Section 7

Comprehension

1. List 100. BDA Comprehension Strategies
2. List 101. Context Clues and Word Meaning
3. List 102. Syntax and Comprehension
4. List 103. Comprehension Questions
5. List 104. Question Starters for Discussions
6. List 105. Proverbs
7. List 106. Graphic Organizers
8. List 107. Problem-Solving Guide
9. List 108. Paragraph and Text Organization
10. List 109. Character Traits
11. List 110. Tone and Mood Words
12. List 111. Point of View
13. List 112. Language Registers
14. List 113. Persuasive Techniques
15. List 114. Literary Terms

Constructing meaning from print is a common definition of reading. A number of factors contribute to the process of comprehending or constructing meaning from text. Although word recognition and vocabulary knowledge are essential, research shows it is not sufficient (Almasi & Hart, 2005). Many students with adequate skill in these areas still have difficulty comprehending what they read. Duke and Martin's (2015, p. 253) review of research found ten processes contribute to comprehension: setting purposes, connecting prior knowledge, predicting, inferring, interpreting graphics and text features, evaluating content, monitoring comprehension, questioning, and summarizing. The National Reading Panel (2000) found strong scientific evidence to support these comprehension strategies: monitoring, cooperative learning, graphic organizers, text structure, question answering and question generating, and using multiple strategies flexibly.

Related to these strategies is the expectation that students develop skill recognizing and appreciating how a range of author's craft support or frame a reader's experience of a narrative text. Common Core State Standards (NGA & CCSSO, 2010) expect students to use point of view, language registers, tone and mood, characterization, and other elements to gain a deep and nuanced comprehension of a narrative text.

Knowing about these and other comprehension-related strategies is not enough. Students need to become strategic in their use; that is, they need to have these strategies in their repertoire of skills and have opportunities to select and apply them as needed to the texts and tasks they use for learning. In other words, students must become savvy and strategic readers. Laverick's (2002) idea of BDA strategies, or strategies that can be used before, during, and after reading to support comprehension, offers a useful plan.

Reading informational texts well requires some additional skills not generally used in narrative reading, including recognizing how authors use different types of paragraph or chapter organization depending on the content and determining the meaning of new vocabulary from the context clues provided by the author. Knowledge of persuasive techniques used also helps students recognize and evaluate argumentative and persuasive writing often encountered in informational texts.

The lists in this section address these instructional issues and support comprehension of narrative and informational texts. List 100, BDA Comprehension Strategies, for example, provides a walk-through of reader-selected strategies in service to comprehension in a framework that gives them both structure and flexibility. Other lists address questions and questioning, graphic organizers, author craft, paragraph organizations, and context clues. Still others address characterization, tone and mood, point of view, registers, and literary terms.

1. Almasi, J., & Hart, S. (2015). Best practices in narrative text comprehension instruction. In L. B. Gambrell, & L. M. Morrow (Eds.), Best practices in literacy instruction (5th ed., pp. 223–248). New York: The Guilford Press.
2. Dexter, D. D., & Hughes, C. A. (2011). Graphic organizers and students with learning disabilities: A meta-analysis. Learning Disability Quarterly, 34(1), 51–72. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/889930469?accountid=27354
3. Duke, N., & Martin, N. (2015). Best practices in informational text comprehension instruction. In L. B. Gambrell & L. M. Morrow (Eds.), Best practices in literacy instruction (5th ed.). New York: The Guilford Press.
4. Laverick, C. (2002). B-D-A strategy: Reinventing the wheel can be a good thing. Journal of Adolescent & Adult Literacy, 46(2), 144–147. Retrieved from www.jstor.org/stable/40015436
5. Moss, B., & Loh, V. S. (2010). 35 strategies for guiding readers through informational texts. New York: The Guilford Press. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/815957966?accountid=27354
6. National Governors Association Center for Best Practices & Council of Chief State School Officers (NGA & CCSSO). (2010). Common Core State Standards for English language arts and literacy in history/social studies, science, and technical subjects. Washington, DC: Authors.
7. National Institute of Child Health and Human Development. (2000). Report of the National Reading Panel. Teaching children to read: An evidence-based assessment of the scientific research literature on reading and its implications for reading instruction (NIH Publication No. 00–4769. Washington, DC: US Government Printing Office.
8. National Reading Panel. (2000). Teaching children to read: An evidence-based assessment of the scientific research literature on reading and its implications for reading instruction (National Institute of Health Publication No. 00–4754). Washington, DC: National Institute of Child Health and Human Development.
9. Williams, J. (2005). Instruction in reading comprehension for primary grade students: A focus on text structure. The Journal of Special Education 39(1), 6–18. Retrieved from http://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ693938.pdf

List 100. BDA Comprehension Strategies

Students' success in understanding what they read depends on many factors, including the active reading and learning strategies they use before, during, and after (BDA) reading. These strategies scaffold student skills in predicting, questioning, monitoring, clarifying, associating, reacting, and responding while reading. During guided reading lessons, introduce and have students practice these strategies until they build competency and can independently apply them to new texts. Help students recognize which strategies work best with narratives or informational texts.

Not all strategies work equally well for all texts or for all students. It is important, however, that each student develops a repertoire of strategies to use before, during, and after reading to support their comprehension and learning. Before strategies will focus on preparation for reading, during strategies focus on keeping track of the content and dealing with new information, and after strategies tie it all together and enable the reader to respond to the story or information read.

Before-Reading Strategies

1. Organize
   • Gather everything you need: text, paper, highlighter, pen, sticky notes, dictionary, and assignment pad.
   • Set aside enough time to complete the assignment or a particular part of the assignment.
   • Set the purpose for reading: check your assignment. Most reading assignments have two parts: read and remember the main idea and details for discussion; read and remember content for a quiz; read and use the information; read and take notes; read and write a reaction; or read and answer questions. Your speed and style of reading will depend on your purpose.
2. Tune in to the task
   • Look at the title and headings: in a story they engage your interest; in a textbook they give the main idea or category of information of the section.
   • Think about what you already know about the subject or the story.
   • Think about the special directions you were given about the assignment.
   • Think about what you will need to notice or remember in order to do the postreading assignment (details, main ideas, story line, character traits, point of view, setting, comparison to another story, figurative language, procedure, new terms, etc.).
   • Check to see how the author organized her or his writing (chapters? headings? dialogue? numbered steps? vocabulary in bold, italics, or sidebar? texts + drawings or pictures?).
   • Think about what you expect to find out by reading and why.
3. Set up for success
   • Make a KWL chart and fill in the columns for K and W.
   • List group label: write all the words and concepts you know that are related to the topic; add the words from one or two peers and then sort them into groups; label the groups of words and review and discuss words in each labeled group as a foundation for new knowledge.
   • Complete the anticipation guide provided by the author or teacher.
   • Read the questions at the end so you'll recognize the answers when you get to them.
   • Create your own questions based on the topic and headings.
   • Pick a graphic organizer template that matches your task and set it up for the assignment.
   • Set up your notebook Cornell notes style.
   • Review the new vocabulary words and their definitions before reading.
   • Start a word web or new word list for the reading.
   • Compare your KWL or questions with a partner's.
   • Plan a jigsaw with a partner: divide the questions or topics you will be responsible for.

   During-Reading Strategies

4. Find and mark
   • Use a sticky note to mark the paragraph in which you found an answer to one of your questions or to your part of a jigsaw.
   • Add important words to your word web.
   • Write out the sentence in which a new word was found.

   • Write down the page number where you found important information (e.g., p.372).

     If the book is yours:
     • Highlight an answer or important information when you see it.
     • Put a check mark in the margin next to important information.
     • Underline key new words.
     • Highlight the key ideas needed for your part of a jigsaw.
5. Keep track of progress
   • “Talk” to the author. (Imagine saying “OK, I got that, I like this part, I wouldn't do it that way,” or whatever else you might say if the author were there with you as you read.)
   • When you notice that you're telling the author that it doesn't make sense, go back to a part that did and reread. You may have missed an important clue. Then reread the part that didn't make sense. Follow the reading guide from the teacher as you read.
   • Fill in a story map, a problem solution, or other graphic organizer as you read.
   • Add a sticky note where you really liked what you read.
   • Add a sticky note where the reading was difficult for you.

   After-Reading Strategies

6. Review the reading
   • Check back on all marked sections.
   • Add to your word web.
   • Retell a short version of the story or text in your own words.
   • Reread any parts that you marked because they were difficult.
   • Think about your feelings for the story or text. (Was it interesting? Did you like it? Was it easy to follow? Did it help you learn?)
7. Use what you've read
   • Use the marked pages or sections to answer questions.
   • Answer questions citing sections of the text where you learned the answers.
   • Fill in the KWL chart.
   • Write your reaction to the story or text.
   • Create an outline or notes from the important information and key words.
   • Complete your new vocabulary or spelling list.
   • Write follow-up questions to research later on the same topic.
   • Think about how this story or information is like what you have read before.
   • Teach part of what you learned to a classmate.
   • Finish the jigsaw with your partner(s).
   • Summarize or write a précis of the reading.
   • Complete a semantic feature analysis for the terms in the selection.
   • Create mnemonics for key ideas that you want to recall.
   • Rate the reading material's difficulty: too easy, just right, or too difficult.
   • Rate the reading material's interest: very interesting, OK, or not very interesting.
   • Rate the amount you learned: learned a lot, learned some, or learned very little.

List 101. Context Clues and Word Meaning

Authors of both narrative and expository text provide information to their readers about the meaning of words that are important to understanding. In informational text, authors intentionally introduce new vocabulary through context clues to help readers understand the new concept in relation to what is already known. Authors may use several of these techniques in a unit to introduce and reinforce target words in print and online media. These techniques for building information on students' prior knowledge base are also effective in oral presentations. The Common Core State Standards expect students beginning in grade 2 to be able to determine the meaning of words and phrases in informational text.

To help your students acquire this skill, preview a text your students will read and note the types of context clues used by the author. Then, teach your students about those specific types of context clues and have them locate examples in their text. With partners, have students use the context clues to determine the meaning of the new words. Use these techniques in your presentations, worksheets, and other instructional materials. Having students write context clue sentences for new vocabulary words is also an effective strategy. The student-developed clue sentence can be included in their word logs and provide a reminder of meaning for target words.

The following examples demonstrate ten techniques for providing context clues to word meanings for a hypothetical text on minerals. A list of sentences for practice follows the examples.

