Chapter 5
Prominent but Ineffective: Madison, Monroe, and John Quincy Adams
IN THIS CHAPTER
Becoming a founding father: Madison
Bringing peace with foreign policy: Monroe
Failing as president, but succeeding in Congress: Adams
This chapter covers three prominent U.S. presidents. James Madison is widely considered to be one of the most important founding fathers.
He gave the country the Bill of Rights and was a tenacious fighter for the Constitution. As president, however, he almost destroyed the country he helped to create by going to war against Great Britain in 1812.
James Monroe fought in the Revolutionary War side by side with George Washington. He succeeded in foreign policy as president by finally making peace with Great Britain and acquiring Florida from Spain.
John Quincy Adams was a superior diplomat and congressman. However, as president, he failed. He restored his reputation by serving in Congress one more time after his defeat in 1828.
James Madison: From Founding Father to Presidential Flop
Next to Thomas Jefferson, James Madison, shown in Figure 5-1, was undoubtedly the brightest, best-educated president in the history of the United States. But, unlike his mentor Jefferson, Madison did not make a successful jump from philosophy to politics.
Madison presents a perplexing story. He was one of the least successful presidents in U.S. history, but without him, there would have been no United States. His great contributions to the country were made before he assumed office. As president, he almost destroyed the country he so loved.
Although Madison deserves the title “founding father,” he does not deserve to be listed among the greatest presidents in U.S. history.
Courtesy of the Library of Congress
FIGURE 5-1: James Madison, 4th president of the United States (1809–1817).
Madison’s early career
After earning a degree from what is today Princeton University, Madison returned to his estate in Virginia. He was an ardent supporter of American independence from Great Britain and became a delegate to the Virginia constitutional convention in 1776. Here he met Thomas Jefferson. Madison worked closely with Jefferson on the new constitution for the state of Virginia. The two developed a close friendship, which lasted for 50 years.
As a delegate to the convention, Madison automatically became a member of the Virginia state legislature. He failed to win reelection because he refused to provide voters with free whiskey, as was commonly done back then. But in 1779, the Assembly of Virginia elected him to serve in the Continental Congress. Madison was only 29 years old — the youngest member of the Congress — but he built a reputation as a skilled legislator.
James Madison was one of the few founding fathers who didn’t fight in the Revolutionary War. He thought that he was too short and physically too weak to fight. To this day James Madison is the shortest president in U.S. history at 5 feet, 4 inches. The tallest president was Abraham Lincoln at 6 feet, 4 inches.
After the British accepted U.S. independence, Madison ran for the Virginia legislature one more time, winning easily. During the three years he served, Madison was responsible for passing Jefferson’s bill to guarantee religious freedom in Virginia.
His main focus soon shifted to trade; he initiated a conference between Virginia and Maryland to discuss the issue of navigation rules on the Potomac River. It failed, because Delaware and Pennsylvania — the other states the Potomac River runs through — were not included in the talks.
Next, Madison, through a resolution passed by the Virginia legislature, called for a national conference to discuss trade regulations between the states. During that meeting, Madison and the other participants concluded that the Articles of Confederation were not working and needed to be amended. Madison proposed a constitutional convention to change the Articles of Confederation. The meeting was held in Philadelphia in 1787, and Madison himself was one of the delegates.
One of the great weaknesses of the Articles of Confederation was that the power to regulate trade and levy taxes remained with the states. States often refused to give any of their tax revenue to the federal government, as required by the Articles, leaving the national government poorly funded. In addition, some states engaged in tariff wars with each other, undermining the creation of a national economy. The country often appeared to consist of 13 independent countries rather than one United States.
Composing the Constitution
Madison was so eager to change the Articles of Confederation that he was one of the first delegates to arrive in Philadelphia for the Constitutional Convention. He played a major role at the convention — many credit him with single-handedly making sure that the delegates wrote a new constitution. In the Virginia Plan, he advocated the creation of a new government with two houses, with representation in each based on population. The Virginia Plan put the larger states in control of the new government. Madison further advocated a federal judiciary and an independently elected president.
Madison wanted to make sure that the new government wasn’t dependent on the states, so he called for a strong central government with independent powers. His plan was changed when the smaller states insisted on equal representation in the Senate. Madison consented to the change, knowing that it was the only way to get the Constitution ratified at the convention.
