (ed.), Commentary to the (IV) Geneva Convention Relative to the Protection of Civilian Persons in the Time of War (1958), 336, emphasis added. This is the official commentary to the Geneva Convention, published alongside the Convention itself on www.icrc.org/ihl.
12. James Bone, ‘US Builds Case against Iraq’, The Times, 29 March 2002.
13. See for instance anon., ‘Overthrowing Saddam “just the first step”’, Sydney Morning Herald (quoting Boston Globe and Washington Post), 11 September 2002.
14. Ron Suskind, The Price of Loyalty: George W. Bush, the White House and the Education of Paul O’Neill (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2004). The agenda of the National Security Council meeting of 1 February 2001 is published on the internet as part of ‘The Bush Files’ from Paul O’Neill’s archive on Ron Suskind’s web page, http://thepriceofloyalty.ronsuskind.com/thebushfiles.
15. Suskind, The Price of Loyalty, 85, emphasis added.
16. See the National Security Archive posted on www.gwu.edu.
17. The Future of Iraq Project, Transitional Justice Working Group, United States Department of State, March 2003.
18. CPA, Regulation No. 1, Section I (2). ← 315 | 316 →
19. Section II B 2 a (Institutional reform, the Judiciary), 21, said, ‘The following steps are proposed after a regime change: 1. Abolishing all special courts …
20. M. R. Kropka, ‘International court’s Canadian president says court can’t try Saddam’, Canadian Press, 7 November 2005.
21. Nicholas Kraley, ‘U.S. Denies Interference in Saddam’s Trial’, Washington Times, 2 July 2004.
22. ‘Cairo Dismayed as “primitive” Saddam Death’, Guardian, 5 January 2007.
23. ‘United States Dual-Use Exports to Iraq and Their Impact on the Health of the Persian Gulf Veterans’, hearing before the Committee on Banking, Housing and Urban Affairs, United States Senate, 103rd Congress, 25 May 1994.
24. ‘Ten Lessons from the Saddam Trial’, generated from the 7 October 2006 Cleveland Experts Meeting chaired by Michael Scharf, co-rapporteurs: Gregory McNeal, Christopher Rassi, and Brianne Draffin, http://www.law.case.edu/saddamtrial/index.asp.
25. Sadakat Kadri, ‘They’d Do Better Sticking Saddam’s Head on a Pole’, Guardian, 4 April 2006.
26. Said K. Aburish, Saddam Hussein: The Politics of Revenge London: Bloomsbury, 2000), 58.
27. Aburish, Saddam Hussein, 82.
28. See the transcripts of the opening day quoted in Guardian, 20 October 2005.
29. ‘Saddam on hunger strike after lawyer killed’, Associated Press, 21 June 2006.
30. Ramsey Clark and Curtis F. J. Doebbler, ‘The Iraqi Special Tribunal, A Corruption of Justice’, Partnership for Civil Justice, September 2006, part 2, 32 & 67.
31. Human Rights Watch, The Poisoned Chalice: A Human Rights Watch Briefing Paper on the Decision of the Iraqi High Tribunal in the Dujail Case, June 2007, 15.
32. For a fascinating account of how Barzan al-Tikriti was the intermediary who helped broker an agreement between President Mitterrand and Saddam Hussein which would have avoided the first Gulf War of 1991, see Marc Boureau d’Argonne, Irak: guerre ou assassinat programmé. La France pouvait-elle empêcher la guerre du golfe? (Paris: F.-X. de Guibert, 2002).
33. Guardian, 6 November 2006.
34. Human Rights Watch, The Poisoned Chalice.
35. John Laughland, ‘We will not Surrender’, Spectator, 21 September 2002.
36. The author is grateful to Ramsey Clark, former American attorney general and a member of Saddam Hussein’s Defence team, for this information.