1. Direct statement/definition. Quartz is a mineral.
2. Classifications. Quartz, a mineral, is composed of one part silicon and two parts oxygen.
3. Examples. Minerals such as diamonds and sapphires are rare and expensive.
4. Appositive. Minerals are inorganic, nonliving substances found in the earth.
5. Synonym. A mineral's luster or shininess helps identify it.
6. Function indicator. The geologist used micrometer calipers to measure the length and width of the tiny mineral crystals.
7. Compare and contrast. Coal, unlike minerals, is an organic substance formed from decayed animal and plant life.
8. Analogy. Quartz is to inorganic as coal is to ___________; quartz:inorganic:: coal:__________.
9. Experience. The sheet of mica was almost transparent enough to see through completely.
10. Morphology. Quartz is an igneous rock. The word igneous has the same base as the word ignite. They both come from the Latin word ignis, meaning fire. The silica and oxygen that make up quartz are found in middle layers of earth where it is so hot they are in a melted state. When some of it gets closer to the surface and cools, crystals of quartz are formed.

Use this list for student practice determining the meaning of the italicized words from context clues.

1. Ferns, flowerless plants, come in many varieties.
2. A centimeter is a small unit of measurement about one-half of an inch in length.
3. Chlorophyll, a green substance in plants, enables them to turn light from the sun into energy.
4. Maps use a key, or legend, to explain the meaning of each of the symbols used in the map.
5. The astronomer, a scientist that observes the sky, was using his telescope to look at the stars.
6. Thunder, unlike lightning, cannot be seen.
7. Arctic is to cold as tropical is to ___.
8. The texture of the animal's fur was so soft it felt like velvet.
9. Powhatan is to chief as Obama is to president.
10. An atlas, a book of maps, can be useful when driving.
11. The prime meridian divides the earth into the eastern and western hemispheres.
12. A rectangle, a closed shape, has four sides.
13. As we got closer to the lake, we began to step on squishy land called a marsh.
14. The scientist uses a microscope to look at the tiny cells of a plant.
15. A curve, an open figure, reminds me of rainbows.
16. An iceberg is a large mass of ice that came apart from a glacier and floated out to sea.
17. Lines of longitude, not latitude, run from north to south but measure east and west.
18. Oral history, not textbooks, enables you to hear people talking about past events they experienced.
19. Consumers, people who buy goods and services, purchase them for their own or their family's use.
20. Emma wanted a bike she saw at a yard sale, but she had no money! She bartered with the owners and walked their dog every day for a week in exchange for the bike.
21. The postal service collects and delivers mail all across the country.

List 102. Syntax and Comprehension

Knowledge of syntax and the workings of our language is a powerful comprehension tool. But not all students recognize just how useful this is in a learning situation. Use this story and list of questions to demonstrate the impact on comprehension of word order in sentences; noun, adjective, and adverb markers; verb forms; plural spellings; and punctuation. These syntactical features of language help us see connections and make associations even when we have limited knowledge of a new subject. It is important also for students to recognize the need to ask for help if they encounter passages in texts that seem to have many unfamiliar words.

For a long time, Haro, the nimp fizbin, was the only fizbin in the zot. Every midsee, he would cond and ren, cond and ren, cond and ren. Then one midsee, Haro was zommed! There, in the middle of the parmon, was the nimpest fizbin and she was conding and renning just like Haro. Haro was so arky! He dagged up to the nimpest fizbin and chared. Soon Haro and the nimpest fizbin, Bindy, were ponted. Then every midsee, they conded and renned abatly in the parmon of the zot.

1. Who was Haro?
2. What did he do every midsee?
3. How do you think Haro felt in the beginning of the story? Why?
4. What words helped show his feelings?
5. Where was Bindy when Haro first saw her?
6. What was she doing?
7. How did Haro act when he saw her?
8. How do you think Haro felt at the end of the story? What changed his feelings?
9. How are Haro and Bindy the same?
10. How are they different?
11. List four things that a fizbin can do.
12. Which is larger, the zoyt or the parmon?
13. Add a new sentence to tell what happened later.
14. Rewrite the story, and substitute real words for these:

    fizbin	zommed	midsee	arky
    cond	abatly	ren	zot

List 103. Comprehension Questions

Questions help focus student thinking and enable teachers to assess whether students are moving toward success in a particular learning goal or reading standard. For a long time, teachers asked questions dealing with mostly lower-order thinking skills—those that required students to simply recall facts and details. Teachers now focus on higher-order thinking (also referred to as HOTS) in nearly all lessons, including instruction in subjects other than language arts.

This list provides examples of question types that address key cognitive skills required by the Common Core and other rigorous language art standards. They are based on the story of Cinderella but can be adapted for any text.

Vocabulary

1. Question to help students understand the precise meaning of a particular word. For example: What does the word jealous mean? What did the stepsisters do that showed they were jealous?
2. Question to help students understand multiple meanings of words. For example: What does ball mean in this story? It says: “At last the day came and the sisters, dressed in their finery, went to court.” What does court mean in this story?
3. Question to help students understand figurative language. For example: What does it mean when it says: Soon after she married Cinderella's father, the step-mother showed her true colors?
4. Question to help students understand technical language. For example: What part of a house is the garret?
5. Question to help students understand words used in the text in terms of their own lives. For example: Have you ever known someone who was jealous? Have you ever been jealous? Why?

Determining central theme

1. Question to help students focus on main idea or theme: For example: What is the story of Cinderella mainly about? What other title(s) could be used for this story?

Point of view

1. Question to help students recognize point of view. For example: Who is telling the story, a narrator or one of the characters? How can you tell?

Citing evidence

1. Question to help students draw on evidence to support their conclusions. For example: What evidence did you find in the story that Cinderella was treated badly by her stepmother and stepsisters?

Word choice

1. Question to help students see how words contribute to meaning or tone. For example: What are some of the words and phrases the author uses to create the feeling that the prince was falling in love with Cinderella at the ball?

Pronoun referents

1. Question to help students understand what or who some pronouns refer to and how to figure them out. For example: In the second sentence of the third paragraph, who does she refer to? How do you know?

Use of illustration

1. Question how the illustrations help the reader understand new words in a story. For example: In the story it says the fairy godmother changed six mice into the finest horses and six lizards into the finest footmen. Can you use the illustration to figure out what a footman is? What is it?

Causal relations: direct and inferred

1. Question to help students recognize causal relations stated directly in the text. For example: Why were Cinderella's stepsisters jealous of Cinderella?
2. Question to help students infer causal relations not directly stated in the text. For example: Why did the stepmother give Cinderella extra work to do on the day of the ball?

Sequence

1. Question to help students understand that the sequence of some things is unchangeable. For example: What steps did the Fairy Godmother follow in order to make a coach for Cinderella? Could the order of these steps be changed? Why or why not?
2. Question to help students understand that the sequence of some things is changeable. For example: What chores did Cinderella do on the day of the ball? Could she have done some of them in a different order? Why or why not?

Comparison

1. Question to encourage students to compare things within the text. For example: How did the behavior of the stepsisters differ from the behavior of Cinderella?
2. Question to encourage students to compare elements of the story with elements of other stories. For example: In what ways are the stories of Cinderella and Snow White similar? In what ways are they different?
3. Question to encourage students to compare elements of the story with their own experiences. For example: If you were in Cinderella's place, how would you have acted toward your stepsisters? Is this similar or different from the way Cinderella acted?

Inference

1. Question to help students use their prior knowledge and schemata to make inferences. For example: What were Cinderella's feelings when the clock struck twelve and she had to leave the ball?

Generalizing

1. Question to encourage students to generalize from one story to another. For example: Are most heroines of fairy tales as kind as Cinderella? Give some examples to support your answer.
2. Question to encourage students to generalize from what they read to their own experiences. For example: Can we say that most stepmothers are mean to their stepchildren? Why or why not?

Predicting outcomes

1. Question to encourage students to think ahead to what may happen in the future and make a prediction. For example: After Cinderella's beautiful dress changes back to rags, what do you think happens?

Summarizing

1. Question to help students summarize or restate the important points in their own words. For example: Retell a short version of the story with just the most important parts.

List 104. Question Starters for Discussions

Discussion has been found to be one of the most effective techniques for improving comprehension. Discussion questions help students focus attention on key information in the text, see connections, listen to others' interpretations of text, and put fleeting thoughts into words. Discussion also is an opportunity for students to get feedback from the teacher and from peers. Many teachers try to frame questions in a way to ensure they lead to higher-order thinking. One way to do this is to use verbs associated with Bloom's revised taxonomy.

Teachers find it very helpful to prepare questions for discussion in advance. Here are some question starters that will guide your high-order thinking questions.

Remember

1. Use at least three adjectives to describe ______.
2. What happened after ____.
3. Describe the setting of the story _____.

Understand

1. What is the main idea of the story?
2. What is the moral of the story?
3. How would you read the parts of the story where the stepsisters are talking? Why?

Apply

1. If this story took place in 2020, what would be different?
2. What other outcomes to the story can you think of?
3. If you could interview the main character, what questions would you ask?

Analyze

1. Rank these characters on the spectrum from good to evil.
2. What factors lead to this outcome?
3. Why did the process fail?

Evaluate

1. What are the pros and cons of the proposed policy for the employees and for the owner of the company?
2. How would you determine which was a better choice?
3. What data would you need to make an informed decision about this?

Create

1. Imagine a ____ of the future. What new features would it have and why?
2. What new uses can you think of for _______?
3. Propose a law that addresses the problem we are discussing.

List 105. Proverbs

Proverbs are common, wise, or thoughtful sayings that are short and often applicable to different situations. What we think of as American proverbs are really an amalgam of sayings brought from every corner of the world and handed down in families and neighborhoods, from the ancient Chinese A picture is worth a thousand words to the colonial American A stitch in time saves nine. Speakers of other languages often report a version of a proverb in their home languages. (See List 184, Dichos—Spanish Proverbs, for proverbs that have their roots in Spanish.) You'll find some proverbs seem to contradict others, as in Haste makes waste and He who hesitates is lost. One or the other is surely good advice, depending on the circumstance!

Proverbs make excellent prompts for writing assignments or to launch a good discussion about a moral or perspective. Proverbs can also spur some creative writing, but don't be surprised if the result is humorous. For example, one teacher gave the first part of a proverb and asked students to tell the ending. The teacher reported that her first grader completed A penny saved is …with not much! You and your students might enjoy adding to this collection.

Relationships

1. A false friend and a shadow stay only while the sun shines.
2. A false friend is worse than an open enemy.
3. A friend in need is a friend indeed.
4. Absence makes the heart grow fonder.
5. All's fair in love and war.
6. A friend who shares is a friend who cares.
7. A good neighbor, a found treasure!
8. A man is judged by the company he keeps.
9. A merry companion is music on a journey.
10. Better to have loved and lost than never to have loved at all.
11. Blood is thicker than water.
12. Familiarity breeds contempt.
13. Good fences make good neighbors.
14. If you can't beat them, join them.
15. Like father, like son.
16. Love will find a way.
17. Marry in haste, repent at leisure.
18. Misery loves company.
19. Short visits make long friends.

