When the Sabbath was over, Mary Magdalene, Mary the mother of James, and Salome bought spices so that they might go to anoint Jesus’ body (16:1). It was customary to check a tomb before three days to make sure that the person was dead. “After the Sabbath” explains why the women do not come to the tomb sooner; they do not want to violate the Sabbath.
Anointing a body with aromatic oils neutralized the smell from its decomposition, and sometimes anointing the body was repeated. Gundry contends that Jews customarily used oil, not aromatics, and argues that the burial of a king was the exception (see 2 Chron. 16:14; Song 4:10).418 The dignity of anointing Jesus’ body with spices is an attempt to remove the disgrace of the crucifixion for the Son of God, who deserves no less than a king. The women may have judged that what Joseph did was insufficient.
Who will roll the stone away from the entrance of the tomb? (16:3). Stones required some force to move them back along the sloped groove. The entrance would have been small and one needed to stoop to enter, but the inner court would have been high enough for one to stand.
As they entered the tomb, they saw a young man dressed in a white robe sitting on the right side (16:5). The white robe is the characteristic dress of heavenly beings.419 Angels were not pictured with wings. Only the seraphim had wings, and they numbered six (Isa. 6:2). Cherubim had animal and human features, but the Bible describes angels as quite human-like.420 In 2 Maccabees 3:26, angels are described as “two young men … remarkably strong, gloriously beautiful and splendidly dressed.” Josephus describes the angel who appears to Manoah’s wife (Judg. 13:13) “as being in the likeness of a beautiful youth.”421
Don’t be alarmed (16:6). Angels typically urge those to whom they appear not to be afraid or amazed.422
They said nothing to anyone, because they were afraid (16:8). The earliest and most reliable texts conclude Mark’s gospel at 16:8. This abrupt ending has caused consternation for many, however. How could a Gospel end on a note of apparent failure and with no resurrection appearances? Two other existing endings to Mark’s Gospel testify to early dissatisfaction or an uneasiness with this finale. (1) A shorter ending, extant in only a handful of later manuscripts, is clearly a subsequent attempt to tie up the loose ends. The phrase “the sacred and imperishable proclamation of eternal salvation” plainly derives from the church’s language of a later era.
(2) A better-attested longer ending (16:9–20), recording three appearances of Jesus and his ascension, contains vocabulary and style that differ noticeably from that found in the rest of Mark. The transition from verse 8 to verse 9 is rough, suddenly switching to Jesus’ appearing to Mary Magdalene and completely ignoring the other two women. Mary Magdalene was introduced in 15:40, 47 and 16:1 without any further description, but she now is identified as the one out of whom Jesus cast out seven demons (see Luke 8:2). Careful analysis points to a later scribe in the second century reworking accounts from the other Gospels or oral traditions to compose a more reassuring ending for Mark.
Speculations about a lost ending or suggestions that Mark somehow may have failed to complete his Gospel are not helpful. Mark may have felt no need to relate resurrection appearances already familiar to his readers. The Gospel begins as abruptly as it ends, and it is more likely that Mark intends this suspenseful ending to provoke a reaction in the reader. The reader knows the disciples eventually reunite with Jesus in story time if not in the plotted time of the Gospel; otherwise, this Gospel would never have been written. Paul says he reminded the Corinthians that he related these events to them as of first importance (1 Cor. 15:3–5). The word of Jesus’ resurrection has clearly been made public. The repetition of Jesus’ prediction that they will meet him in Galilee (Mark 16:7; cf. 14:28) also guarantees that these things do come to pass, because the other predictions he made in the Passion Narrative were fulfilled to the letter.
Since Mark does not narrate how this reunion occurs, the reader can only conclude that God overrode human fear, failure, and disobedience to accomplish it—as God always does. One must infer that success does not depend on the heroism of individual believers, whose flesh is weak and whose spirit is not always willing, but on the power of God.
France, R. T. Divine Government: God’s Kingship in the Gospel of Mark. London: SPCK, 1990.
A compelling overview of a key theme in Mark.
Garland, David E. Mark. NIVAC. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1996.
A commentary that combines analysis of the original meaning of the text with discussion of how to bridge the contexts to our world and make contemporary application.
Geddert, Timothy J. Watchwords: Mark 13 in Markan Eschatology. JSNTSup 26. Sheffield: JSOT, 1989.
A brilliantly conceived dissertation that is not only readable but offers keen insights into the text of Mark.
Gundry, Robert H. Mark: A Commentary on His Apology for the Cross. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1993.
A carefully argued commentary with extensive interaction with the technical scholarship on Mark.
Hooker, Morna D. The Gospel According to Saint Mark. BNTC. Peabody, Mass.: Hendrickson, 1991.
A more popular commentary by an astute interpreter of Mark.
Juel, Donald. A Master of Surprise. Philadelphia: Fortress, 1994.
An excellent overview of the Gospel.
Lane, William L. Commentary on the Gospel of Mark. NICNT. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1974.
One of the classic commentaries on Mark that has stood well the test of time.
Schweizer, Eduard. The Good News According to Mark. Richmond, Va.: John Knox, 1970.
A scintillating treatment of Mark by a renown biblical scholar.
1. See also Col. 4:10; Philem. 24; 1 Peter 5:13.
2. Tacitus, Hist.1.2–3.
3. Joel Marcus, The Way of the Lord: Christological Exegesis of the Old Testament in the Gospel of Mark (Louisville: Westminster/John Knox, 1992), 76.
4. See Gen. 6:2; Job 1:6; 2:1; 38:7; Ps. 82:6; Dan. 3:25.
5. See Ex. 4:22–23; Deut. 1:31; 14:1; 32:5–6; Jer. 31:9, 20; Hos. 11:1; see also Wisd. Sol. 18:13; Jub. 1:24–25; T. Mos. 10:3; Pss. Sol. 17:27; 18:4; Sib. Or. 3:702.
6. See Wisd. Sol. 2:18; Sir. 4:10; compare Matt. 5:9.
7. Jos. Asen. 6:3, 5; 13:10; 21:3; 23:10.
8. 2 Sam. 7:14; Ps. 2:7; cf. 89:26–27.
9. See 4 Ezra 7:28–29; 13:32, 37, 52; 14:9; 4QFlor 1:11–13; 1Qsa 2:11–12; 1 En. 105:2; see also b. Sukkah 52a. Later Judaism would have expunged such usage because of Christian use of the title for Jesus.