While in Philadelphia, Madison was in constant contact with Jefferson, who was in Paris at the time. Madison’s notes to Jefferson represent the only information that we possess today about the proceedings in Philadelphia. Madison’s notes were published in 1840 under the title “Journal of the Federal Convention” (still available, though you probably won’t find it in a bookstore). Madison refused to publish the proceedings until the last member of the Constitutional Convention died — it turned out to be him.
Writing to ratify the Constitution
With the Constitution approved by the delegates, the effort to get it ratified by the states began. Madison worked tirelessly for the passage of the Constitution. He debated opponents in the Virginia legislature, and most importantly, he, along with Alexander Hamilton and John Jay, wrote The Federalist Papers in support of the Constitution.
Serving in Congress
With work on the Constitution finished, Madison ran for the Senate in 1788. He lost. Unwilling to give up, he ran for the House of Representatives in 1789 and defeated close friend and fellow future president James Monroe. For the next eight years, Madison served in the House of Representatives.
Madison did some of his major work as a U.S. Congressman:
- He was responsible for the legislation that attached the Bill of Rights (see Chapter 1) to the Constitution. Taking Jefferson’s recommendations into account, Madison drew up the legislation and secured its passage through Congress.
- He became actively involved in the conflict between Jefferson and Hamilton over states’ rights versus federal power. Madison, who started out as a Hamilton supporter, objected to the establishment of a federal bank, as well as to having the federal government pay off the states’ debts. By 1792, Madison broke with Hamilton and aligned himself with Jefferson. Madison and Jefferson formed the core of the Democratic-Republican Party and worked together for the next decade. (See “The first party system,” a sidebar in Chapter 3.)
By 1796, Madison had become so disillusioned with the Federalist administration and the Federalist-controlled Congress that he retired from Congress. Again his political career seemed to be over. Madison, having married Dolley Payne Todd — a young widow — in 1794, didn’t mind leaving politics and looked forward to becoming a family man.
Returning to national politics
In 1796, Madison thought that he had retired from politics for good. Then the Federalist Congress passed the Alien and Sedition Acts, which made it illegal to criticize the government (see Chapter 4 for more on these acts). Madison, concerned that the acts violated the Bill of Rights, wrote the Virginia Resolution, which not only condemned the acts, but also encouraged states to refuse to abide by them. This brought the country close to civil war and created massive support for the Democratic-Republican Party.
In 1800, Madison campaigned tirelessly for his friend Jefferson’s presidential bid. When Jefferson won the office of president, Madison became his secretary of state. For the next eight years, Madison was Jefferson’s closest advisor. Madison had a hand in the Louisiana Purchase of 1803 and the Embargo Act of 1807 (Chapter 4 has more on Jefferson’s presidency).
Jefferson retired in 1808 and handpicked his friend James Madison to be his successor. Madison won the election easily, defeating the Federalist candidate, Charles C. Pinckney, in a landslide.
Fighting the British for the last time
Foreign policy dominated Madison’s two terms as president. Britain and France both continued seizing U.S. ships (see Chapter 4) and conscripting American sailors. Madison tried a new tactic: He reopened trade with Britain and France. The congressional authority contained in Macon’s Bill No. 2, also stated that as soon as either Britain or France respected U.S. neutrality in their conflict and stopped seizing U.S. ships, the United States would impose an embargo against the other country. After France agreed to halt the practice, Madison punished Britain by stopping all trade.
A group of Democratic-Republicans led by Henry Clay and John Calhoun, called “War Hawks,” wanted to expand U.S. influence into the British-held lands in the northern and western part of the continent, even if it meant using force.
A major uprising surfaced in 1811 when the Shawnee nation rebelled against U.S. domination. The Democratic-Republican War Hawks blamed the British for inciting the Shawnee to rebel. Combined with maritime insults and a longing for British-held lands in North America, this proved enough for Congress to declare war on Britain in June 1812. Ironically, that same month, Britain stopped seizing and raiding U.S. ships. By the time this news, which could have prevented the war, reached the United States, it was too late.
The war was a disaster for Madison. Public opinion was split — the Federalists opposed it, and some New England states refused to participate in it. “Mr. Madison’s War,” as the opposition labeled it, almost destroyed the United States. Despite the disastrous war, Madison managed to win reelection in 1812 by squeaking out a narrow victory.