37. President Bush’s statement on execution of Saddam Hussein, 29 December 2006, www.whitehouse.gov.
38. Text published in e.g. Daily Telegraph, Sydney, 30 December 2006.
Chapter 19: The Trial of Charles Taylor
1. Article 48.2 of the Rome Treaty establishing the International Criminal Court accords the judges, prosecutors and registrars (but not the Defence) ‘immunity from legal process of any kind’; Article 30 of the Statute of the ← 316 | 317 → International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia, and Article 28 of the Statute of the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda invoke for their respective judges, prosecutors and registrars the 1946 Convention on the Privileges and Immunities of the United Nations, whose Section 18 accords ‘immunity from legal process’ to UN officials; Articles 12 and 13 of the Agreement between the United Nations and the Government of Sierra Leone on the Establishment of a Special Court for Sierra Leone provides ‘immunity from legal process’. Like the other Courts, the SCSL also invokes the classical rules of international law on diplomatic immunity for its personnel even though diplomatic immunity is but a subset of that sovereign immunity which these same courts deny to heads of state.
2. Special Court for Sierra Leone, Outreach and Public Affairs Office: ‘Charles Taylor convicted on all 11 counts, Sentencing scheduled for 30 May,’ 26 April 2012.
3. Two versions of what Sow said have circulated on the Internet. This one is taken from Professor William Schabas’ blog dated 28 April 2012. ‘Judge Sow’s struck statement & reflections on the Taylor judgment & the SCSL’s legacies,’ by Jennifer Easterday and Sarah Kendall, IntLawGrrls blog, 28 April 2012. Another version of Sow’s speech puts the word ‘serious’ before ‘deliberations’ (‘no serious deliberations’) but this blog says that the version it has used was that typed into the transcription programme by the court stenographers while Sow was speaking. A member of Taylor’s defence team copied and saved the text for fear that it would be suppressed from the Court record, which indeed it was.
4. Separate Opinion of Judge George Gelaga King, 13 September 2012.
5. ‘Justice Sow: “Charles Taylor Should Have Walked Free”’, New Africa Magazine, 14 December 2012.
6. See the entry for her on the ICJ web site (http://www.icj-cij.org/court/?p1=1&p2=2&p3=1&judge=194, captured 9 April 2015)
7. Sow did not name him but the President of the Court at this stage was the Sierra Leonean Jon Kamanda. A member of the London bar, Kamanda had had a career in both law and politics. He was elected to the Sierra Leone Parliament in 1982 and was appointed Deputy Minister of Mineral Resources. In 1985 he was made the country’s Minister of Health. From 1987–92 he served as Deputy Managing Director of the National Diamond Mining Company. Diamonds were at the centre of the allegations against Charles Taylor.
8. Adam Robert Green, ‘Western interests undermined integrity of Charles Taylor trial: Interview with Courtenay Griffiths QC,’ This is Africa, 28 May 2012.
9. Professor William Schabas, Foreword to The Sierra Leone Special Court and Its Legacy, The Impact for Africa and International Criminal Law edited by Charles Chernor Jalloh, Cambridge University Press, 2014, pp. xxvi–xxvii.
10. ‘Additionally, the dedicated and professional staff of the House International Relations Committee was very effective in sustaining political and financial backing for the Office of the Prosecutor throughout my tenure in Freetown.’ David Crane testimony to US Congress House Subcommittee on Africa, ← 317 | 318 → Global Human Rights and International Operations, 8 February 2006, footnote 3.
11. David Scheffer, All the Missing Souls, A Personal History of the War Crimes Tribunals (Princeton University Press, 2012) p. 35.
12. Special Court for Sierra Leone, Trial Chamber II, Trial Transcript, 16 May 2012 (Sentencing Hearing), p. 49728.
13. The Prosecutors were: David M Crane, United States (2002–2005); Desmond de Silva QC, United Kingdom (2005–2006), Christopher Staker, an Australian practising in London (2006); Stephen Rapp, United States (2007–2009); Joseph Kamara (Acting Prosecutor 2009–2010); Brenda Hollis, United States (from 2010).
14. Robert Messenger, ‘Judge Lussick an Aussie Kid’, Sydney Morning Herald, 31 May 2012. Born in Sydney, Lussick has never lived in Samoa. Lussick’s mother was from Samoa, when it was under the control of New Zealand. He started to work for the Samoan Attorney General when he was 46, having spent his whole life and career in Australia until then.