10. Adolf Deissmann, Light from the Ancient East (1922; reprint, Grand Rapids: Baker, 1978), 295.
11. Robert H. Gundry, Mark: A Commentary on His Apology for the Cross (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1993), 34.
12. Mark characteristically fuses Scripture, see 1:11 (Isa. 42:1/Ps. 2:7); 11:1–11 (Zech. 9:9/Ps. 118:25–26); 11:17 (Isa. 56:7/Jer. 7:11); 12:1–12 (Isa. 5:1–2/Ps. 118:22–23); 13:24–26 (Isa. 13:10/34:4/Ezek. 32:7–8/Joel 2:10); 14:62 (Dan. 7:13/Ps. 110:1).
13. Marcus, The Way of the Lord, 20.
14. Ex. 2:15; 1 Sam. 23:14; 1 Kings 19:3–4.
15. See 2 Macc. 5:27; Philo, Decalogue 1.2.
16. 1QS 8:13–14.
17. b. Ker. 9a; 81a; b. Yebam. 46a; see 1 Cor. 10:2.
18. Ezek. 36:25–27; see also Isa. 4:3–4; Zech. 13:1; 1QS 4:20–21.
19. m. Miqw. 8:5; 9:1.
20. Josephus, Ant. 18.5.2 § 117.
21. 2 Kings 1:8; see Zech. 13:4.
22. Gustav Dalman, Sacred Sites and Ways, trans. Paul P. Levortoff (New York: Macmillan, 1935), 84.
23. Josephus, J.W. 4.8.3 § 469.
24. Mekilta Nezikin 1 to Ex. 21:2; Mekilta de-Rabbi Ishmael trans. Jacob Z. Lauterbach (Philadelphia: Jewish Publications Society of America, 1935), 3:5–6.
25. See Ezek. 1:1; 3; John 1:51; Acts 7:56; Rev. 4:1; 11:19; 19:11.
26. Josephus, Ant. 20.5.1 §97.
27. b. Ḥag. 15a.
28. F. E. Greenspahn, “Why Prophesy Ceased,” JBL 108 (1989): 37–49.
29. y. Soṭah 13:2.
31. See 4 Ezra 4:36–37; 9:5; 11:44; 2 Bar. 40:3.
32. Charles R. Page II, Jesus and the Land (Nashville: Abingdon, 1995), 73.
33. Mendel Nun, The Sea of Galilee and Its Fishermen in the New Testament (Tiberias: En Gev, 1989); John J. Rousseau and Rami Arav, Jesus and His World: An Archaeological and Cultural Dictionary (Minneapolis: Fortress, 1995), 94; K. C. Hanson, “The Galilean Fishing Economy and the Jesus Tradition,” BTB 27 (1997): 105.
34. Jer. 16:14–16; Ezek. 29:4; 32:3; Amos 4:2; Hab. 1:14–17.
35. Jos. Asen. 21:21.
36. James F. Strange and Hershel Shanks, “Synagogue Where Jesus Preached Found at Capernaum,” BAR 9 (1983): 24–31.
37. Daniel K. Falk, “Jewish Prayer Literature and the Jerusalem Church in Acts,” in The Book of Acts in Its First Century Setting; vol. 4 of Palestinian Setting, ed. Richard Bauckham (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1995), 282.
38. Sherman E. Johnson, Jesus and His Towns (GNS 29; Wilmington Del.: Michael Glazier, 1989), 69.
39. G. B. Caird, New Testament Theology, ed. L. D. Hurst (Oxford: Clarendon, 1994), 109.
40. William L. Lane, Commentary on the Gospel of Mark (NICNT; Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1974), 74, citing O. Bauernfeind, Die Worte der Dämonen in Markusevangelium (Stuttgart, 1927).
41. m. Demai 3:6.
42. See John Granger Cook, “In Defense of Ambiguity: Is There a Hidden Demon in Mark 1.29–31?” NTS 43 (1997): 184–208.
43. b. Ned. 41a.
44. Bargil Pixner, With Jesus through Galilee According to the Fifth Gospel (Collegeville: Liturgical, 1992), 34.
45. m. Neg. 1:1.
46. m. Neg. 3:1; 4:7–10; t. Meg. 1:1.
47. Lev. 13:45–52; Num. 5:2–4.
48. The interpretations of the rabbis argued that one became defiled by a leper by passing under a tree where a leper was standing (m. Neg. 13:7; b. Ber. 25a), entering a leprous house (b. Ber. 41a), or being in a house which a leper entered (m. Neg. 13:11; m. Kel. 1:4).
49. m. Neg. 13:12; t. Neg. 7:11.
50. Lev. Rab. 16:3.
51. M. Wojciechowski, “The Touching of the Leper (Mark 1, 40–45) as a Historical and Symbolic Act of Jesus,” BZ 33 (1989): 114–119.
52. Morna D. Hooker, The Gospel According to Saint Mark (BNTC; Peabody, Mass.: Hendrickson, 1991), 79.
53. Rousseau and Arav, Jesus and His World, 340.
54. 4Q242.
55. b. Ned. 41a.
56. b. Meg. 17b.
57. See the paralysis of Alcimus in 1 Macc. 9:55, and of Ptolemy IV Philopator in 3 Macc. 2:21–23.
58. See Isa. 33:24; Jer. 31:34; and Mic. 7:18.
59. 2 Sam. 12:13; Isa. 6:7; 43:25; 44:22.
60. 1 Sam. 16:7; 1 Chron. 28:9; Ps. 139:1–2, 6, 23; Jer. 11:20; 17:9–10; Acts 1:24.
61. m. Ned. 3:4.
62. Plutarch, On Curiosity 518E.
63. Josephus, J.W. 2.14.4 § 287; 2.14.5 § 292.
64. See Acts 16:34; Jos. Asen. 20:8.
65. John Riches, Jesus and the Transformation of Judaism (New York: Seabury, 1982), 105.
66. See, e.g., Ps. 1:1, “Blessed is the man who does not walk in the counsel of the wicked or stand in the way of sinners or sit in the seat of mockers.”
67. Mekilta Amalek 3 to Ex. 18:1.
68. Gundry, Mark, 129.
69. Lev. 16:29, 31; 23:27, 32; Num. 29:7.
70. 1 Sam. 31:13; 2 Sam. 1:12; 3:35; 12:21; 1 Kings 21:27; Est. 4:3; Ps. 35:13–14; 69:10; Isa. 58:5; Jonah 3:5.