Action and determination

1. A faint heart never won a fair lady.
2. A good deed is never wasted.
3. A little too late is much too late.
4. A quitter never wins and a winner never quits.
5. A rolling stone gathers no moss.
6. A stitch in time saves nine.
7. Actions speak louder than words.
8. All things come to those who wait.
9. Don't put off for tomorrow what you can do today.
10. He or she who hesitates is lost.
11. He or she who sits on the fence is easily blown off.
12. If you can't stand the heat, get out of the kitchen.
13. If you want something done, ask a busy person.
14. Leave no stone unturned.
15. Lost time is never found.
16. Make hay while the sun shines.
17. Never put off ‘til tomorrow what you can do today.
18. No pain, no gain.
19. Nothing ventured, nothing gained.
20. Of all the sad words of tongue or pen, the saddest ones, “It might have been.”
21. Sometimes you have to run just to stay in place.
22. Strike while the iron is hot.
23. When the going gets tough, the tough get going.
24. Where there's a will, there's a way.

Caution

1. Better safe than sorry.
2. Don't cross the bridge until you come to it.
3. Forewarned is forearmed.
4. Haste makes waste.
5. Learn to walk before you run.
6. Look before you leap.
7. Waste not, want not.

Encouragement

1. Every cloud has a silver lining.
2. Every path has a puddle.
3. Every slip is not a fall.
4. He who rides slowly gets just as far, only it takes longer.
5. If at first you don't succeed, try, try again.
6. If you come to the end of your rope—tie a knot in it and hang on.
7. The darkest hour is just before the dawn.
8. The first step is always the hardest.

Appearances

1. Beauty is in the eye of the beholder.
2. Beauty is only skin deep.
3. Clothes do not make the man.
4. Every mother's child is handsome.
5. Love is blind.
6. The beard does not make the philosopher.
7. The grass is always greener on the other side of the fence.
8. You can't tell a book by its cover.

Good deeds

1. Charity begins at home.
2. Civility costs nothing.
3. Do right and fear no one.
4. Do unto others as you would have them do unto you.
5. Give credit where credit is due.
6. Great oaks from little acorns grow.
7. One good turn deserves another.
8. To err is human; to forgive, divine.
9. Two wrongs don't make a right.

Words

1. A picture is worth a thousand words.
2. A soft answer turneth away wrath.
3. A tongue is worth little without a brain.
4. A word of praise is equal to ointment on a sore.
5. A word spoken is not an action done.
6. Ask a silly question and you get a silly answer.
7. Ask no question and hear no lies.
8. Bad news travels fast.
9. Brevity is the soul of wit.
10. Sticks and stones may break my bones but names can never hurt me.
11. Still waters run deep.
12. The pen is mightier than the sword.
13. The squeaky wheel gets the grease.
14. There's many a slip between cup and lip.

Animals

1. A bird in the hand is worth two in the bush.
2. A leopard cannot change its spots.
3. Birds of a feather flock together.
4. Curiosity killed the cat.
5. Don't change horses in midstream.
6. Don't count your chickens before they're hatched.
7. It is better to have a hen tomorrow than an egg today.
8. Let sleeping dogs lie.
9. One camel doesn't make fun of another camel's hump.
10. The early bird catches the worm.
11. When the cat's away, the mice will play.
12. You can lead a horse to water but you can't make it drink.
13. You can't teach an old dog new tricks.

Money and wealth

1. A fool and his money are soon parted.
2. A penny saved is a penny earned.
3. All that glitters is not gold.
4. Better a dollar earned than ten inherited.
5. Better to heaven in rags than to hell in embroidery.
6. Don't put all your eggs in one basket.
7. Early to bed, early to rise makes a man or woman healthy, wealthy, and wise.
8. Fortune and misfortune are next-door neighbors.
9. He or she who pays the piper calls the tune.
10. It takes pennies to make dollars.
11. Lend your money and lose your friend.
12. Money burns a hole in your pocket.
13. The second million is always easier than the first.
14. They who dance must pay the fiddler.
15. Time is money.
16. You reap what you sow.

Food

1. A tree is known by its fruit, not by its leaves.
2. An apple a day keeps the doctor away.
3. Don't cry over spilt milk.
4. Don't bite the hand that feeds you.
5. Don't count your chickens before they're hatched.
6. Every pea helps to fill the pod.
7. God gives food but does not cook it.
8. Half a loaf is better than none.
9. He or she who would eat the fruit must climb the tree.
10. Honey catches more flies than vinegar.
11. The apple never falls far from the tree.
12. The proof of the pudding is in the eating.
13. There's no such thing as a free lunch.
14. Too many cooks spoil the broth.
15. Too many square meals make too many round people.
16. You can't have your cake and eat it too.

Miscellaneous

1. A bad broom leaves a dirty room.
2. A chain is as strong as its weakest link.
3. A clean conscience makes a soft pillow.
4. A good beginning makes a good ending.
5. A house divided cannot stand.
6. A hovel on the rock is better than a palace on the sand.
7. A little knowledge is a dangerous thing.
8. A man is not better than his conversation.
9. A person who gets all wrapped up in himself makes a mighty small package.
10. A rising tide lifts all boats.
11. A watched pot never boils.
12. Adversity makes strange bedfellows.
13. All good things come to an end.
14. An idle brain is the devil's workshop.
15. Beggars can't be choosers.
16. Better late than never.
17. Better safe than sorry.
18. Charity begins at home.
19. Confession is good for the soul.
20. Different strokes for different folks.
21. Do as I say, not as I do.
22. Don't judge a man until you've walked in his boots.
23. Don't put the cart before the horse.
24. Everybody's business is nobody's business.
25. Fact is stranger than fiction.
26. Fool me once, shame on you. Fool me twice, shame on me.
27. Good things come in small packages.
28. He who holds the ladder is as bad as the thief.
29. He or she gives twice who gives quickly.
30. He or she who lives by the sword, dies by the sword.
31. Hindsight is better than foresight.
32. If you're not part of the solution, you're part of the problem.
33. In unity there is strength.
34. It is better to bend than break.
35. It is nice to be important, but it is more important to be nice.
36. It never rains but it pours.
37. Living in worry invites death in a hurry.
38. Make the house clean enough to be healthy and dirty enough to be happy.
39. Necessity is the mother of invention.
40. No news is good news.
41. Obstinacy is the strength of the weak.
42. Old habits die hard.
43. One can learn even from an enemy.
44. One good turn deserves another.
45. People who live in glass houses shouldn't throw stones.
46. Pleasant hours fly fast.
47. The best things in life are free.
48. The road to hell is paved with good intentions.
49. The stable wears out a horse more than a road.
50. Variety is the spice of life.
51. You're never too old to learn.

List 106. Graphic Organizers

The term graphic organizer refers to a visual display that organizes and shows the relationships among facts, concepts, ideas, or other types of information. Graphic organizers (GOs) have been used for a long time to support student learning. One of the most common, the Venn diagram, has been in use since 1881. The following lists outline the benefits of using graphic organizers, enumerate attributes of effective graphic organizers, and provide some tips for using graphic organizers. These lists are followed by an exemplar list of commonly used graphic organizers.

Graphic organizers can help your students by doing the following:

• Organizing complex information in simple arrays
• Showing relationships or associations among entities
• Showing characteristics or attributes for more than one thing
• Focusing attention on key elements in text
• Guiding thinking as the organizer is completed
• Enabling students to see ideas and relationships while thinking
• Involving more than one modality in the process of learning and understanding
• Painting a big picture of the problem or field
• Clarifying information by considering relationships (Main idea–detail, order, sequence, part-whole, associated attributes, etc.)
• Communicating complex information or processes simply
• Highlighting types of data that are missing or incomplete
• Supporting students as they work through complex processes (experiments, story grammars, developing arguments, problem solving, decision making, comparing and contrasting multiple concepts, evaluating outcomes, etc.)
• Organizing information for presentation orally or in written form

Effective Graphic Organizers

• Use simple and uncluttered design
• Are chosen specifically for the type of information and relationships
• Portray information clearly and unambiguously
• Use visual features (color, fonts, scale, etc.) to support organization and information
• Reflect the level of sophistication of students and topics

Tips for Teaching with GOs

• Identify types for specific purposes (comparison, traits, sequence, story, grammar) and use consistently.
• Model how to use each type of GO as you introduce it.
• Assign pairs or small groups to work on a GO together.
• Integrate into teaching—select and use specific types before, during, and after reading.
• Use consistent and grade-appropriate labels for parts.

Types of Graphic Organizers

Spider Map

Spider maps are often used to show key ideas and details. For example, it could be used to describe a place (geographic region), a process (meiosis), a concept (altruism), or a proposition (children should be vaccinated).
Some questions to use:

1. What is the main idea, concept, or theme?
2. What are its important attributes or arguments?
3. What are its important functions?

Flow Chart or Chain of Events
Flow charts or chain of events are used to describe and show the stages of something (the life cycle of a butterfly), the steps in a procedure (how a bill becomes a law), a sequence of events (how the invention of the movable type printing press led to the Renaissance), or the chronology of major events in in the life of a person, institution, or political entity.
Key questions to use:

1. What was the initiating or first event?
2. What steps, stages, or events followed?
3. How did earlier steps, stages, or events lead to later ones?
4. What was the final outcome?

Time Line or Continuum
A time line is used to show chronological or time order. It uses a variety of time scales from nanoseconds to millennia or even light years. Its related continuum graph shows amounts, degrees, or ratings (few to many, least to most, 1 to 5, preschool to college, etc.).

Units or scales are important for conveying information accurately.

Compare-and-Contrast Matrix

	Maria	Sally
Attribute 1 Friendliness	Liked everybody	Liked few people
Attribute 2 Dependability	Always on time	Frequently late
Attribute 3 Initiative	Self-starter	Waits to be told

A compare-and-contrast matrix uses a table to array the attributes of two or more things. Typically the attributes are listed down the first column and the items being compared are listed in the first row.
Question to use:

1. What are the important attributes of interest?

Semantic Feature Analysis Matrix
A semantic feature analysis matrix is used to show the presence or absence of a list of traits or attributes for a number of samples. In the example at left, the first column shows different samples of pets, and the potential features for pets are arrayed across the top of the grid. These matrices are often used in science and social studies content.

A plus sign (+) indicates that the sample has the attribute or feature and a minus sign (-) indicates the sample does not have the feature or attribute.

Structured Overview
A structured overview organizes information about components of a larger unit. For example, many social studies texts use a structured overview to show the powers of the three branches of the US federal government.

When provided to students before a reading assignment, structured overviews guide students' attention and note taking and make it easy to keep information linked to the appropriate component. Scaffold students by filling in the main category and subcategories.

Venn Diagram
Venn diagrams are used to compare and contrast two or more things by showing the traits they have in common and the traits they have uniquely.

Venn diagrams are used frequently in math, set theory, logic, social sciences, science, and philosophy.

Fishbone or Cause-and-Effect Diagram
Fishbone diagrams are used to show actions or circumstances that contribute to a result. Once major causes are listed, each can be explored more deeply so a greater understanding can be achieved.

To use a fishbone diagram in planning, begin with the end result and then work back through the major steps and the details of those steps.