15. On Tuesday 9th March 2004, following an appeal lodged by the Defence calling for Robertson’s dismissal from the Court, the Appeals Justices ruled that he had until 9a.m. the following Friday (13th March) to indicate whether he would withdraw from hearing three cases involving the RUF, a rebel group which he had declared to be criminal in his book. The judges said that if he did not withdraw, they would proceed to a ruling. (Press Release, 9 March 2004.) You can read their press statement here: Since Robertson did not withdraw, they did rule, on Friday 13th March, that he should not hear the three cases. You can read that ruling here (Press Release, 13 March 2004). The key sentence stated, ‘Consequently, the Court directed that Justice Robertson should not participate in any cases in the Appeals Chamber involving members of the RUF.’ On 14th March 2004, a plenary meeting was held which amended Rule 18 of the Court’s Rules of Procedure. The Court’s press statement of 16th March made it clear that the effect of this amendment was ‘that the Presiding Judge of the Appeals Chamber [the President of the Court] shall be elected for a non-renewable term of one year.’ The press statement went on, ‘As a result of this amendment, Justice Geoffrey Robertson QC has now completed his term of office as Presiding Judge of the Appeals Chamber and President of the Court.’ In other words, Robertson’s term came to an end only because the relevant amendment was voted the day after he was dismissed from the three cases.
16. Executive Order 13213, 22 May 2001, Federal Register, Vol. 66, No. 101, p. 28829.
17. ‘Pro-Taylor Elements Still a Force to be Reckoned With’, cable dated 10 March 2010, Canonical ID: 09MONROVIA188_a, available on wikileaks.org.
18. Prosecutor Crane Testimony to US Congress House Subcommittee on Africa, Global Human Rights and International Operations, 8 February 2006, p. 152.
19. ibid., footnote 10.
20. Kai Ambos and Ousman Njikam, Charles Taylor’s Criminal Responsibility, Journal of International Criminal Justice 11 (2013), pp. 790 and 812, emphasis added. ← 318 | 319 →
21. Charles Chernor Jalloh, The Trial of President Charles Taylor, FIU Legal Studies Research Paper Series, Research Paper No. 14–28, November 2014, p. 25.
22. Opening statement of Prosecutor Stephen Rapp, Special Court for Sierra Leone, 4 June 2007.
23. William Scahabas, Charles Taylor Judgment Suggests a More Modest Level of Participation in the Sierra Leone Conflict, http://humanrightsdoctorate.blogspot.fr, 28 April 2012.
24. Kai Ambos and Ousman Njikam, Charles Taylor’s Criminal Responsibility in Journal of International Criminal Justice 11 (2013), p. 801.
25. ibid.
26. Ambos and Njikam, p. 804.
27. See my article, Lies of the Vigilantes, in The Guardian, 28 February 2007, www.theguardian.com.
28. Alex Tovaric, Spy row pits US against Serbs, The Observer, 17 March 2002.
29. Ambos & Njikam, p. 808.
30. Kevin Jon Heller, The Taylor Sentencing Judgement, A Critical Analysis, Journal of International Criminal Justice, 11 (2013), p. 841.
31. Taylor Sentencing Judgement, 30 May 2012, paragraphs 97–103.
32. Heller, op. cit., p. 850.
33. Charles was imprisoned at Anderson Palace in Newcastle-upon-Tyne from 13th May 1646 until 3rd February 1647. The palace no longer stands but there is a plaque to commemorate Charles’ imprisonment on Market Street West in Newcastle.
Chapter 20: The Punishment Ethic in International Relations
1. See on this the excellent documentary video produced by Julien Teil, La guerre humanitaire, available on Youtube in English and French.
2. See ‘Prosecutor’s Application Pursuant to Article 58 as to Muammar Mohammed Abu Minyar Gaddafi, Saif Al-Islam Gaddafi and Abdullah AL-Senussi’, 16 May 2011, document reference ICC-01/11, page 17, section E entitled ‘Summary of the Evidence’ contains only one word, ‘Redacted’ (repeated six times).