71. Isa. 62:5; Ezek. 16:7–14; see Isa. 54:4–8.
72. m. Šabb. 7:2.
73. See Judith 8:6; Jub. 50:2; m. Taʿan. 1:6.
74. Ps. 137:5; Zech. 11:17.
75. CD 11:10; m. Šabb. 14:3–4; t. Šabb. 12:8–14.
76. t. Šabb. 16:22; b. Šabb. 12a.
77. m. Yoma 8:6; Mekilta Shabbata 1 to Ex. 31:12.
78. Josephus, Ant. 15.10.4–5 §§ 371–79.
79. Otto Betz, “Jesus and the Temple Scroll,” Jesus and the Dead Sea Scrolls, ed. J. H. Charlesworth (New York: Doubleday, 1992), 76–78.
80. Num. 1:1–19, 44; see also Gen. 49:28.
81. See Gen. 17:5, 15; 32:28.
82. Chrys C. Caragounis, Peter and the Rock (BZNW 58; Berlin/New York: Walter de Gruyter, 1990), 12, 15.
83. b. Sanh. 43a. See also b. Soṭa 47a; 107b; t. Šabb. 11:15; John 7:20; 8:48, 52; 10:20.
84. Num. 15:30–31; 1 Sam. 3:14; Isa. 22:14.
85. Alan Hugh McNeile, The Gospel According to St. Matthew (London: Macmillan, 1915), 179.
86. C. E. B. Cranfield, The Gospel According to St. Mark (CGTC; Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1966), 159.
87. R. T. France, Divine Government: God’s Kingship in the Gospel of Mark (London: SPCK, 1990), 30.
88. Seneca, Mor. Ep. 38.2; 73.16; Quintilian, 5.11.24; Burton L. Mack and Vernon K. Robbins, Patterns of Persuasion in the Gospels (Sonoma: Polebridge, 1989), 156.
89. Mack and Robbins, Patterns of Persuasion in the Gospels, 156.
91. See Ezek. 36:9; Hos. 10:11–12; Jub. 11:11.
92. K. D. White, “The Parable of the Sower,” JTS 15 (1964): 304.
93. Pliny, Nat. Hist. 18.21.94–95. Varro said seed in Syria could yield a hundred fold (On Agriculture 2.9.5–6).
94. John H. Martin, Warren H. Leonard, and David L. Stamp, Principles of Field Crop Production (New York: Macmillan, 1976), 436.
95. Strabo, Geogr. (SBL 261) 15.3.11.
96. Job 15:8; Ps. 25:14; Prov. 3:32; Amos 3:7.
97. 1QS 5:11.
98. See Jub. 11:5–24; b. Sanh. 107a.
99. Jer. 25:10; Matt. 25:1–13; Rev. 18:22–23.
100. b. Ber. 40a.
101. m. Nidda 5:2; m. Nazir 1:5; m. Tohar. 8:8.
102. Claus-Hunno Hunzinger,“σίναπι,” TDNT, 7.289.
103. Charles E. Carlston, The Parables of the Triple Tradition (Philadelphia: Fortress, 1975), 162.
104. Pliny, Nat. Hist. 19:170–71.
105. Gundry, Mark, 267.
106. See Ps. 104:12, 16–17.
107. 1 En. 90:30, 33, 37; Midr. Ps. 104:10.
108. 1QH 6:14–17; 8:4–8.
109. Luke 5:1; “Sea of Kinnereth,” Num. 34:11; Josh. 12:3; 13:27.
110. Pixner, Galilee, 89. See Josephus, J.W. 3.10.7 § 515.
111. Shelley Wachsmann, The Sea of Galilee Boat: An Extraordinary 200 Year Old Discovery (New York: Plenum, 1995), 349; Hanson, “The Galilean Fishing Economy,” 106.
112. Rousseau and Arav, Jesus and His World, 246.
113. Page, Jesus and the Land, 183, n. 30.
114. See also Ps. 69:1–2; 89:9–10; 104:7.
115. See also Ps. 104:7; 106:9; Isa. 50:2; Nah. 1:4.
116. Ps. 3:5; 4:8; 46:1–3; Prov. 3:23–26.
117. See Job 30:6; Heb. 11:38; b. Ber. 3b; b. Šabb. 67a; b. Git. 70a; b. Sanh. 65b.
118. Cf. Str-B 1.491–92.
119. T. Sol. 5:1–13; 13:1–17. See PGM 1.160–61 for asking a demon to divulge its name: “What is your divine name? Reveal it to me ungrudgingly, so that I may call upon it.”
120. Matt. 12:43; Luke 11:24; see also Tobit 8:3.
121. 1 Macc. 1:62–64; 2 Macc 6:18–7:42.
122. Josephus, J.W. 3.7.31 § 289.
123. Pliny, Nat. Hist. 7.64.
124. Noted by Jacob Milgrom, Leviticus 1–16 (AB; New York: Doubleday, 1991), 948.
125. Josephus reports that the temple was closed to women during their menstruation (J.W. 5.5.6 § 227; Ag. Ap. 2.8 §§103–4).
126. See 2 Chron. 16:12; Job 13:4; Jer. 46:11; 51:8; and Philo, Sacrifices 70–71.
127. t. B. Bat. 10:6.
128. m. Qidd. 4:14.
129. b. Pesaḥ. 113a.
130. b. Šabb. 110a.
131. John P. Meier, A Marginal Jew: Rethinking the Historical Jesus (New York: Doubleday, 1991), 1.785.
132. An inscription shows that Nazareth was spelled with the Hebrew letter tzade (Pixner, Galilee, 15).
133. Jos. Asen. 6:10.
134. Meier, A Marginal Jew, 1.281.
135. Origen, Contra Celsum 6.36.
136. Richard Bauckham, “The Brothers and Sisters of Jesus: An Epiphanian Response to John P. Meier,” CBQ 56 (1994): 698–700.
137. Josephus also refers to James as “the brother of Jesus” (Ant. 20.9.1 § 200).
138. Num. 35:30; Deut. 17:6; 19:15; 2 Cor. 13:1; 1 Tim. 5:19.
139. André Parrott, Land of Christ: Archaeology, History, Geography (Philadelphia: Fortress, 1968), 48–49.
140. See also Ex. 12:11; Ezek. 20:37; 37:15–28.
141. m. ʾOhal. 2:3; m. Ṭehar. 4:5.