Cycle Diagram
Cycle diagrams are used to depict a repetitive set of steps in which the last step leads again to the first step in an unending sequence.

Many concepts in the natural sciences can be represented using cycle diagrams including the water cycle and life cycle.

It is customary to represent the major stages of a cycle in a clockwise sequence.

Semantic Map
A semantic map is often used to help students learn and remember the meaning of key vocabulary words. The target word is placed in the center of the map and groups of related words and phrases are connected to it. For example, if the target word is in the center, a list of synonyms is placed in the upper right corner, a list of antonyms is placed in the upper left corner, the dictionary definition is placed in the lower left corner, and a sentence using the target word is placed in the lower right corner.

Network Diagram
Network diagrams help visualize how different parts of a system are related to one another and how information or effect is passed up, down, or even across elements in the system. They also help solve problems by locating where on a path a link is missing or aligned incorrectly.

A related graphic organizer is the tree diagram, which is used to show family relationships and other hierarchical situations. Tree diagrams, usually arrayed horizontally, are also used to show all possible outcomes of experiments in probability.

Problem-Solution Diagram
The problem-solution diagram is used to identify the problem or conflict in a story, list the possible or attempted solutions and their outcomes, and discuss the final results or resolution to the problem.
It is also used to track the outcomes of various experimental efforts to solve a problem.

List 107. Problem-Solving Guide

John Dewey said, A problem well put is half-solved. Indeed, stating the problem in your own words is one of the most often suggested first steps. Using combinations from this three-step guide will help students solve most problems. Remember, if you immediately know the answer to a question, it wasn't a problem. Problems require creativity and perseverance.

1. Understand the problem.
   • State the problem in your own words.
   • Visualize the problem.
   • Act out the problem.
   • Draw a diagram, flowchart, or picture of the problem.
   • Make a table, Venn diagram, or graph of the problem.
   • Look for patterns in the problem.
   • Compare it with another problem you have solved.
   • List everything you know about it.
   • Think about its parts, one at a time.
2. Propose and try solutions.
   • Use logical reasoning.
   • Brainstorm alternatives.
   • Write an equation.
   • Choose an operation and work it through.
   • Estimate and check the results.
   • Work backward from the product or result.
   • Link a solution to each part of the problem.
   • Solve problems within the problem.
   • Evaluate and sort the information you have.
   • Organize the information in a grid or matrix.
   • Eliminate solutions that don't work.
   • Solve a simpler version of the problem first.
3. Check the results.
   • Fill in an information matrix.
   • Redo the computation with a calculator.
   • Create a flowchart or visual of the answer.
   • Dramatize the result.
   • Compare the results with the estimates made earlier.
   • Use the results on a trial basis.
   • Monitor the effects of the results over time.
   • Check the answer with a reference source.
   • Have another team or the teacher critique the result.

List 108. Paragraph and Text Organization

Fiction has a simple literary structure. A story has characters, a setting, and a plot or sequence of events in which a problem is solved. Stories have a beginning where all the parts are introduced, a middle where tension builds, and an ending during which the problems are resolved. Children listening to stories read aloud are able to pick out these elements with just a little help.

Text organization or structure in nonfiction is more complex. Text organization refers to the way information is arranged and depends on the type of information the author is presenting. As students read informational texts they need to know and be able to recognize the common patterns authors use to organize and present ideas. And, as students write they need to understand which organizational patterns will best support their communication goals. These expectations are included in the Common Core State Standards for both reading and writing beginning in grade 4. In primary grades, students focus on more visual organizational helpers, such as headings, sidebars, and illustrations.

Knowing how information is organized enables the reader to keep track of ideas, see relationships among them, anticipate what will come next, and make sense of the ideas as they are read. In other words, understanding text structure helps students construct meaning from print.

An author may use more than one text structure in a chapter, depending on what the material is about. For example, a chapter in a history text may begin with a description, then a chronology of the development of the location, and end with a comparison of this location with another. Authors use signal words to help readers recognize the organization and direct their attention appropriately. (See List 144, Signal and Transition Words.) This list includes the most frequently used organizational structures students will encounter.

1. Description. Some nonfiction text are written to describe something or someone. In a descriptive structure, the author provides the focal point—the person, event, idea, or thing of interest—and lists its characteristics and features using sensory details to paint a picture in the mind of the reader. The author includes facts that tell what it is, what it does, what it looks like. Many authors include a definition, synonyms and antonyms, and examples including those framed as similes, metaphors, or analogies to help the reader understand.

   Some signals for description include for example, such as, characteristics, features, is described as, like, similar to, for instance, to illustrate, and sense words.

2. Chronological order. The word chronological means “time order” and information presented in chronological order is organized by when things happened. The when may be expressed as years, dates, days of the week, or even hours. The important aspect is that the order matches the order in which the events occurred. Occasionally, an author will present things in reverse chronological order, for example, starting with this year and moving back in time. Topics in history or in the development of something over time are usually presented in chronological order.

   Some signals for chronological order include years, dates, days of the week, historic periods, and words such as first, second, then, next, before, finally, after, during, and until.

3. Sequential order. Sequential order is similar to, but not the same as, chronological order. The important difference is that sequential order shows the order of steps to a process but does not tie them to a specific time or date. For example, directions for making muffins are in sequential order and it doesn't matter whether you bake them on Thursday, in February, or in 2019. The sequence is the important thing. In addition being used for directions, sequential order can be used for most processes, including how caterpillars become butterflies, bills become law, or teams qualify for playoffs.

   Some signals for sequential order include first, next, before, last, and then.

4. Compare and contrast. When the author wants to explore the ways two or more things are the same and different, the compare-and-contrast structure is used. This is a useful pattern if the reader knows about one thing and is learning about the other. Using compare and contrast in a sense would be like using synonyms and antonyms or analogies like this one. It is important for students to learn that difference does not imply that one thing is better than another. A blue pen is not better or worse than a green one.

   Usually an author will tell the ways two things are the same and then tell how they differ. If only similarities are discussed, it is called a comparison; if only differences are discussed it is called a contrast. Authors may also use a table with the features of the two things being compared side-by-side or a Venn diagram as a text support for comparisons and contrasts.

   Some signals for compare and contrast include like, such as, unlike, both, also, neither, different, similarly, and on the other hand.

5. Cause and effect. Authors of informational texts often describe events (effects) and tell why (causes) they happened. The cause-effect relationship can be tricky for students because of its inherent chronological aspect: causes occur before their effects but not everything that happens before contributes to the outcome, results, or effect. Another aspect of cause and effect that can be problematic is that there is not always a one-to-one correspondence. Things happen as a result of multiple contributing factors. Cause-and-effect text can be written describing the cause first and then the effect or describing an event and then telling how it came to be. The cause-and-effect organization is often found in history, economics, and science texts.

   Some signals for cause and effect include cause, effect, reason, outcome, result, happened, contributing factor, factors, explained by, lead to, because, since, affected, and due to.

6. Problem and solution. When authors use the problem-and-solution structure they introduce and describe a problem or negative situation and then present one or more solutions that the author argues can, should, or may be used to address the problem. In describing the problem, facts and unmet needs are often included. These form criteria for judging the merit of the solution or solutions posed. The problem and solution structure is often found in texts about social studies, politics, science, and engineering topics.

   Some signals for the problem-and-solution structure include situation, problem, issue, solution, remedy, idea, proposal, resolution, cost, benefits, one thought, and result.

7. Order of importance. Some topics are best discussed according to the order of importance or hierarchy to which they belong. A hierarchy, such as a government or company, is a system or arrangement of levels with one level being above or superior to another and other levels being below or inferior. In a company, for example, the president or owner is at the top level, with managers on the level below, followed by workers on the next level down. When using this structure, the author may begin at the bottom level of the organization and work up or begin at the top and work down. An organization chart or tree diagram is often used to support this type of text. Order of importance structures are often used in business, civics, economics, and natural sciences.

   Some signals of an order of importance structure are hierarchy, organization, level, category, subcategory, class, ranking, command, executive, managerial, branch, families, and species.

8. Advantage and disadvantage. An author will use the advantage-disadvantage structure to evaluate one thing against a set of criteria. The author generally begins with a description of a need including attributes or criteria desired to fill the need. Then the author introduces a proposed answer or solution to the need and considers it relative to the criteria with the matches counted as advantages and the nonmatches counted as disadvantages. This differs from problem solution in that advantage-disadvantage usually has a neutral perspective whereas a problem solution is more argumentative or persuasive in its presentation.

   Some signals of advantage-disadvantage include advantage, disadvantage, plus, negative, and on the other hand.

9. Spatial organization. Authors use spatial organization when the location of one element in relation to another element is important. Spatial organization is often used to orient a visitor to a space, to describe natural phenomena where they are found, or to give detailed descriptions. For example, text describing the geology of the earth will often use spatial organization and begin the description with the earth's outermost crust, then proceed inward to the mantle, then outer core, and finally the inner core.

   Some signals of spatial organization include above, below, on top, at the bottom, to the north, beneath, next to, across from, behind, and near.

10. List. A simple and often used text structure is the list. Authors use the list to organize numerous items in a category to make the information more accessible. Lists are often alphabetized or numbered to speed location of a particular item on the list or lists may group items into categories and subcategories. Directories, menus, Q&A, FAQs, fact sheets, and dashboards are some common examples of the list organization.

List 109. Character Traits

Even before students learn to read independently, we talk with them about the characters they meet in a wide range of stories. We probe why a character acted in a certain way. We ask students to predict behavior based on what they know about a character. These forward inferences may combine text-based or reader-based knowledge. We also ask students to use evidence from a character's actions in the story to describe the character's personality traits. These discussions begin early. By grade 3, students are expected to identify and describe a character's actions, thoughts, and motivations.

To support this goal, direct instruction on character traits is necessary. Begin with the definition: Character traits are the patterns of behavior and attitudes that make up someone's personality. They stay with the person and influence what they do, say, and think. Provide examples of traits and ask students what a person with x trait is likely to do in a specific circumstance. Next, brainstorm words that describe different traits or personalities. An effective Q&A strategy for young students is to ask questions such as, Would a messy person have a very neat closet? Would a greedy person offer to share his or her games? Would you expect a punctual or tardy student to be late?

Provide students with a graphic organizer to note the page number and specific words in a story that describe the character or show actions that suggest the character's traits. Older students can read on their own and keep a log of the evidence. Brainstormed lists of traits make excellent word walls that can also support character development in writing. Here is a list of character traits, personality traits, and behavior characteristics to get you started.