3. Commission des affaires étrangères, mardi 8 mars 2011, séance de 16 h 45, compte rendu n° 41, Audition de M. François Gouyette, ambassadeur de France en Libye, sur les événements en Libye. www.assemblee-nationale.fr.
4. See the excellent analysis of this resolution made by Professor Hans Köchler of the International Progress Organisation. ‘“ALL NECESSARY MEANS” United Nations vs. Libyan Arab Jamahiriya: Humanitarian Intervention or Colonial War?,’ Vienna, 28 March 2011, reference P/RE/22682c-is, available on <http://www.i-p-o.org>.
5. Alain Juppé, Europe 1, 21 October 2011.
6. ‘“They are bombing us and women and children are dying,” said an elderly woman, wrapping her shroud to hide her face … Rebel fighters manning rows of rocket launchers said they knew they were fighting civilians, but that ← 319 | 320 → Sirte’s residents had “chosen to die”.’ Ruth Sherlock, ‘Libya: exodus from Sirte as thousands flee rebel offensive,’ The Daily Telegraph 29 September 2011.
7. ‘Former Ivory Coast president Laurent Gbagbo has been captured by fighters backing the country’s internationally recognized president. He was captured at the presidential residence after U.N. and French attack helicopters fired rockets into the compound Monday morning.’ See ‘Ivory Coast’s Gbagbo Captured at Presidential Compound,’ Voice of America News, 10 April 2011.
8. See my speech ‘Non-interventionism, the forgotten doctrine,’ to the Rhodes Foum Dialogue of Civilisations, September 2014, and also the excellent work on this done by Patrik Johansson, for instance in his paper ‘The Humdrum Use of Ultimate Authority The Increased Resort to Chapter VII by the UN Security Council in the post-Cold War Era,’ Nordic Journal of International Law 2009 (volume 78, issue 3).
9. Amal Clooney, ‘Release Mohamed Nasheed – an innocent man and the Maldives’ great hope,’ The Guardian, 30 April 2015.
10. Witness intimidation was widely discussed in the ICTY Appeals Chamber ruling of 19 July 2010 and it was the reason why the Court ordered a re-trial of Haradinaj and his co-defendants, who had been acquitted in 2008.
11. See the Council of Europe Parliamentary Assembly report ‘The protection of witnesses as a cornerstone for justice and reconciliation in the Balkans,’ 21 June 2010
12. Sir Edward Grey, Correspondence No. 5, Sir Edward Grey to Sir Maurice de Bunsen (British ambassador in Vienna), 24 July 1914.
13. Graf Berchthold to Herr von Mérey, Austrian ambassador to Italy, 22 July 1914.
14. Quoted by Radhabinod Pal in his Dissentient Judgement at Tokyo, p. 620.
15. See Philip Knightley, The First Casualty, The War Correspondent as Hero and Myth-Maker from the Crimea to Kosovo (London: Prion Books, 2000). See also Otto von Stülpnagel, Die Wahrheit über die deutschen Kriegsverbrechen (Berlin: Staatspolitischer Verlag, 1921).
16. Jörg Fisch, Krieg und Frieden im Friedensvertrag (pp. 92–97); Randall Lesaffer, Peace Treaties and International Law in European History: From the Late Middle Ages to World War One (Cambridge University Press, 2004).
17. Lesaffer, Peace Treaties and International law op. cit.
18. Nicolas Offenstadt, Faire la paix au Moyen-Age (Paris: Odile Jacob, 2005), p. 55.
19. Quoted by Offenstadt, p. 52, translation by JL.
20. Offenstadt, p. 53
21. René Girard, Je vois Satan tomber comme l’éclair, Paris: Grasset, 1999.
22. Offenstadt, p. 57.
23. Heinhard Steiger, Peace Treaties From Paris to Versailles, in Randall Lesaffer, Peace Treaties and International Law, op. cit., p. 84.