142. Philo, Dreams 2.58.
143. Josephus, Ant. 18.5.2 § 119.
144. Josephus, J.W. 7.6.2 §§ 171–77.
145. Josephus, Ant. 18.5.1 §§ 109–15.
146. Ibid., 18.5.2 §118.
147. Compare the story of the pledge of the emperor Gaius to Agrippa (Josephus Ant. 18.8.7 §§ 289–304).
148. Vincent Taylor, The Gospel According to St Mark (London: Macmillan, 1966), 311.
149. m. ʿAbod. Zar. 1:3.
150. The story of another dancing girl appears in Josephus, Ant. 12.5.6 §§186–89.
151. The dimensions of a loaf according to m. Peʾah 8:7. It probably looked somewhat like modern pita bread.
152. See Ex. 18:21, 25 (officers over thousands, hundreds, fifties, and tens); 1QS 2:21–22; 1QSa 1:14–15, 27–2:1; 2:11–22; 1QM 4:1–5:16; CD 13:1.
153. Josephus, Life §§ 398–406.
154. Josephus, Ant. 18.2.1 § 28; but see idem J.W. 2.9.1 § 168, which seems to connect it to the wife of Augustus, Livia (given the name Julia after her death in 29 B.C.), instead of his daughter, who had been discredited. Her third marriage in 11 B.C. to Tiberius, the stepson of Augustus, ended in estrangement; and her father exiled her for her adulteries in 2 B.C. On this issue, see Fred Strickert, Bethsaida: Home of the Apostles (Collegeville, Minn.: Liturgical, 1998), 91–107.
155. Ibid., 41–45.
156. Job 9:8; 38:8–11; Prov. 8:29; Isa. 43:16; 51:10; Hab. 3:15; Sir. 24:5–6.
157. See Ex. 33:19–23; 34:5–6; 1 Kings 19:11; Job 9:8, 11 (see LXX; “He walks upon the waves of the sea… If he goes by me, I will not see him, and if he passes by me, I will not recognize him”); Dan 12:1 (LXX) describing the glory of the Lord passing by; Amos 7:8; 8:22.
158. Ex. 3:14; Deut. 32:39; Isa. 41:2–14; 43:1–13 (cf. v. 2, “When you pass through the waters I will be with you”); 44:1–5; 46:4; 48:12; 51:9–16; 52:6.
159. b. B. Bat. 73a; cited by Lane, Mark, 237.
160. Josephus, J.W. 3.10.7–8 §§506, 516–21.
161. Yigael Yadin, Bar-Kokhba (London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1978), 81–85.
162. Deut. 12:15, 22; 15:22.
163. Lev. 15:7; 16:26, 28; 17:15–16; 22:1–7.
164. Josephus, J.W. 2.8.5 § 129.
165. Let. of Aris. 305–6.
166. b. Ber. 60b.
167. m. ʾAbot 1:1–2.
168. Josephus, J.W. 2.8.10 § 150.
169. See b. Ber. 47b.
170. See Prov. 28:24; 1 Tim. 5:4.
171. b. Qidd. 31b.
172. Josephus considers it to be a distinctive Jewish oath, see Ant. 4.4.4 § 73; Ag. Ap. 1.166–67.
173. m. Ned. 5:6.
174. m. Makš. 6:7; t. Miqw. 7:8.
175. y. Pesaḥ. 7:11.
176. According to Sifra Mes. Zab. 1:12–13.
177. See Josephus J.W. 2.8.9 §§ 148–49; 1QM 7:3–7; 11QT 46:15–16. See further the discussion in Harrington, Impurity Systems of Qumran, 100–103.
178. Josephus, Ag. Ap. 1.70. See also Isa. 23; Jer. 25:22; 27:3; 47:4; Ezek. 26–28; Joel 3:4; Amos 1:9; Zech. 9:2. In Matt. 11:21–24, Tyre and Sidon are equivalent to Sodom and Gomorrah.
179. Martin Hengel, Studies in the Gospel of Mark (London: SCM, 1985), 29.
180. Deut. 32:6; Isa. 1:2; Jer. 31:9; Hos. 11:1; Rom. 9:4.
181. m. ʾAbot. 3:15.
182. See 1 Sam. 17:43; 24:14; 2 Sam. 3:8; 9:8; 16:9; 2 Kings 8:13; Prov. 26:11; Eccl. 9:4; Isa. 56:10–11; m. Pesaḥ. 8:8.
183. b. Ḥag. 13a.
184. Jos. Asen. 10:13.
185. Gerd Theissen, The Gospels in Context: Social and Political History in the Synoptic Tradition (Minneapolis: Fortress, 1991), 61–80.
186. See Sean Freyne, Galilee: From Alexander the Great to Hadrian 323 BCE to 135 CE (Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark, 1980), 8, 117–21.
187. See Ezek. 26:1–27:36; Joel 3:4–21; Amos 1:9–10; Zech. 9:1–4.
188. Suetonius, Vespasian 8:7.
189. Juvenal, Sat. 3.14; 6.542.
190. Jeffrey B. Gibson, “Jesus’ Refusal to Produce a ‘Sign’ (Mark 8.11–13),” JSNT 38 (1990): 53.
191. Plutarch, Roman Questions 289F; see also Pliny, Nat. Hist. 18.26.
192. Pliny, Nat. Hist. 28.37.
193. Francis Watson, “Ambiguity in the Marcan Narrative,” KTR 10 (1987): 12.
194. Josephus, Ant. 15.10.3 § 364.
195. Ibid., 15.10.3 § 364; idem, J.W. 1.21.3 §§ 404–5.
196. Josephus, Ant. 18.2.1 § 28; J.W. 2.9.1 § 168.
197. Lane, Mark, 288.
198. Gen. 22:4; Hos. 6:2; cf. Jonah 2:1.
199. Lane, Mark, 296.
200. 1QS 2:13–14; 6:14–15; 10:12–13; 1QH 9:23.
201. Clarence E. Glad, “Frank Speech, Flattery, and Friendship in Philodemus,” in Friendship, Flattery and Frankness of Speech: Studies on Friendship in the New Testament World, ed. John T. Fitzgerald, (NovTSup 82; Leiden: Brill, 1996), 42.
202. Plutarch, Moralia 554A/B.
203. Dionysius of Halicarnassus, Roman Antiquities 7.69.1–2.
204. Josephus J.W. 4.1.8. §§ 54–61.
205. See Dan. 12:3; Matt. 13:43; Rev. 7:13–14; 1 En. 38:4; 58:3; 62:15–16; 104:2; 2 En. 22:8; 66:7; 2 Apoc. Bar. 51:1–3, 10, 12.