In August of 1814, British troops attacked and destroyed Washington, D.C. When U.S. militiamen ran instead of defending the capital, Madison fled the capital and spent the next four days on horseback trying to rally his troops.
This disaster of a war officially ended in December 1814, with neither side gaining anything.
Changing policies and retiring
The last two years of Madison’s presidency were much less stressful than the first six. Madison reversed his earlier position and supported Federalist policies, including the establishment of a national bank. The economy was doing well, and Jackson’s victory over the British in the last, useless battle of the War of 1812 restored national pride.
After handpicking his successor, James Monroe, Madison happily retired in 1817. He spent his last years helping Jefferson establish the University of Virginia. After years of illness and the inability to recover from the loss of his friend, Jefferson, James Madison died in 1836 at the age of 85.
Succeeding Abroad, Failing at Home: James Monroe
James Monroe, shown in Figure 5-2, was the last president of the Virginia dynasty — his predecessors, except Adams, all came from Virginia. Monroe proved to be a skilled foreign policy maker — he finally established peace with Great Britain. Had he had equal success with his domestic policy, he might have been rated as one of the great presidents in U.S. history.
Courtesy of the Library of Congress
FIGURE 5-2: James Monroe, 5th president of the United States (1817–1825).
Monroe’s early career
In 1775, Monroe quit his studies at the College of William and Mary to enlist in the army when the fight for independence began; Monroe became a lieutenant in the Continental Army. He was with Washington during the famous crossing of the Delaware and at the battle of Trenton, where he was severely wounded by a bullet. He recovered rapidly and was made a major before participating in the battle of Monmouth, his last military engagement.
In 1779, Washington sent Monroe back to Virginia to raise a new military unit that never materialized. Monroe stayed in Virginia and became one of Governor Jefferson’s aides. The two developed a close friendship. Monroe credited Jefferson with developing his interest in politics.
Representing Virginia and the country
In 1782, Monroe became the youngest member in the Virginia legislature. He joined the Congress of the Confederation only a year later, and his career path was set. Despite all this politicking, Monroe found time to buy an estate close to those of Jefferson and Madison, and to marry Elizabeth Kortright.
Monroe served in the Virginia legislature for three years. He dropped out of political life after his marriage in 1786, but he was elected to the Virginia legislature again the same year. He attended the Annapolis Convention on trade issues that was organized by Madison (I talk about this conference in the section “Madison’s early career,” earlier in this chapter), and he supported Madison’s call for a national convention to change the Articles of Confederation. To his great disappointment, he wasn’t one of the delegates who attended the Philadelphia convention.
When Monroe saw the constitution that came out of the Constitutional Convention, he opposed it. He believed that the proposed government was too strong, and he demanded that a Bill of Rights be in the document. James Monroe was the only founding father to vote against the Constitution. To make matters worse, when Monroe ran for the newly established House of Representatives in 1789, he lost the race to his friend Madison.
However, in 1790, the Virginia legislature elected Monroe to serve in the U.S. Senate. Monroe, along with most of his colleagues, got involved in the struggle over establishing a federal bank (see the sidebar, “The first party system,” in Chapter 3 for a discussion of these issues). Monroe became one of the leaders of the Democratic-Republican cause.
Monroe was such a supporter and admirer of France that Washington appointed him minister plenipotentiary, the equivalent of today’s ambassador, to France in 1794. Unfortunately, Washington recalled him in 1796 for being too pro-French and anti-British. Monroe, upset at being recalled, left the administration and retired to his home in Virginia.
James Monroe was the first U.S. Senator to become president of the United States.
Serving as governor
To Monroe’s surprise, the people of Virginia elected him governor in 1799. He served a quiet term until 1803, when his friend Jefferson, now president, called on him to travel to France to negotiate the Louisiana Purchase. In Paris, Monroe was one of the main architects of the treaty that sold the Louisiana Territory to the United States. Jefferson was so impressed that he named Monroe the ambassador to Great Britain, a post he held until 1807.
When Jefferson stepped down from the presidency, the Democratic-Republicans were split over who should succeed him. A small faction of the party pushed for Monroe, who did nothing to discourage them. Annoyed, Jefferson and Madison turned away from their old friend. After Madison’s election as president, Monroe found himself without a job.
Serving well: Monroe’s foreign policy
In 1811, Monroe was elected governor of the state of Virginia once again. By this time, Monroe and Jefferson had made up their differences. President Madison extended an olive branch to Monroe, naming him secretary of state.