Primary

1. absent-minded
2. adventurous
3. affectionate
4. afraid
5. alert
6. amusing
7. angry
8. annoyed
9. anxious
10. attentive
11. babyish
12. bad
13. bashful
14. bored
15. boyish
16. brainy
17. brave
18. bright
19. brilliant
20. busy
21. calm
22. capable
23. careful
24. caring
25. childish
26. clever
27. clumsy
28. competitive
29. confused
30. considerate
31. cooperative
32. courageous
33. crafty
34. cross
35. cruel
36. curious
37. cute
38. dainty
39. dependable
40. dishonest
41. disobedient
42. disrespectful
43. disruptive
44. dreamy
45. eager
46. excited
47. expert
48. fair
49. fearful
50. fearless
51. finicky
52. flexible
53. forgetful
54. friendly
55. frightened
56. funny
57. fussy
58. generous
59. gentle
60. good
61. grateful
62. greedy
63. grouchy
64. grumpy
65. guilty
66. happy
67. healthy
68. helpful
69. honest
70. hopeful
71. jealous
72. jolly
73. kind
74. lazy
75. leader
76. liar
77. loud
78. lovable
79. lucky
80. messy
81. naughty
82. neat
83. nice
84. noisy
85. obedient
86. organized
87. picky
88. playful
89. pleasant
90. polite
91. popular
92. predictable
93. punctual
94. quick
95. quiet
96. quirky
97. reasonable
98. sad
99. satisfied
100. scholarly
101. selfish
102. serious
103. sharing
104. shy
105. silly
106. sloppy
107. sly
108. smart
109. sneaky
110. spoiled
111. stern
112. strict
113. strong
114. sweet
115. talented
116. thoughtful
117. thoughtless
118. tidy
119. trustworthy
120. truthful
121. understanding
122. unfriendly
123. unhappy
124. unkind
125. unpredictable
126. unreliable
127. unselfish
128. wicked
129. wise
130. wishful
131. worried

Elementary

1. able
2. abrupt
3. active
4. adaptable
5. admirable
6. aggressive
7. agreeable
8. airy
9. ambitious
10. appreciative
11. bizarre
12. blue
13. boastful
14. bold
15. businesslike
16. carefree
17. careless
18. cautious
19. challenging
20. charming
21. cheerful
22. cold
23. colorful
24. competent
25. complex
26. conceited
27. concerned
28. confident
29. confidential
30. courteous
31. cowardly
32. crazy
33. creative
34. criminal
35. crisp
36. critical
37. dangerous
38. daring
39. dark
40. delicate
41. demanding
42. destructive
43. difficult
44. dignified
45. diligent
46. disagreeable
47. discouraged
48. distractible
49. dull
50. educated
51. efficient
52. embarrassed
53. energetic
54. evil
55. excitable
56. exciting
57. experimental
58. extraordinary
59. extreme
60. faithful
61. false
62. fighter
63. firm
64. focused
65. foolish
66. forgiving
67. fresh
68. genuine
69. giving
70. gloomy
71. glum
72. graceful
73. grand
74. heroic
75. high-spirited
76. humorous
77. hurried
78. imaginative
79. immaculate
80. immature
81. impatient
82. impolite
83. inconsiderate
84. independent
85. industrious
86. informed
87. innovative
88. inventive
89. jovial
90. kindly
91. knowledgeable
92. light
93. lively
94. lonely
95. loving
96. loyal
97. mature
98. mischievous
99. moody
100. mysterious
101. nagging
102. nervous
103. observant
104. odd
105. orderly
106. ordinary
107. patient
108. peaceful
109. perfectionist
110. persistent
111. persuasive
112. pleasing
113. positive
114. practical
115. private
116. proud
117. relaxed
118. responsible
119. ridiculous
120. romantic
121. rough
122. rowdy
123. rude
124. self-confident
125. simple
126. sincere
127. skillful
128. smooth
129. soft
130. spunky
131. stiff
132. stingy
133. strange
134. studious
135. stupid
136. thankful
137. thorough
138. troublesome
139. trusting
140. ungrateful
141. unhurried
142. unpatriotic
143. useful
144. warm
145. weak
146. wild
147. youthful

Intermediate and Advanced

1. abrasive
2. accessible
3. affable
4. affected
5. agonizing
6. aimless
7. aloof
8. amiable
9. amoral
10. animated
11. anticipative
12. apathetic
13. apologetic
14. arbitrary
15. argumentative
16. arrogant
17. artful
18. articulate
19. artificial
20. ascetic
21. asocial
22. aspiring
23. assertive
24. astigmatic
25. austere
26. authoritarian
27. awkward
28. balanced
29. barbaric
30. benevolent
31. bewildered
32. bland
33. blasé
34. blunt
35. boisterous
36. boorish
37. bossy
38. breezy
39. brittle
40. brutal
41. brutish
42. calculating
43. callous
44. candid
45. cantankerous
46. captivating
47. casual
48. caustic
49. cerebral
50. changeable
51. charismatic
52. charmless
53. chummy
54. circumspect
55. civilized
56. clear-headed
57. coarse
58. cold-hearted
59. colorless
60. committed
61. communicative
62. compassionate
63. complacent
64. compulsive
65. conciliatory
66. condemnatory
67. conformist
68. conscientious
69. conservative
70. consistent
71. constant
72. contemplative
73. contented
74. contradictory
75. conventional
76. crass
77. crude
78. cultured
79. cunning
80. cynical
81. dauntless
82. debonair
83. decadent
84. deceitful
85. decent
86. deceptive
87. decisive
88. dedicated
89. deep
90. deferential
91. dependent
92. depressed
93. desiccated
94. desperate
95. despondent
96. determined
97. devious
98. devoted
99. directed
100. disaffected
101. discerning
102. disciplined
103. disconcerting
104. discontented
105. discouraging
106. discourteous
107. discreet
108. disillusioned
109. disloyal
110. dismayed
111. disorderly
112. disorganized
113. disparaging
114. disputatious
115. dissatisfied
116. dissolute
117. dissonant
118. distressed
119. disturbing
120. dogmatic
121. dominating
122. domineering
123. doubtful
124. dramatic
125. driving
126. droll
127. dry
128. dutiful
129. dynamic
130. earnest
131. earthy
132. easygoing
133. ebullient
134. effervescent
135. egocentric
136. elegant
137. eloquent
138. emotional
139. empathetic
140. encouraging
141. enervated
142. enigmatic
143. enthusiastic
144. envious
145. equable
146. erratic
147. escapist
148. esthetic
149. ethical
150. exacting
151. excessive
152. expedient
153. extravagant
154. exuberant
155. facetious
156. faithless
157. familial
158. fanatical
159. fanciful
160. farsighted
161. fatalistic
162. fawning
163. feisty
164. ferocious
165. fickle
166. fierce
167. fiery
168. fixed
169. flamboyant
170. folksy
171. forceful
172. formal
173. forthright
174. fortunate
175. frank
176. fraudulent
177. freethinking
178. freewheeling
179. frightening
180. frivolous
181. frugal
182. frustrated
183. fun-loving
184. furious
185. gallant
186. garrulous
187. giddy
188. glamorous
189. good-natured
190. graceless
191. gracious
192. gregarious
193. grim
194. guileless
195. gullible
196. hardworking
197. hardy
198. harried
199. harsh
200. hateful
201. haughty
202. hearty
203. hedonistic
204. hesitant
205. hidebound
206. high-handed
207. high-minded
208. homebody
209. honorable
210. hopeless
211. hospitable
212. hostile
213. hot-tempered
214. humble
215. hypnotic
216. iconoclastic
217. idealistic
218. idiosyncratic
219. ignorant
220. imitative
221. immobile
222. impartial
223. impassive
224. impersonal
225. impractical
226. impressionable
227. impressive
228. imprudent
229. impudent
230. impulsive
231. inactive
232. incisive
233. inconsistent
234. incorruptible
235. incurious
236. indecisive
237. indiscriminate
238. individualistic
239. indolent
240. indulgent
241. inefficient
242. inert
243. inhibited
244. inimitable
245. innocent
246. inoffensive
247. insecure
248. insensitive
249. insightful
250. insincere
251. insipid
252. insistent
253. insolent
254. insouciant
255. intelligent
256. intense
257. intolerant
258. intrepid
259. intuitive
260. invisible
261. invulnerable
262. irascible
263. irrational
264. irreligious
265. irresponsible
266. irreverent
267. irritable
268. joyful
269. keen
270. lackadaisical
271. languid
272. left-brained
273. leisurely
274. liberal
275. libidinous
276. licentious
277. light-hearted
278. limited
279. logical
280. loquacious
281. lyrical
282. magnanimous
283. malicious
284. manly
285. mannered
286. mannerly
287. many-sided
288. masculine
289. maternal
290. mawkish
291. mealy-mouthed
292. mean
293. mechanical
294. meddlesome
295. meek
296. melancholic
297. mellow
298. merciful
299. meretricious
300. methodical
301. meticulous
302. miserable
303. miserly
304. misguided
305. moderate
306. modern
307. modest
308. money-minded
309. monstrous
310. moralistic
311. morbid
312. muddle-headed
313. multi-leveled
314. murderous
315. mystical
316. naive
317. narcissistic
318. narrow
319. narrow-minded
320. negativistic
321. neglectful
322. negligent
323. neurotic
324. neutral
325. nihilistic
326. noncommittal
327. noncompetitive
328. objective
329. obliging
330. obnoxious
331. obsessive
332. obvious
333. offhand
334. old-fashioned
335. one-dimensional
336. one-sided
337. open
338. opinionated
339. opportunistic
340. oppressed
341. optimistic
342. original
343. outrageous
344. outspoken
345. painstaking
346. paranoid
347. passionate
348. passive
349. paternalistic
350. patriotic
351. pedantic
352. perceptive
353. perseverant
354. personable
355. perverse
356. pessimistic
357. petty
358. phlegmatic
359. physical
360. pitiful
361. placid
362. planful
363. plodding
364. polished
365. political
366. pompous
367. possessive
368. power-hungry
369. precise
370. predatory
371. prejudiced
372. preoccupied
373. presumptuous
374. pretentious
375. prim
376. primitive
377. principled
378. procrastinating
379. profligate
380. profound
381. progressive
382. proper
383. protean
384. protective
385. providential
386. provocative
387. prudent
388. psychotic
389. pugnacious
390. puritanical
391. purposeful
392. quarrelsome
393. questioning
394. quick-tempered
395. rational
396. rawboned
397. reactionary
398. reactive
399. realistic
400. reckless
401. reflective
402. regimental
403. regretful
404. reliable
405. religious
406. repentant
407. repressed
408. repugnant
409. repulsive
410. resentful
411. reserved
412. resourceful
413. respectful
414. responsive
415. restless
416. restrained
417. retiring
418. reverential
419. rigid
420. risk-taking
421. ritualistic
422. ruined
423. rustic
424. ruthless
425. sadistic
426. sage
427. sanctimonious
428. sarcastic
429. scared
430. scheming
431. scornful
432. scrupulous
433. secretive
434. secure
435. sedentary
436. self-centered
437. self-conscious
438. self-critical
439. self-denying
440. self-indulgent
441. selfless
442. self-reliant
443. self-sufficient
444. sensitive
445. sensual
446. sentimental
447. seraphic
448. sexy
449. shallow
450. sharp
451. sharp-witted
452. shiftless
453. shortsighted
454. shrewd
455. simple-minded
456. single-minded
457. skeptical
458. sober
459. sociable
460. softheaded
461. soft-hearted
462. solid
463. solitary
464. sophisticated
465. sordid
466. spendthrift
467. spontaneous
468. sporting
469. stable
470. steadfast
471. steady
472. steely
473. sterile
474. stoic
475. strong-willed
476. stubborn
477. stylish
478. suave
479. subjective
480. submissive
481. subtle
482. superficial
483. superstitious
484. supportive
485. surprising
486. suspicious
487. sympathetic
488. systematic
489. tactful
490. tactless
491. talkative
492. tasteful
493. tasteless
494. temperate
495. tense
496. thievish
497. thrifty
498. thrilled
499. timid
500. tireless
501. tolerant
502. touchy
503. tough
504. tractable
505. transparent
506. treacherous
507. trendy
508. unaggressive
509. unambitious
510. unappreciative
511. uncaring
512. unceremonious
513. unchanging
514. uncharitable
515. uncomplaining
516. unconcerned
517. unconvincing
518. uncooperative
519. uncoordinated
520. uncreative
521. uncritical
522. unctuous
523. undemanding
524. undependable
525. undisciplined
526. undogmatic
527. unfathomable
528. unforgiving
529. unimaginative
530. unimpressive
531. uninhibited
532. unlovable
533. unmerciful
534. unpolished
535. unprincipled
536. unrealistic
537. unreflective
538. unreligious
539. unrestrained
540. unsentimental
541. unstable
542. unsuitable
543. upright
544. urbane
545. vacuous
546. vague
547. venal
548. venomous
549. venturesome
550. vindictive
551. violent
552. virtuous
553. vivacious
554. vulnerable
555. weak-willed
556. well-bred
557. well-meaning
558. well-read
559. well-rounded
560. whimsical
561. willful
562. winning
563. wishy-washy
564. withdrawn
565. witty
566. zany