206. Randall E. Otto, “The Fear Motivation in Peter’s Offer to Build τρεῖς σκηνάς,” WTJ 59 (1997): 105.
207. Wayne A. Meeks, The Prophet-King: Moses Traditions and the Johannine Christology (Leiden: Brill, 1967), 124; Marcus, The Way of the Lord, 89.
208. Deut. Rab. 3:17.
209. Otto, “The Fear Motivation in Peter’s Offer,” 106.
210. Ibid., 104.
211. m. ʿEd. 8:7; m. Šeqal. 2:5; m. B. Mesi ʿa 1:8.
212. Justin Martyr, Dialogue With Rabbi Trypho 8.4; 49.1.
213. John J. Pilch, The Cultural World of Jesus (Collegeville: Liturgical, 1996), 30.
214. Josephus, J.W. 7.6.3 § 185.
215. Acts 13:2; 14:23; Did. 7; 8; Justin, Apology 61.
216. b. Nid. 13b.
217. Deut. 14:1; 1 Kings 18:28; Zech. 13:6.
218. 2 Chron. 28:3; 33:6; Jer. 7:31–32.
219. 2 Kings 2:21–22; Ezek. 16:4; 43:24.
220. Sib. Or. 2:252–55.
221. m. ʿArak. 5:6; see also m. Yebam. 14:1.
222. Josephus, Life § 427.
223. m. Ketub. 4:9.
224. m. Giṭ. 6:2.
225. b. Yebam. 63b.
226. Michael O. Wise, A Critical Study of the Temple Scroll from Cave 11 (Chicago: Oriental Institute of the Univ. of Chicago, 1990), 161–75. See 11Q Temple 57:11–19; CD 4:18–21.
227. Josephus, Ant. 15.7.10 § 259.
228. Ibid., 20.7.2 §§ 141–43.
229. Ibid., 18.5.4. § 136.
230. Malina and Rohrbaugh, Social-Science Commentary on the Synoptic Gospels, 243.
231. Ibid., 244.
232. Martin Hengel, Poverty and Riches in the Early Church (Philadelphia: Fortress, 1974), 8. See m. ʿArak. 8:4; b. Ketub. 50a; b. Ta‘an. 24a.
233. G. W. E. Nickelsburg, “Riches in 1 Enoch 92–95,” NTS 25 (1979): 327. See also Bruce J. Malina, “Wealth and Poverty in the New Testament,” Int 41 (1987): 361; The New Testament World: Insights from Cultural Anthropology (Atlanta: John Knox, 1981), 75–85. See also Sir. 13:3–4; 34:20–22.
234. See Jos. Asen. 10:11–13. On Asenath’s conversion, she threw all her goods out her palace window for the poor and the beggars.
235. b. Ber. 55b; b. B. Mesi ʿa 38b.
236. See P. S. Minear, “The Needle’s Eye: A Study in Form Criticism,” JBL 61 (1942): 157–69.
237. See Job 1:10; 42:10; Ps. 128:1–2; Isa. 3:10.
238. Tacitus, Hist. 2.59.
239. Ps. 75:8; Isa. 51:17, 22; Jer. 25:15, 28; 49:12.
240. Plato, Gorgias 491E.
241. Seneca, On Benefits 3.19.1.
242. Ex. 21:30; Lev. 25:51–52; Num. 18:15; 35:31–32; Isa. 35:10; 51:11.
243. Isa. 52:13–53:12 [esp. 53:10]; cf. 1 Tim. 2:5–6.
244. Malina and Rohrbaugh, Social-Science Commentary on the Synoptic Gospels, 246.
245. Lev. 21:18; 2 Sam. 5:8.
246. 1QSa 2:8–9.
247. Christopher D. Marshall, Faith as a Theme in Mark’s Narrative (SNTSMS 64; Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1989), 128.
248. See Ex. 22:26–27; Deut. 24:12–13.
249. See Num. 19:2; Deut. 21:3; 1 Sam. 6:7.
250. m. Sanh. 2:5.
251. b. Sanh. 98a.
252. Hanukkah; 1 Macc. 13:51; 2 Macc. 10:7; m. Sukkah 3:9.
253. Josephus, J.W. 2.17.8 § 434.
255. Kathleen and Leon Ritmeyer, “Reconstructing Herod’s Temple Mount in Jerusalem,” Archaeology in the World of Herod, Jesus, and Paul (Washington: Biblical Archaeology Society, 1990), 2:43–45.
256. Pliny, Nat. Hist. 16.49.
257. Isa. 28:3–4; Jer. 8:13; Hos. 9:16; Joel 1:7, 12; Mic. 7:1; Hab. 3:17–18.
258. Jostein Ådna, “The Attitude of Jesus to the Temple,” Mishkan 17–18 (1992–93): 68.
259. Josephus, Ant. 15.11.5 § 412.
260. Benjamin Mazar, “The Royal Stoa in the Southern Part of the Temple Mount,” in Recent Archaeology in the Land of Israel, ed. H. Shanks (Washington/Jerusalem: Biblical Archaeology Society, 1984), 141–47.
261. m. Šeqal. 1:3; 4:7–8.
262. t. Šeqal. 1:6.
263. m. Ker. 1:7.
264. Josephus, Ag. Ap. 2.8 §106.
265. m. Ber. 9:5.
266. 1 Sam. 1:1–28; 1 Kings 8:27–51; Dan. 6:10.
267. b. Ber. 32b.
268. Josephus, J.W. 6.5.3 §§ 300–309.
269. Meier, A Marginal Jew, 164.
270. 4Q500 (4QBenediction); J. M. Baumgarten, “4Q 500 and the Ancient Conception of the Lord’s Vineyard,” JJS 40 (1989): 1–6.
271. See S. R. Llewellyn, “The Lease Agreement and the Parable of the Wicked Tenants,” New Documents Illustrating Early Christianity (Sydney: Macquarie University, 1992): 88–107.
272. See 1 Kings 14:18; 15:29; 18:36; 2 Kings 9:36; 10:10; 14:25; Jer. 7:25; Dan. 9:6; Amos 3:7.
273. 2 Chron. 24:18–19; 36:15–16; Neh. 9:26.
274. 4Q Florilegium 1:11 on 2 Sam. 7:11; 1QSa 2:11–12 on Ps. 2:7.