Monroe resigned as governor and began serving as secretary of state.
Back then, the position of secretary of state was the springboard to the presidency. By appointing Monroe to the position, Madison had ensured that Monroe would be the Democratic-Republicans’ next nominee for president.
Even though Monroe personally opposed the war with Britain in 1812, he served his president loyally. When the situation became desperate in 1814, Monroe joined the war effort, leading the Maryland militia. This leadership position enhanced his reputation — he became a hero to the U.S. public.
When Madison announced his retirement in 1816, there was no question who would succeed him. Monroe received the nomination of the Democratic-Republican Party and easily defeated the Federalist candidate, Rufus King.
James Monroe was responsible for saving a large number of State Department records, including the Declaration of Independence, before the British burned Washington, D.C.
Showing a flair for foreign policy
James Monroe’s main love was foreign policy. Living abroad for over a decade stimulated his interest in Europe, especially Britain and France. He wanted to make sure that the United States and Britain never went to war again. At the same time, if another war was necessary, Monroe wanted to make certain that the United States was ready for it — he wanted to avoid a disaster similar to the War of 1812. So he established a permanent military force that was large enough and powerful enough to defend the country.
When he assumed office, Monroe went to work to sign a new peace treaty with Britain. In 1818, he successfully negotiated the Rush-Bagot agreement, which limited the size of the naval forces that both countries could use on the Great Lakes. That same year, Monroe agreed to set the U.S.-Canadian border at the 49th parallel (up to the Rocky mountains) and settle the Oregon territory jointly with Britain. With these agreements, Monroe settled all the differences between the two countries and provided the basis for the cordial relationship the United States and Great Britain enjoy to this day.
Monroe’s second great foreign policy success involved the purchase of Florida. Florida, a Spanish colony, presented constant problems for the United States. It became a base from which Native Americans raided settlements in Georgia. In 1817, Monroe took action. He sent General Jackson to Florida to take care of business. Jackson did so by almost wiping out the Seminole Indians. Next, the United States told the Spanish that if they couldn’t control the Native Americans in Florida they should sell Florida to the United States. Spain agreed, and Monroe purchased Florida for $5 million, though no money actually changed hands. Monroe used claims U.S. citizens had against Spain for property losses due to Indian raids in Spanish-controlled Florida and shipping losses caused by Spanish warships over the previous three decades.
Establishing the Monroe Doctrine
Monroe’s most famous accomplishment in foreign policy was the Monroe Doctrine. During Monroe’s two terms, Latin America rebelled against Spanish rule, and many of the former Spanish colonies became independent nations. Monroe was afraid that other European powers, especially the Holy Alliance of Russia, Austria, and Prussia, would try to interfere in, or even recolonize, the new countries. He consulted with Jefferson and his secretary of state, John Quincy Adams, to find ways to make sure that this didn’t happen.
The result was the Monroe Doctrine. Monroe outlined it to Congress in 1823. It became the cornerstone of U.S. foreign policy up to this day.
The Monroe Doctrine, which was actually written by John Quincy Adams, warned the European powers to stay out of the western hemisphere (the Americas). It stated that the United States wouldn’t tolerate any European interference in the newly created countries. In turn, Monroe pledged to stay out of European affairs. The Monroe Doctrine drew little attention and was relatively forgotten until 1852.
Serving not so well: Monroe’s domestic policy
Despite Monroe’s great foreign policy accomplishments, domestic crises overshadowed his terms in office. Two issues in particular — the economy and slavery — plagued his presidency.
Dealing with slavery
The questions brought up in response to the admission of new states led to a major crisis in 1819 when Missouri and Maine applied for statehood. The problem was Missouri’s insistence on being admitted as a slave state. Before Missouri and Maine applied for statehood, the Senate was evenly split between slave and free states. The Southern states insisted that this equal division continue. The North feared that if Missouri came in as a slave state, the rest of the Louisiana Territory could follow. Monroe, who owned slaves himself, sat on the side while Congress hammered out a compromise. In 1820, the Missouri Compromise passed Congress and Monroe signed it into law.
The Missouri Compromise admitted Missouri as a slave state and Maine as a free state. More importantly, it outlawed slavery in new areas above the southern part of the new state of Missouri.