List 110. Tone and Mood Words

Writers use tone and mood to connect their listening and reading audiences to the story, poem, play, or other work. These two elements of writer's craft are related but are not the same. Both use word choice to create their desired effects. Tone is the author's attitude about the subject, the characters, or the audience. Is the author excited? Indifferent? Annoyed? Tone can be positive, neutral, or negative. In addition to vocabulary, the setting, dialogue style, and other details can also convey tone. Mood is the overall emotion or feeling created in the audience by the author. The author uses descriptive words, setting, and images to create a mood. Does the writing make you happy? Sad? Hopeful? Edgy?

Recognizing tone and mood can aid the discovery of themes in literature. We appreciate writers' talent by the way they create tone and mood and change the mood with plot twists or character behavior. The following lists show words that describe tone and mood. Look for these words and other context clues as evidence of the author's tone and the mood of the writing in stories, poems, plays, speeches, films, and songs. Some words appear on both lists because they can convey an author's attitude as well as create that feeling in the audience.

Positive Tone Words

1. admiring
2. adoring
3. affectionate
4. amused
5. appreciative
6. approving
7. awed
8. bemused
9. benevolent
10. celebratory
11. cheerful
12. comforting
13. comic
14. compassionate
15. complimentary
16. conciliatory
17. concurrence
18. confident
19. content
20. delighted
21. dreamy
22. ebullient
23. ecstatic
24. effusive
25. elated
26. empathetic
27. encouraging
28. enthusiastic
29. euphoric
30. excited
31. exhilarated
32. expectant
33. fervent
34. festive
35. friendly
36. funny
37. gleeful
38. gushy
39. happy
40. hilarious
41. hopeful
42. humorous
43. imploring
44. innocent
45. inspired
46. interested
47. jovial
48. joyful
49. laudatory
50. light
51. lively
52. lyrical
53. mirthful
54. motivated
55. mysterious
56. nostalgic
57. optimistic
58. passionate
59. playful
60. poignant
61. proud
62. reassuring
63. relieved
64. respectful
65. reverent
66. romantic
67. sanguine
68. satisfied
69. self-assured
70. sentimental
71. silly
72. sprightly
73. suspenseful
74. sympathetic
75. tasteful
76. tender
77. tranquil
78. whimsical
79. wistful
80. witty
81. worshipful
82. zealous

Neutral Tone Words

1. aloof
2. ambiguous
3. ambivalent
4. appraisal
5. blunt
6. bookish
7. calm
8. casual
9. clear
10. contemplative
11. deliberate
12. detached
13. detailed
14. didactic
15. direct
16. distant
17. earnest
18. educational
19. equivocal
20. formal
21. forthright
22. impartial
23. indifferent
24. indirect
25. informal
26. instructive
27. introspective
28. ironic
29. journalistic
30. learned
31. matter-of-fact
32. meditative
33. moderate
34. modest
35. multifaceted
36. neutral
37. nonchalant
38. objective
39. pedagogical
40. pensive
41. placid
42. profound
43. prosaic
44. passionate
45. questioning
46. relaxed
47. reflective
48. resigned
49. scholarly
50. serious
51. speculative
52. straightforward
53. tempered
54. unambiguous
55. uncertain
56. somber
57. unconcerned
58. understated

Negative Tone Words

1. accusatory
2. acerbic
3. admonition
4. angry
5. annoyed
6. antagonistic
7. antiquated
8. anxious
9. apathetic
10. apprehensive
11. arbitrary
12. arrogant
13. belligerent
14. bewildered
15. biased
16. biting
17. bitter
18. bittersweet
19. bleak
20. bossy
21. callous
22. caustic
23. choleric
24. conceited
25. concession
26. condescending
27. confrontational
28. confused
29. conjecture
30. contemptuous
31. conventional
32. convoluted
33. critical
34. curt
35. cynical
36. defiant
37. depressed
38. derisive
39. derogatory
40. desolate
41. despairing
42. desperate
43. diabolic
44. disappointed
45. disdainful
46. disliking
47. disrespectful
48. distasteful
49. doubtful
50. eccentric
51. eclectic
52. eerie
53. embarrassed
54. enraged
55. evasive
56. facetious
57. fatalistic
58. fearful
59. flippant
60. foggy
61. foreboding
62. frantic
63. frightened
64. frivolous
65. frustrated
66. furious
67. glib
68. gloomy
69. gory
70. greedy
71. grim
72. harsh
73. haughty
74. haunting
75. heretical
76. holier-than-thou
77. hopeless
78. horror
79. hostile
80. idiosyncratic
81. impatient
82. impetuous
83. impulsive
84. incredulous
85. indignant
86. inflammatory
87. insecure
88. insensitive
89. insolent
90. irate
91. irreverent
92. judgmental
93. lethargic
94. malicious
95. melancholy
96. mischievous
97. miserable
98. misgiving
99. mocking
100. morose
101. mournful
102. nervous
103. obsequious
104. ominous
105. outraged
106. paranoid
107. pathetic
108. patronizing
109. perplexing
110. pessimistic
111. petulant
112. polished
113. pompous
114. preachy
115. pretentious
116. psychotic
117. quizzical
118. resilient
119. reticent
120. reverent
121. ribald
122. ridiculing
123. sad
124. sarcastic
125. satirical
126. scornful
127. sinister
128. skeptical
129. slick
130. sly
131. stern
132. stinging
133. stolid
134. stressful
135. strident
136. sullen
137. superficial
138. surly
139. suspicious
140. tense
141. tentative
142. threatening
143. timid
144. tongue-in-cheek
145. tragic
146. trepidation
147. underhanded
148. uneasy
149. unfriendly
150. uninvolved
151. unsubstantiated
152. unsure
153. unsympathetic
154. upset
155. vindictive
156. violent
157. warning
158. wicked

Positive Mood Words

1. amused
2. awed
3. calm
4. cheerful
5. confident
6. contemplative
7. content
8. determined
9. dignified
10. dreamy
11. ecstatic
12. empowered
13. energetic
14. enlightened
15. enthralled
16. excited
17. exhilarated
18. fanciful
19. flirty
20. giddy
21. grateful
22. happy
23. harmonious
24. hopeful
25. idyllic
26. joyful
27. jubilant
28. liberating
29. light-hearted
30. loving
31. mellow
32. mysterious
33. nostalgic
34. optimistic
35. passionate
36. peaceful
37. playful
38. pleased
39. refreshed
40. rejuvenated
41. relaxed
42. relieved
43. romantic
44. satiated
45. satisfied
46. sentimental
47. surprised
48. suspenseful
49. sympathetic
50. thankful
51. thoughtful
52. touched
53. trustful
54. vivacious
55. warm
56. welcoming

Negative Mood Words

1. aggravated
2. angry
3. annoyed
4. anxious
5. apathetic
6. apprehensive
7. bored
8. brooding
9. confined
10. confused
11. cranky
12. crushed
13. cynical
14. depressed
15. desolate
16. disappointed
17. distressed
18. drained
19. dreary
20. enraged
21. envious
22. excited
23. exhausted
24. fatalistic
25. foreboding
26. frightening
27. frustrated
28. futile
29. gloomy
30. grumpy
31. guilty
32. haunting
33. heartbroken
34. hopeless
35. hostile
36. infuriated
37. insidious
38. intimidated
39. irate
40. irritated
41. jealous
42. lethargic
43. lonely
44. melancholic
45. moody
46. morose
47. mournful
48. mysterious
49. nauseated
50. nervous
51. nightmarish
52. numb
53. offended
54. optimistic
55. overwhelmed
56. pained
57. passionate
58. pensive
59. pessimistic
60. predatory
61. rejected
62. restless
63. sad
64. scared
65. sick
66. skeptical
67. sorrowful
68. stressed
69. surprised
70. suspenseful
71. tense
72. terrifying
73. threatened
74. uncertain
75. uncomfortable
76. unhappy
77. vengeful
78. violent
79. vulnerable
80. worried

List 111. Point of View

Point of view in literature is part of writer's craft. It affects the unfolding of a story and the way characters and events are described. It does this through the narrator's perspective. Beginning in grade 1, we draw students' attention to who is telling the story and ask whether one of the characters is narrating the story or whether the narrator is someone outside the story. This is the fundamental issue in point of view because it controls what the narrator knows and sees and, therefore, what the narrator can tell the reader or listener. Later, as students learn to analyze text and appreciate writer's craft, we expect them to identify how an author develops point of view, contrasts the perspectives of the different characters, and uses point of view to create effects such as suspense or humor. In the elementary grades discussions of point of view are usually limited to first- and third-person because they are the most often used.

When teaching students how to use point of view in their writing, these points are key:

1. Determining which point of view to use will control what your character(s) are able to know in the story.
2. Once you've adopted a point of view, be consistent. It is jarring when characters know something that it is impossible for them to know.
3. Use description of characters' facial expressions, body language, actions, clothing, and speech to let the readers know things about them.
4. Stay in character. Everything the narrator says should reflect the personality, age, culture, and background you establish.
5. Different points of view create feelings of distance or intimacy. Which is appropriate to your story?
6. Practice changing a story from first to third or third to first helps students experience the difference point of view makes.