275. Deut. 28:26; Jer. 7:33; 8:1; Ezek. 6:5; 29:5; 39:17; see Jer. 22:19, “He will have the burial of a donkey—dragged away and thrown outside the gates of Jerusalem.”
276. Josephus J.W. 2.8.1 § 118; idem Ant. 18.1.1 §§ 1–10.
277. P. C. Finney, “The Rabbi and the Coin Portrait (Mark 12:15b, 16): Rigorism Manqué,” JBL 112 (1993): 629–44.
278. b. ʿAbod. Zar. 54b.
279. See Acts 23:8; Josephus, Ant. 18.1.4 §§ 16–17; idem J.W. 2.8.14 §§ 164–65; b. Nid. 70b. A similar story in Qoh. Rab. 5.10 § 1 has a Samaritan (who also relied only on the Pentateuch) asking questions to ridicule belief in the resurrection.
280. See also Wisd. Sol. 2:1–5.
281. b. Mak. 23b.
282. b. Mak. 24a.
283. Ephraim E. Urbach, The Sages: Their Concepts and Beliefs (Jerusalem: Magnes, 1975), 1:343–65.
284. See Ex. 22:21–23; Deut. 10:17; 24:17; Isa. 1:17, 23; 10:1–4; Ezek. 22:7.
285. m. Šeqal. 6:5–6.
286. m. Šeqal. 6:6; t. Šeqal. 3:8.
287. Lev. Rab. 3.5.
288. Philo, Embassy 294–97.
289. Kathleen and Leon Ritmeyer, “Reconstructing Herod’s Temple,” 45, 48.
290. Josephus, J.W. 6.1.1 §§ 5–7.
291. Josephus, J.W. 6.5.4. § 312.
292. Ibid., 2.13.4 §§ 258–60.
293. See Dan. 9:27; 11:31; 12:11; see also 1 Macc. 1:54.
294. See Josephus; Ant. 18.8.2–9 §§ 257–309; Philo, Embassy; Tacitus History 5.9.
295. Josephus, J.W. 4.3.7 §§ 151–54; 4.3.10 § 162; 4.5.4 §§ 341–43.
296. Ibid., 6.6.1 § 316.
297. “Blessed is the one who reads … this” in Rev. 1:3 refers to the public reader.
298. Dan. 8:15–17; 9:22; see also Mark 11:23; 12:10; see Rev. 1:3.
299. Ernest Best, “The Gospel of Mark: Who is the Reader?” IBS 11 (1989): 129.
300. Eusebius, Eccl. Hist. 3.5.11, 32.
301. Josephus, J.W. 6.5.2 §§ 285–87.
302. Dio Chrysostom, Orations 66.6–2–3.
303. Josephus, J.W. 4.7.5 §§ 433–36.
304. Ibid., 4.4.5 §§ 286–87.
305. Ibid., 6.3.5 §§ 214–19.
306. Ibid., 6.5.1 § 276; 6.6.3 §§ 354–55.
307. Nahman Avigad, “The Burnt House Captures a Moment in Time,” in Archaeology in the World of Herod, Jesus, and Paul; vol. 2, ed. Hershel Shanks and Dan P. Cole (Washington: BAS, 1990), 96–104.
308. Josephus, J.W. 6.8–10 §§ 374–442.
309. Ibid., 6.8.5 § 408.
310. Crispin H. T. Fletcher-Louis, “The Destruction of the Temple and the Relativization of the Old Covenant: Mark 13:31 and Matthew 5:18,” in “The Reader Must Understand”: Eschatology in Bible and Theology, ed. K. E. Brower and M. W. Elliott (Leicester: Apollos, 1997), 145–69.
311. S. R. Llewelyn and R. A. Kearsley eds., New Documents Illustrating Early Christianity, ed. (Sydney: Macquarie University, 1992), 60.
312. Ex. 12:1–20; 23:15; 34:18.
313. See 2 Chron. 35:17; Josephus, Ant. 14.2.1 §21; 17.9.3 § 213.
314. Henri Daniel-Rops, Daily Life in the Time of Jesus (Ann Arbor: Servant, 1980), 96.
315. See Deut. 28:40; Ruth 3:3; Ps. 23:5; Eccl. 9:7–8; Ezek. 16:9; Dan. 6:15; Micah 6:15; Judith 16:7–8; b. Šabb. 41a, 61a; b. Soṭah 11b; b. Ketub. 66b.
316. See Jub. 49:10–12.
317. Rousseau and Arav, Jesus and His World, 341.
318. William Barclay, The Gospel of Mark (Philadelphia: Westminster, 1956), 347–48.
320. Meier, A Marginal Jew, 2.307.
321. Raymond E. Brown, The Death of the Messiah (New York: Doubleday, 1994), 1:123.
322. m. B. Qam. 7:7.
323. y. ʿErub. 10:1, 26a.
324. Juvenal, Satire 9.170–178.
325. Brown, The Death of the Messiah, 1:137.
326. Joan F. Taylor, “The Garden of Gethsemane Not the Place of Jesus’ Arrest,” BAR 21 (1995): 26–35, 62.
327. Ibid., 34.
328. Ibid., 35, citing Egeria, Itinerarium 36.2; and Theodosius, De Sittu Sanctae 10.
329. Brown, The Death of the Messiah, 1:167.
330. Joseph A. Fitzmyer, “Abba and Jesus’ Relation to God,” À cause de l’évangile (Paris: Cerf, 1985), 29–30.
331. James Barr, “ ‘Abba’ Isn’t Daddy,” JTS 39 (1988): 28–47.
332. Brown, The Death of the Messiah, 1:688.
333. Josephus, J.W. 2.20.7 § 581.
334. Josephus, Ant. 20.9.1 § 198.
335. b. Pesaḥ. 57a; t. Menaḥ. 13:21.
336. Josephus, Ant. 20.9.1 § 199.
337. Ibid., 18.2.2 §§ 34–35.
338. Zvi Greenhut, “Burial Cave of the Caiaphas Family,” BAR 18/5 (1992): 28–36, 76; Ronnie Reich, “Caiaphas’ Name Inscribed on Bone Boxes,” BAR 18/5 (1992): 38–44, 76.
339. Josephus, J.W. 2.16.3 § 344.
340. m. Sanh. 1:6.
341. y. Sanh. 1.1, 18a. On the issue of Jewish power to carry out the death penalty, see Brown, The Death of the Messiah, 363–72.