Monroe, a slave owner, believed that free slaves needed to be resettled in Africa. The place for resettlement was a piece of land, called Liberia, that was bought by the American Colonization Society. Monroe’s support led to the naming of the capital of Liberia — Monrovia — after him.
Losing the fight with recession
In 1819, a recession hit the United States. Monroe, who believed in a weak federal government and states’ rights, didn’t do much about it. He got lucky: The economy recovered in time for the 1820 election, and the recession didn’t undermine his popularity.
Running unopposed
Because Monroe was so successful in foreign policy, the election of 1820 wasn’t much of a contest — in fact, Monroe had no opposition at all. He won every state and received all but one Electoral College vote.
One member of the Electoral College cast his vote for John Quincy Adams to assure that George Washington would remain the only president in U.S. history to be elected unanimously.
Calling it quits after two terms
James Monroe decided not to run for reelection in 1824, upholding the two-term principle established by Washington. He was also tired of the job. Unlike Madison and Jefferson, Monroe refused to name a successor, which tore the Democratic-Republican Party apart in the 1824 election.
Monroe left office in 1825 and retired to Virginia. Financial troubles forced him to sell one of his estates. After the death of his wife, Monroe’s grief and poor health forced him to move in with his daughter in New York City. In a twist of fate, James Monroe became the third president to die on July 4.
He passed away on July 4, 1831.
Like Father, Like Son: John Quincy Adams
John Quincy Adams, shown in Figure 5-3, is one of the most respected politicians in U.S. history. With his father having been president and vice president (check out John Adams in Chapter 4), the pressure was on for John Quincy Adams to succeed in life and in the political arena. To complement his privileged upbringing, Adams was extraordinarily bright. At the same time, he was a serious man who didn’t make friends easily, and he had a tough time relating to people. This personality trait contributed to him having a tough time dealing with Congress as president.
Courtesy of the Library of Congress
FIGURE 5-3: John Quincy Adams, 6th president of the United States.
Adams, considered a genius by many, is regarded today as one of the best secretaries of state the United States ever had. A master diplomat and superior congressman, Adams contributed greatly to the success of the United States and enjoyed a worldwide reputation. He had a friendship with Tsar Nicholas I of Russia. Despite his intelligence and accomplishments, Adams experienced one of the worst presidencies in history. It’s a shame his presidency was such a failure. He deserved better.
John Quincy Adams enjoyed swimming in the nude in the Potomac River until he was 79 years old. One day, a female journalist, Anne Royall, surprised him. She sat on his clothes until he agreed to an interview and became the first woman to interview a president.
Getting elected at home
After traveling extensively in Europe, gaining experience from assisting his father and from his own endeavors, Adams returned to the United States, where being the son of a former president had its advantages. In 1802, the Federalist Party elected John Quincy Adams to the Massachusetts state senate. In 1803, he was appointed to the U.S. Senate.
As a senator, Adams disappointed his supporters. For Adams, it was the good of the country that mattered — not the good of his home state or his party — and his independent voting record reflected this. He crossed party lines to vote for the Louisiana Purchase in 1803 — the only Federalist senator to do so. He crossed party lines again in 1807 when he voted for Jefferson’s Embargo Act. In 1808, his party was fed up with his independence and voted to replace him as senator.
Going back to Europe
Having spent much of his childhood on the European continent, Adams continued to take an active interest in European affairs and their effects on American interests.
As a foreign ambassador
After leaving the Senate in 1808, Adams served the United States abroad for the next eight years. His independence had caught the eye of the opposition party, the Democratic-Republicans, and especially James Madison, who sent Adams back abroad.
When the War of 1812 wasn’t going well for the Americans, Madison asked Adams to head the peace delegation and negotiate with the British. Adams negotiated the Treaty of Ghent, signed in 1814, which ended the War of 1812. Madison was so impressed with the way Adams handled the British that he appointed him ambassador to Britain in 1815, where he served until President James Monroe named him secretary of state.
As secretary of state
As secretary of state, Adams was in his milieu. First, he handled the purchase of Florida for Monroe. When General Andrew Jackson defeated the Seminoles and invaded Florida, Adams was the only member of Monroe’s cabinet to defend Jackson. Adams blamed Spain for not keeping a tighter reign on the territory and told the Spanish to either control their colony or sell it to the United States. Spain, already fighting independence movements in Latin America, decided to sell Florida.