Use this information on the three points of view to introduce or review how to identify the point of view and how each shape the development of the story and the reader's experience of it.

Terms to Know

1. Narrator—Who is telling the story?
2. Characters—Who is in the story?
3. Narrator's position—Is the narrator inside the story, as one of the characters, or outside and just watching as the story happens?
4. Narrator's perspective—What can the narrator know, see, and tell about based on his or her position?

First-Person Point of View

• Narrator inside the story
• One of the characters
• Can speak only of what is experienced through the narrator's five senses
• Uses the words I, we, my, mine, our, me, us
• Vivid, intimate, reader friendly; reader feels like a BFF of character
• Can create a character with attitude, one who sees things through a particular filter or personality trait
• Gives the readers a deep look at the inner feelings of one character as events unfold
• Creates a vicarious experience for reader
• Gives the writer the opportunity to live through something as another person
• Provides a personal narrative
• Presents a subjective or personal perspective, not a neutral one
• Makes the reader feel personally involved, as though present in the story
• Used most often in short stories, young adult fiction, adventure, romance

Example: I didn't know what to do. We had to leave before we were discovered. I picked up my hat and the rest of our gear and said, “Follow me!”

Third-Person Point of View

• Narrator outside the story
• Storyteller or narrator observing what is happening in the story
• Seems as though the narrator is following one of the characters and therefore sees and knows more from one character's experiences than the others
• Can speak of only what is visible through actions or the words of the characters
• Uses the words he, she, it, his, him, her, they, them
• Refers to characters by name
• Uses dialogue and description to express the thoughts and feelings of the characters
• Presents an objective perspective, not an emotional one
• Most common point of view used

Example: Gloria waited until Jim was seated at the table before she gave him the present. Smiling broadly, she passed the small box to him saying, “I've been waiting for this for a long time.” The others already knew what was in the box. They had helped pick it out.

Second-Person Point of View

• Tells the story as though it was about the reader
• Uses the words you, your, yours
• Can grab the reader's attention immediately
• Is used for limited purposes, such as directions, travel or advertising descriptions, self-help, video games

Examples: You peek at the alarm clock and pop open your eyes—you can't believe it's 10 o'clock! Heart pounding, you launch yourself from the bed and heading to the door, you realize it's Saturday!

Opening the balcony doors, you step out onto a tiled floor. There, from your tenth floor terrace, you see the wonders of Paris spread out before you.

List 112. Language Registers

From an early age children observe and imitate patterns of speech they hear at home, at school, and at the playground. The use of different levels of formality and vocabulary in specific settings is one of those patterns. Children can easily pick from a list of possibilities in which they might hear someone say, “Please, stop talking,” or “Shut up, will ya?” In the same way that students understand that synonyms may have the same literal meaning but are used in different circumstances, they learn that there are different ways to say or write something and the choice depends on the situation. Language teachers and experts generally use the terms introduced more than fifty years ago by Martin Joos to describe the five recognized levels or styles called registers.

Language arts standards in many states expect students in grade 2 to notice differences between formal and informal language. In grade 4, they are expected to differentiate between contexts that call for formal English and those where informal language is acceptable. By grade 5, students consider the variety of forms of English including dialects, regional expressions, and registers through their exploration of literature as well as their instruction in writing and language. Rigorous standards for students' use of academic vocabulary and development of strong oral and written communication skills make instruction in language registers an important part of the language arts curriculum. The following lists will help.

Definition of Language Register

A language register is the style or level of a language used in accord with or depending on the audience, topic, and purpose of the communication.

The Five Registers

Languages have five registers and customs or conventions for using each. Some languages, such as Spanish, also have different word forms for more formal or familiar communications.

Frozen	Frozen language is set and unchanging over time. It is often memorized and recited with a specific rhythm and tone quality. For example, when groups of people recite the Pledge of Allegiance, not only do they use the exact same words but also they use the same patterns of phrasing and pauses. Other examples of frozen language: poems, prayers, lyrics to songs, the Gettysburg Address, laws, historic speeches, oaths of office, oath in court to tell the truth, and marriage ceremonies
Formal	Carefully prepared statements. Formal communication is one-way from the speaker to the audience without interruptions, comments, or questions. The speaker or writer uses impersonal, precise, carefully chosen words and may use technical terms. Formal language often uses a set format called a template or boilerplate. Examples of formal language: speeches, sermons, formal invitations, announcements, legal notices and contracts, some presentations, and policy statements
Consultative	Consultative language is used in business and professional communication and between individuals when they are not on the same social or professional level, as in the conversation between lawyers and clients or teachers and students. In the consultative register, the speaker does not assume that the audience has all the prior knowledge or vocabulary knowledge needed for understanding and will explain key terms as he or she speaks. Consultative language is two way. The speaker monitors the expressions and body language of the audience and adjusts the content to facilitate understanding. The audience may use verbal and visual cues such as “uh-huh” and nodding to indicate that the message is being received. Audience members may politely interrupt by raising their hands or otherwise signaling that they have a question or comment. Other examples of consultative language: conversation between doctor and patient, counselor and client, boss and worker, expert and beginner, interviewer and interviewee, mentor and mentee, senior colleague and junior colleague, and many presentations
Casual	The casual register of language is used for conversation among equals and with friends and peers. It is informal, and slang, jargon, and colloquialisms are common. Casual language is sometimes called group language because it uses shared knowledge and insider terms and references. Explanatory information is rarely needed or given because of the group's common social context. Speakers may break off what they are saying with a phrase such as, “Well, you know what I mean …” or use a hand or facial gesture to convey the idea of and so on. Interruptions are common and are often viewed as complementary rather than disruptive. It is also used for first drafts that are intended to capture one's thoughts and not meant to be shared with others. Other examples: online chats, IMs, e-mail, blog posts, and notes to friends
Intimate	The intimate language register is used only between close family members, siblings, parents and children, husbands and wives, best friends, and romantic partners. Intimate language is private. It uses facial expression, body language and intonation to convey thoughts and often includes or uses words, real or created, to send messages with meaning only recognized by the sender and receiver. Other examples: secrets, codes, twin language, and double entendres

Using language registers

• Speaking or writing in the wrong register for the situation is not a good idea. It suggests the speaker or writer is uninformed or uneducated. The upper two levels are clearly public voices; the lowest two levels are private voices. If you are not sure which to use, consultative or formal is best. If you use a level above what is called for, you may be thought of as stuffy, aloof, or stiff. If you use a level that is below what is called for, you may be thought of as disrespectful, rude, or mocking.
• Students' writing tends to reflect the casual register they use to speak to friends and family. Instruction on registers can move their academic writing and presentations to the more appropriate consultative level.
• Textbooks and standardized exams are written in consultative and formal registers. Both require Standard American English competence. It is important for students to not only recognize these language styles but also be able to fluently communicate in them.
• Older students, thinking about employment opportunities, need to consider that the language on the job will require them to communicate in registers that may not be part of their language habits. Preparing for this change also means preparing to answer questions in an interview and preparing a résumé or responding to a job interview.
• Students learning English may have developed most of their vocabulary in conversation in social settings with peers or family members. They may not be aware of the differences among words with similar denotations but very different connotations. When working with vocabulary development with ELLs include explanations of the context in which words are used, especially if there are hidden or culturally sensitive implications.
• Using different registers not only changes the tone and vocabulary used but also often changes what is included in the communication. Exercises in which students work out how a similar or related discussion would unfold with different audiences. For example, students can role-play these three contexts: (1) Dave asks Samantha to go with him to meet a rock star at the airport; (2) Dave asks Samantha's parents if she could go with him to meet the rock star at the airport; (3) Dave asks the police officer if he can enter the airport terminal with Samantha to meet the rock star. Hint: In addition to tone, each scenario will require emphasis on different facts.
• The register is often determined by the content and purpose of the communication, then by the location and audience. For example, a proposal of marriage would be between two very close and romantically involved people, but a formal tone is called for, not an informal, casual, or intimate one.

List 113. Persuasive Techniques

Learning about writer's craft, we also learn that writers can be crafty! The techniques described in the following list are often used in advertising and political campaigning to create a desired impression or to move the audience to action. Teach your students to be critical readers and listeners by being alert to these attempts to mold their choices and viewpoints. Viewed negatively, they are used for propaganda; viewed positively they are persuasive devices.

1. Bandwagon. Using the argument that because everyone is doing it, you should, too. Last year thirty million winners switched to AIR-POPS athletic shoes. Isn't it time you did, too?
2. Card stacking. Telling only one side of the story as though there is no opposing view. This tape is especially designed to give the best audio playback money can buy. (No mention is made that the tape wears out very quickly and is expensive.)
3. Exigency. Creating the impression that your action is required immediately or your opportunity will be lost forever. Saturday and Sunday only! It's your last chance to get a really great deal on Camp jeans.
4. Flag waving. Connecting the person, product, or cause with patriotism. Drink foreign beer? Never! I drink Bot Beer—American all the way.
5. Glittering generality. Using positive or idealistic words based on a detail or minor attribute to create an association in the reader's mind between the person or object and something that is good, valued, and desired. Ron's been on the varsity team for all four years—you couldn't find a better team player or a more sportsmanlike young man.
6. Innuendo. Causing the audience to become wary or suspicious of the product, person, or cause by hinting that negative information may be kept secret. Other products claim they can handle the big, grimy, once-a-year cleaning jobs like a garage floor. Think what they will do to the no-wax finish on your kitchen floor where your baby plays.
7. Name calling. Using negative or derogatory words to create an association in the reader's mind between the person or object and something that is bad, feared, or distasteful. Do you really want a mob-linked mayor?
8. Overpowering. Saying something LOUD or repeatedly, over and over, and over, and over again. Using large or
9. Plain folks. Using a person who represents the typical target of the ad to communicate to the audience that because we are alike and I would use, buy, believe this, you should, too. If you're a sinus sufferer like I am, take extra-strength Azap. It helps me. It'll help you, too.
10. Pleasant images. Showing a smiling pretty girl, beautiful landscape, or a cute puppy and talking about or showing the product to associate a sense of peace, calm, and innocence with the product.
11. Prestige identification. Showing a well-known person with the object, person, or cause being advertised to create the impression of importance or prestige of the object, person, or cause. The celebrity does not have to say anything to endorse the product; just being pictured together creates the association. We treat our hotel guests like stars (the ad shows a celebrity walking into the hotel).
12. Red herring. Highlighting a minor detail as a way to draw attention away from more important details or issues. The XT399—the only sports car available in 32 “eye-catching” colors.
13. Snob appeal. Associating the product, person, or cause with successful, wealthy, admired people to give the audience the idea that if they buy or support the same things, they will also be one of the in-crowd. There really isn't a better racket (man in tennis clothes holding a racket in front of a very elegant country club building).
14. Testimonial. Using the testimony or statement of someone to persuade you to think or act as he or she does. I'm a doctor, and this is what I take when I have a headache.
15. Transfer. Linking a known personal goal or ideal with a product or cause in order to transfer the audience's positive feelings to the product or cause. Buy Pino in the biodegradable box and help end water pollution.