342. Josephus, Ant. 20.9.1 §§ 200–203.
343. Josephus, Ant. 20.8.6 §§ 169–70.
344. See also 1 En. 90:28–29.
345. See 2 Bar. 4:2–6.
346. See Gen. 37:29; 2 Sam. 1:11; 2 Kings 18:37; 22:11–13; Isa. 37:1; Acts 14:14.
347. b. Sanh. 38b; b. Ḥag. 14a.
348. 4Q246.
349. David Flusser, “The Hubris of the Antichrist in a Qumran Fragment,” Judaism and the Origins of Christianity (Jerusalem: Magnes, 1988), 210.
350. Josephus, Ant. 4.8.6 § 202.
351. b. Sanh. 93b citing Isa. 11:2–4.
352. David Flusser, “Who Is It That Struck You?” Imm. 20 (1986): 27–32.
353. b. ʿErub. 53b.
354. Geza Vermes, Jesus the Jew (Philadelphia: Fortress, 1973), 53.
355. Pliny, Ep. 10.96.3.
356. Ibid., 10.96.5.
357. Seneca, On Anger 2.7.3.
358. Brown, The Death of the Messiah, 1:629.
359. Peter Garnsey, “The Criminal Jurisdiction of Governors,” JRS 58 (1968): 51–59.
360. Tacitus, Ann. 2.50; 3.38; Suetonius, Tiberias 58.
361. Josephus, Ant. 17.10.8 §285.
362. PFlor 1.61.59; cited by Deissmann, Light, 268–69.
363. m. Pesaḥ. 8:6.
364. Suetonius, Dom. 11.
365. Philo, Embassy 299.
366. Suetonius, Cal. 19.
367. Josephus reports an incident when Herod came to the Sanhedrin “clothed in purple” (Ant. 14.9.4 § 173).
368. H. St. J. Hart, “The Crown of Thorns in John 19.2–5,” JTS 3 (1952): 66–75.
369. Philo, Flaccus 6.36–41.
370. Nahman Avigad, “A Depository of Inscribed Ossuaries in the Kidron Valley, IEJ 12 (1962): 9–11.
371. Plutarch, On the Delays of the Divine Vengeance 554B.
372. Cicero Rab. Post. 5.16.
373. Quintilian, Training in Oratory 274.
374. Josephus, J.W. 5.11.1 §§ 449–451.
375. Joan E. Taylor, “Golgotha: A Reconsideration of the Evidence for the Sites of Jesus’ Crucifixion and Burial,” NTS 44 (1998): 180–203. See also Shimon Gibson and Joan E. Taylor, Beneath the Church of the Holy Sepulchre: The Archaeology and Early History of Traditional Golgotha (London: Palestine Exploration Fund, 1994).
376. Taylor, “Golgotha,” 201.
377. Josephus, J. W. 5.4.1 § 146.
378. James H. Charlesworth, Jesus Within Judaism: New Light from Exciting Archaeological Discoveries (New York: Doubleday, 1988), 124.
379. Brown, The Death of the Messiah, 2:937–38, 1281–83. See Eusebius’s account of the discovery of the tomb in The Life of Constantine 3.25–32.
380. b. Sanh. 43a.
381. Pliny, Nat. Hist. 14.15.
382. Wilhelm Michaelis,“σμυρνίζω,” TDNT, 7:458–59.
383. T. E. Schmidt, “Mark 15.16–32: The Crucifixion Narrative and the Roman Triumphal Procession,” NTS 41 (1995): 11–12.
384. Brown, The Death of the Messiah, 2:949.
385. Seneca, Mor. Ep. 101.12.
386. N. Haas, “Anthropological Observations on the Skeletal Remains from Giv‘at ha-Mivtar,” IEJ 20 (1970): 38–59; V. Tzaferis, “Jewish Tombs at and near Giv‘at ha-Mivtar, Jerusalem,” IEJ 20 (1970): 18–32; “Crucifixion—the Archeological Evidence,” BAR 11/1 (1985): 44–53; J. Zias and E. Sekeles, “The Crucified Man from Giv‘at ha-Mivtar—A Reappraisal,” IEJ 35 (1985): 22–27; and Joe Zias and James H. Charlesworth, “Crucifixion: Archaeology, Jesus, and the Dead Sea Scrolls,” Jesus and the Dead Sea Scrolls, ed. J. H. Charlesworth (New York: Doubleday, 1992), 273–89.
387. LSJ, 1983.
388. Frederick T. Zugibe, “Two Question About Crucifixion: Does the Victim Die of Asphyxiation? Would Nails in the Hands Hold the Weight of the Body?” B Rev 5/2 (1989): 34–43.
389. Horace, Ep. 1.16.48.
390. Seneca, Ep. 101.14.
391. Seneca, To Marcia On Consolation 20.3.
392. A. N. Sherwin-White, Roman Society and Roman Law in the New Testament, (Oxford: Clarendon, 1963), 46; Justinian, Digest 48.20.6.
393. Gen. Rab. 65:22; Midr. Ps. 11:7.
394. Ps. 35:21; 40:15; 70:3; 2 Kings 19:21; Job 16:4; Ps. 22:7; 109:25; Isa. 37:22; Jer. 18:16; Lam. 2:15; Sir. 12:18.
395. b. Sukkah 29a.
396. Philo, Providence 2:50.
397. Vergil, Georgics 1.463.
398. Joel 2:10; 3:14–15; Amos 5:18, 20; 8:9; see also Isa. 13:9–13; Jer. 15:9.
399. Gundry, Mark, 947.
400. b. Ned. 50a.
401. Plutarch, Lives 336, 1.7.
402. Zugibe, “Two Questions About Crucifixion: Does the Victim Die of Asphyxiation?” 34–43.
403. Ex. 26:37; 38:18; Num. 3:26.
404. Ex. 26:31–35; 27:16, 21; 30:6; 40:21; Lev. 16:2, 12–15; 21:23; 24:3.
405. m. Šeqal. 8:5.
406. Josephus, J.W. 5.5.4 §212–13.
407. Josephus, J.W. 6.5.3 §§ 293–95; see also b. Yoma 39b.
408. b. Giṭ. 56b.
409. Petronius, Satyricon 111.
410. Tae Hun Kim, “The Anarthrous υἱὸς θεοῦ in Mark 15, 39 and the Roman Imperial Cult,” Bib 79 (1982): 238.
411. Raymond E. Brown, “The Burial of Jesus (Mark 15:42–47),” CBQ 50 (1988): 233–45.
412. Philo, Flaccus 83–84.
413. Philo, Spec. Laws 3.151–52.
414. Josephus, J.W. 4.5.2 § 317.
415. Rousseau and Arav, Jesus and His World, 167.
416. t. ʾOhal. 3:9.