24. Hugo Grotius, The Law of War and Peace (1625), Book 3, Chapter 20, XV.
25. Emmerich de Vattel, The Law of Nations (1758) Book IV Chapter 2, pars 20, 21.
26. For the original texts and various contemporary translations, see <http://www.pax-westphalica.de>. ← 320 | 321 →
27. Randall C. H. Lesaffer, ‘A Schoolmaster Abolishing Homework? Vattel on Peacemaking and Peace Treaties’, in V. Chetail and P. Haggenmacher (eds), Vattel’s International Law from a XXIst Century Perspective (Leiden: Brill, 2011), pp. 353–84.
28. Lesaffer, Peace Treaties and International law, his own chapter entitled Peace Treaties from Lodi to Westphalia.
29. See The Lost Art of Peace, the talk I gave at a thematic debate at the General Assembly of the United Nations on 10 April 2013. <http://www.idc-europe.org>.
30. Martti Koskenniemi, The Gentle Civilizer of Nations, The Rise and Fall of International Law, 1870–1960 (Cambridge University Press, 2001). The Kennan quote, from American Diplomacy (University of Chicago Press, 1984) pp. 53–55 is the book’s epigraph on page v.
31. Final Act of the Second Peace Conference, The Hague, 18 October 1907.
32. I discuss Marx’s relationship to the free market in The European Union, A Marxist Utopia? The Monist, Vol. 92; No. 2, April 2009.
33. Adam Zamoyski, Holy Madness: Romantics, Patriots and Revolutionaries, 1776–1871 (London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson 1999).
34. For a superb analysis of how globalists welcomed the rise of communication, trade and international law in the second half of the 19th century, see Armand Mattelart, Histoire de l’Utopie planétaire, De la Cité prophétique à la société globale (Paris: Editions La Découverte, 1999), especially Chapters 6 and 7.
35. Camille Delessert, Documents du Congrès postal de Washington 1897, p. 724. Quoted in Léonard Laborie, L’Europe mise en réseaux, La France et la coopération internationale dans les postes et les télécommunications, années 1850 – années 1950 (Brussels: Peter Lang, 2010), p. 152.
36. Koskenniemi, p. 41
37. Johann Caspar Bluntschli, Arische Völker und arische Rechte in „Gesammelte kleine Schriften (2 vols., Nördligen: Beck, 1879), I, p. 66; quoted in Koskenniemi, p. 103.
38. Ingo Hueck, German International Lawyers and Hague Conferences in Randall Lesaffer, Peace Treaties and International Law, op. cit., (Cambridge University Press, 2004) p. 263.
39. Koskiennemi, p. 12.
40. Kirsten Sellars, The Rise and Rise of Human Rights, (Stroud, UK: Sutton Publishing, 2002); Jeffrey N. Wasserstrom, Lynn Hunt and Marilyn B. Young, eds, Human Rights and Revolutions (Lanham, MD: Rowland & Littlefield, 2000) and.
41. Carl Schmitt, Politische Theologie, Vier Kapitel zur Lehre von der Souveränität, (Berlin: Duncker & Humblot, Fünfte Auflage, 1990) p. 49.
42. Remarks by the President to mark the 20th anniversary of the National Endowment for Democracy, 6 November 2003, emphasis added.
43. Woodrow Wilson, speech At Oakland, 18th September 1919, see Ernst Lee Tuveson, Redeemer Nation: The Idea of America’s Millennial Role, University of Chicago Press, 1968, p. 211.
44. http://www.wfm-igp.org/site/files/Montreux%20Declaration.pdf ← 321 | 322 →
45. A. V. Dicey, Introduction to the Study of the Law of the Constitution, (first published 1885), Chapter IV.
46. François Tricaut, L’Accusation: Recherche sur les figures de l’agression ethique, Dalloz, Paris, 1977, reprinted 2001.
Conclusion
1. A. V. Dicey, Introduction to the Study of the Law of the Constitution (first published London: Macmillan, 1885), ch. 4.
2. Stephen Neff, War and the Law of Nations: A General History (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2005), 13.
3. François Tricaut, L’Accusation: recherche sur les figures de l’agression ethique (Paris: Dalloz, 1977; repr. 2001).
4. Carl Schmitt, Politische Theologie (1922; 5th edn, Berlin: Duncker & Humblot, 1990), 11.