While negotiating, Adams further pressured Spain into agreeing that the Louisiana Territory purchased from France reached all the way to the Pacific Ocean. (The western borders of the Louisiana Territory had not been agreed upon in 1803.) The United States now spanned coast to coast.
The most important contribution Adams made to U.S. foreign policy occurred in 1823, when he established the Monroe Doctrine. Adams argued for years that the Americas were no longer open to colonization by Europe and that the European powers needed to stay out of the western hemisphere. President Monroe relied on Adams when he established the Monroe Doctrine: Adams actually wrote the doctrine and presented it to the European powers.
Picked by the House
President Monroe was the first president in 16 years to retire without naming a successor. This complicated matters in the 1824 election. Four men, all from the Democratic-Republican Party, ran for the presidency. They were John Quincy Adams; General Andrew Jackson; the Speaker of the House, Henry Clay; and the secretary of the treasury, William Crawford.
All four of the men received Electoral College votes, but no one received a majority. Jackson won the popular vote but received only 99 Electoral College votes out of a possible 261. Adams came in second with 84 Electoral College votes. Crawford finished third, and Clay came in fourth.
With nobody receiving a majority in the Electoral College, the House of Representatives had to pick the new president. Clay, who despised Jackson, threw his support behind Adams, helping him win the presidency. Adams, in turn, appointed Clay secretary of state. Jackson and his followers cried foul. For the first time in U.S. history, the candidate who won the popular vote lost the election. This put a shadow on Adams’s presidency from the beginning.
After the 1824 election, the Democratic-Republican Party fell apart. Jackson and his supporters formed the Democratic Party, still around today. Adams and his followers renamed the Democratic-Republican Party the National Republicans, but it collapsed after the 1832 election. Remnants of the National Republicans later became the Whigs.
President John Quincy Adams (1825–1829)
The Adams presidency was a disaster. Building up the U.S. infrastructure by pushing Congress to spend money on roads and canals was one of only a few bright spots. Then, in 1828, he made the political mistake of his life, which cost him reelection.
In 1828, Congress passed the “Tariff of Abominations,” as opponents of the tariff called it. It established high tariffs on foreign goods and raw materials. Northern congressmen wanted it to protect their industries. The southern and western states opposed it because they depended on cheap foreign goods. When Adams didn’t veto the bill, his opposition had the issue they were waiting for to help defeat him in the upcoming presidential race.
The election of 1828 turned into one of the ugliest presidential elections in U.S. history, pitting the incumbent Adams against an angry Andrew Jackson and his supporters who believed that Jackson had won the election of 1824.
Jackson’s supporters accused Adams of having premarital sex with his foreign-born wife, while Adams’s supporters called Jackson’s mother a whore. Amidst all the mudslinging, Adams lost badly.
Adams was so upset over the loss that he didn’t attend Jackson’s inauguration. Like his father, he snuck out of the capital and returned home.
John Quincy Adams was the only president to have a pet alligator in the White House. The alligator was given to him by the Marquis de Lafayette.
Going back to Congress
The people of Massachusetts elected Adams to the House of Representatives two years after he retired as president. Here he accomplished more than in his four years as president. Both admirers and opponents called him “Old Man Eloquent” because of his oratory skills. Serving from 1831 until his death in 1848, Adams accomplished the following:
- He opposed the annexation of Texas, believing it would become a slave state.
- He revoked the gag rule, which made it illegal to introduce legislation that called for the abolition of slavery into Congress.
- He opposed the war with Mexico, believing that Polk tried to spread slavery (see Chapter 8).
- He helped establish the Smithsonian Institute, a museum and center for research that is dedicated to public education and national service and scholarship.
- He defended escaped slaves in the Amistad Case.
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John Quincy Adams opposed slavery throughout his life. As early as 1820, he publicly condemned slavery, calling it a “foul stain upon the North American Union.” In 1841, he defended a group of slaves who took over the ship carrying them to Cuba. When the ship landed in the United States and the government wanted to return the slaves to Cuba, Adams defended them in the Supreme Court and won the case.
In 1846, Adams suffered a stroke. Despite his condition, he went back to Congress. On February 21, 1848, while protesting the Mexican-American War, Adams suffered a second stroke. His colleagues took him to the speaker’s chambers, where he died two days later — the only U.S. president to die in the Capitol building. His famous last words were: “This is the last of earth! I am content.”