417. Gabriel Barkay, “The Garden Tomb: Was Jesus Buried Here?” BAR 12/2 (1986): 40–57.
418. Gundry, Mark, 989.
419. See Dan. 7:9; Acts 1:10; 10:30; 2 Macc. 11:8–10.
420. Gen. 18:2; 19:1–3; Dan. 8:15–16; 9:21.
421. Josephus, Ant. 5.8.2 § 277.
422. Dan. 8:17–18; 10:8–12; Luke 2:10.
A-1. Ps. 103:19; Zech. 14:9.
A-2. m. ʾAbot 1:1.
A-3. Josephus, J.W. 3.10.8 §§ 516–21; see Life § 403.
A-4. L. I. Levine, “The Second Temple Synagogue: The Formative Years,” in The Synagogue in Late Antiquity, ed. L. I. Levine (Philadelphia: Fortress, 1987), 7.
A-5. Josephus, Ag. Ap. 2.17 § 175.
A-6. On the debate over the date of this inscription, see Rainer Riesner “Synagogues in Jerusalem,” in The Book of Acts, ed. Bauckham, 192–99.
A-7. Philo, Dreams 2.127.
A-8. See 1 En. 12:3–4; 15:1; 2 Bar. 2:1; 9:1–10:4.
A-9. See Dan. 7:13; 1 En. 46–53.
A-10. Josephus, Ag. Ap. 2:27 §3.
A-11. Gen. 2:3; Ex. 20:8–11; 31:14; Deut. 5:12–15.
A-12. Ex. 31:14–15; 35:2; Num. 15:32–36.
A-13. Mekilta Kaspa 4 to Ex. 23:13.
A-14. m. Ḥag. 1:8.
A-15. PGM 4.1227–64, found in H. D. Betz, ed., The Greek Magical Papyri in Translation, 2d ed. (Chicago/London: Univ. of Chicago Press, 1992), 62.
A-16. See Matt. 14:1; Luke 3:19; 9:7.
A-17. Josephus, Ant. 17.18.1 § 188; 17.9.4 §§ 224-7l; 17.11.4 § 318; idem, J. W. 2.2.3 §§ 20–22; 2.6.3. §§ 93–95.
A-18. Ibid., Ant., 18.7.1–2 §§ 240–56; idem, J. W. 2.9.6 §§ 181–83.
A-19. D. W. Chapman, The Orphan Gospel: Mark’s Perspective on Jesus (The Biblical Seminar 16; Sheffield: JSOT, 1993), 186.
A-20. Lev. 11:44; 19:2.
A-21. Herbert Danby includes a synopsis of the rules of uncleanness from Eliyahu Rabbah, a commentary on the sixth division of the Mishnah ‘Tohorot’ by Elijah, the Gaon of Wilna (The Mishnah [Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press, 1933], 800–804).
A-22. Jerome H. Neyrey, “The Idea of Purity in Mark’s Gospel,” Semeia 35 (1986): 92.
A-23. David H. Stern, Jewish New Testament Commentary (Clarksville, Md.: Jewish New Testament Publications, 1992), 92.
A-24. Daniel R. Schwartz, Studies in the Jewish Background of Christianity (WUNT 60; Tübingen: J. C. B. Mohr [Paul Siebeck], 1992), 64, citing a late midrash Tanna Debe Eliyahu 16.
A-25. H. Harrington, The Impurity Systems of Qumran and the Rabbis: Biblical Foundations (SBLDS 143; Atlanta: Scholars, 1993), 164. See Jub. 22:16; Acts 10:28.
A-26. b. Soṭah 4b.
A-27. m. ʿEd. 5:6.
A-28. m. Ṭehar 7:8; b. Šabb. 14a; b. Sukkah 26b; see Ex. 30:19, 21; 40:31.
A-29. m. Yad. 3:1; m. Zabim 5:12; m. Parah 11:5; m. Soṭah 5:2; m. Ṭehar 2:2.
A-30. David E. Garland, Mark (NIVAC; Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1996), 316.
A-31. Ibid.
A-32. Cited by Martin Hengel, The Zealots (Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark, 1989), 277.
A-33. m. Giṭ. 9:3.
A-34. Yigael Yadin, Bar-Kokhba (London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1978), 239.
A-35. Ibid., 222.
A-36. Josephus, Ag. Ap. 2.8 §§ 102–7.
A-37. Josephus, J.W. 5.5.6 §§ 222–24. On the whole description of the temple, see J.W. 5.5.1–6 §§ 184–226; and Ant. 15.11.3 §§ 391–402.
A-38. Timothy J. Geddert, Watchwords: Mark 13 in Markan Eschatology (JSNTSup 26; Sheffield: JSOT, 1989), 283, n. 53.
A-39. Garland, Mark, 505.
A-40. Morna D. Hooker, The Gospel According to Saint Mark (BNTC; Peabody, Mass.: Hendrickson, 1991), 302.
A-41. b. Sanh. 43a.; see also t. Sanh. 10:11; y. Sanh. 7:12.
A-42. Num. 35:30; Deut. 17:6; 19:15; m. Sanh. 4:1.
A-43. m. Sanh. 11:6; Deut. 19:16–21.
A-44. m. Mid. 5:4; m. Sanh. 11:2.
A-45. Tacitus, An. 3.38; 4.41, 57; Suetonius, Tiberias 41, 58; Cassius Dio, Roman History 58.2, 7; 3.8.
A-46. Philo, Embassy 24, 159–61.
A-47. Josephus, J.W. 2.9.3–4 § 175–77; Ant. 18.3.2 §§ 60–62.
A-48. Josephus, Ant. 18.4.1 §§ 85–87.
A-49. Ibid., 18.4.2 §§ 88–89.
A-50. Philo, Embassy 24, 159–61.
A-51. Ibid., 299–305.
A-52. Josephus, Ant. 18.6.5 §§ 174–78.
A-53. Jerry Camery-Hoggatt, Irony in Mark’s Gospel: Text and Subtext (SNTSMS 72; Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1991), 170–71.
A-54. Joel Marcus, The Mystery of the Kingdom of God (SBLDS 90; Atlanta: Scholars, 1986), 117.