List 114. Literary Terms

Every area of knowledge, literature included, has its own specialized vocabulary. Knowing the following terms and their meanings will help students recognize the use of these elements in literature. These terms are basic to discussions about an author's craft or skilled use of language and about the works of literature. Many refer to techniques or devices students need to practice to improve and add interest to their writing.

1. Accented. A part of a word, phrase, or sentence spoken with greater force or a stronger tone
2. Act. Part or section of a play, similar to a book chapter; acts are usually made up of groups of scenes
3. Allegory. Links the objects, characters, and events of a story with meanings beyond the literal meaning of the story
4. Alliteration. Occurs when two or more words have the same beginning sound. Example: Mike mixed some malt in his milk.
5. Allusion. A reference to something well known outside the literary work. Example: A catch-22 is a circular outcome in which the first thing causes the second, which causes the first. It refers to a Joseph Heller novel of the same name in which the protagonist pretends to be crazy to avoid a dangerous mission but only a sane man would try to avoid the dangerous mission.
6. Anachronism. Something or someone that is not in its correct place in time, especially something that belongs to an earlier era
7. Anadiplosis. The use of the ending word of a phrase or clause as the beginning or base word for the next one. Example: Pleasure might cause her to read, reading might cause her to know, knowledge might win piety, and piety might grace obtain.
8. Analysis. Occurs when we look at and try to understand the parts of something so that we can better understand the whole thing
9. Antagonist. Character in a story who is the source of the conflict
10. Antithesis. Contrasting words or ideas by asserting something and then denying by parallel or balanced phrases. Example: This soup should be eaten cold, not hot.
11. Apophasis. A positive statement made by a negation. Example: I will not bring up my opponent's ignorance of the fact that …
12. Aside. A short speech or explanation directed at the audience during a play as though the actors on the stage weren't aware or couldn't hear what was being said
13. Assonance. Occurs when an internal vowel sound is repeated in two or more words. Example: He feeds the deer.
14. Author's purpose. Authors write for four main purposes: to entertain, inform, express opinions, and persuade.
15. Ballad. A long poem that tells a story; ballads usually have strong rhythm and rhyme
16. Biography. Gives a factual account of someone's life. If the writer tells of his or her own life, it is called an autobiography. If the writer tells of only a specific period in his life it is called a memoir.
17. Cast of characters. List of names of all the characters in a play
18. Cause and effect. Sometimes an event or circumstance makes another event or circumstance happen. The first one is called the cause or reason for the second one. The second one is called the effect or result.
19. Characterization. The way the author develops the personalities of the characters
20. Characters. People or animals in a story or other writing
21. Chiasmus. Change of word order to get the reader's attention and to highlight something. Example: Down he fell.
22. Chronological order. The telling of a group of events in the time order in which they happened
23. Cliché. An overused phrase. Examples: busy as a bee, gala occasion
24. Climax. The turning point in the story
25. Comparison. Points out the ways in which two or more things are alike or similar
26. Conclusions. A decision made after considering several pieces of information; the information may include facts from the reading and ideas that the reader already had
27. Conflict. The problem the characters face in the plot; the conflict can be a problem between two characters or between a character and something in nature or society; sometimes the conflict makes a character choose between two important ideas
28. Connotative. A secondary, more nuanced, or more emotional meaning for a word. For example: a weed is an undesirable plant.
29. Contrast. Points out the ways in which two or more things are different
30. Denotative. A factual, primary, or less emotional description or word. For example: a plant is a denotative name for a weed. Botanists classify plants, gardeners pull out weeds.
31. Denouement. Synonym for resolution; the end of the story in which questions are answered and loose ends are tied up
32. Description. A group of details the writer gives that helps the reader imagine a person, place, object, or event; the details help create a picture in the reader's mind
33. Dialogue. A conversation between characters in a story or play
34. Diction. The choice of words to create an effect
35. Drama. A story written to be acted out in front of an audience; another word for drama is play
36. Epic. A long, narrative poem about the deeds of a hero
37. Exposition. The essential background information provided by the author at the beginning of a work
38. Fact. A statement that can be proven
39. Fairy tale. An imaginary story about fairies, elves, magical deeds, giants, and so on
40. Falling action. The results or effects of the climax as it leads to the end of the story
41. Fantasy. A story that has imagined characters, settings, or other elements that could never really exist
42. Fiction. A form of literature that tells stories about characters, settings, and events that the writer invents; may be based on some real places, people, or events, but it is not a true, factual story about them
43. Figurative language. Language that cannot be understood literally; similes, metaphors, hyperbole, symbolism, and personification are all types of figurative language
44. Figure of speech. Words or phrases that have meaning different from the literal meaning, such as idioms, metaphors, and similes. Example: It's raining cats and dogs.
45. Flashback. The brief moving of the story back to an earlier event and time to provide clarity to the event taking place now
46. Folk tale. A story about people or animals that has been handed down from one generation to the next; often explains something that exists in nature or tells about a hero
47. Foreshadowing. A hint provided by the writer of something that will happen in the future
48. Form. The structure or arrangement of elements in literature. Example: The form of traditional poetry is lines of poetry in groups called stanzas.
49. Generalization. A statement about a whole group that is made based on information about part of the group
50. Genre. A category or type of writing, such as fiction and nonfiction, biography, adventure, and science fiction
51. Historical fiction. Uses details about real places, events, and times from history as the setting for an imagined story
52. Hyperbole. An exaggeration. Example: He must have been nine feet tall.
53. Idiom. An expression that cannot be understood from the literal meaning of its words. Example: Tom is barking up the wrong tree.
54. Imagery. The author's use of description and words to create vivid pictures or images in the reader's mind. Example: A blanket of soft snow covered the sleeping tractors.
55. Inference. A guess or conclusion based on known facts and hints or evidence; sometimes readers use information from experience to help make inferences about what they are reading
56. Irony. The use of tone, exaggeration, or understatement to suggest the opposite of the literal meaning of the words used. Example: I didn't mind waiting two hours; it was restful.
57. Kenning. A short metaphor for a thing that is not actually named. Example: Sky candle is a kenning for the word sun.
58. Litote. An understatement or assertion made by denying or negating its opposite. Example: He wasn't unhappy about winning the bet.
59. Main idea. The one idea that all the sentences in a paragraph tell about; sometimes the main idea is stated in a topic sentence; sometimes it is not stated but is implied
60. Metaphor. The comparison of two things without using the words “like” or “as.” Example: Habits are first cobwebs, then cables.
    1. Abstract metaphor. Links an abstract concept with an object. Example: Death is the pits.
    2. Animal metaphor. Associates the characteristics of an animal with human beings, animate or inanimate objects, or abstractions. Example: What a teddy bear he is!
    3. Animistic metaphor. Attributes life to inanimate objects. Example: The broom was a dancing machine.
    4. Frozen metaphor. So frequently used that it has become an idiom or an expression with understood but not literal meaning. Example: head of the class
    5. Humanistic metaphor. Gives an inanimate object human qualities or humans inanimate qualities. Example: a user-friendly computer, her porcelain skin
    6. Inanimate metaphor. Pairs the quality of an inanimate object with another inanimate object. Example: The walls were paper.
    7. Incarnation metaphor. Links the attributes of a deceased person to another person or entity. Example: He is a modern George Washington.
    8. Sense metaphor. Relates one of the five senses to an object or situation. Example: a cool reception
61. Metonymy. The use of a related word in place of what is really being talked about. Example: pen instead of writing
62. Mood. The sense or feeling created in the audience by the author's use of word choice and setting
63. Moral. The lesson that a story or fable teaches; sometimes the moral of a fable is stated at the end of the story
64. Motif. A recurring element contributing to the theme of a literary work
65. Motive. A reason a character does something
66. Narrative poetry. Poetry that tells a story
67. Narrator. The teller of a story
68. Nonfiction. Writing that tells about real people, places, and events
69. Novel. A long work of fiction
70. Ode. A poem written in praise of someone or something
71. Onomatopoeia. Words in which the sounds suggest the meaning of the words. Example: ouch
72. Opinion. A statement of someone's idea or feelings; cannot be proven; can be based on facts
73. Oxymoron. The use of words with contradictory or clashing ideas next to one another. Example: free slaves
74. Personification. The linking of a human quality or ability to an animal, object, or idea. Example: The wind whispered through the night.
75. Plot. Synonym for story line; the sequence of events that happen in order to solve the problem or conflict in the story
76. Poetry. An expression of ideas or feeling in words; usually has form, rhythm, and rhyme
77. Point of view. Refers to how a story is narrated. If a story is narrated from the first-person point of view, the narrator is a character in the story and uses the first-person pronouns I, me, mine, we, and our. A story narrated from the second-person point of view will use the pronoun you. If the story is narrated from the third-person point of view, the narrator is not part of the story and uses the third-person pronouns he, him, she, her, and them. Examples: First: “I wonder if we should leave,” I said. Second: You can hope for the best, but prepare for the worst. Third: He looked at them and smiled.
78. Predictions. The use of facts in the story and other information you know about the world to guess what will happen
79. Resolution. Synonym for denouement; the end of the story in which questions are answered and loose ends are tied up
80. Rhyme scheme. The pattern of rhyme of lines of poetry; usually designated by letters as in ABAB
81. Rhyme. Two or more words that have the same ending sound
82. Rhythm. A pattern of accented and unaccented syllables
83. Rising action. The development of the conflict and complications that build in the story
84. Science fiction. A type of story that is based on science-related ideas; some of the scientific “facts” and developments in science fiction are not real and may never be possible
85. Sequence. The order in which events occur or ideas are presented
86. Setting. The time and place in which the story happens
87. Simile. A comparison of two things using the words like or as. Example: She felt as limp as a rag doll.
88. Soliloquy. A speech given by a character in a play when alone on stage that reveals the character's thoughts
89. Solution. The turning point in a story line or plot; the part in which a decision or important discovery is made or an important event happens that will solve the story's problem or end the conflict; also called the resolution or the climax of the plot
90. Speaker. In a poem, the person or thing who is speaking
91. Stage directions. What tells actors how to perform their parts of a play; describe movements, tone, prop use, lighting, and other details
92. Stanza. A group of related lines in a poem that form a unit
93. Suspense. The state of curiosity and uncertainty in a work that creates tension, excitement, and anticipation
94. Symbolism. The use of an object to represent something entirely different that is also much deeper and more significant. Example: a dove is a symbol of peace
95. Theme. The underlying message about life or nature that the author wants the reader to get from the story, play, or poem
96. Tone. The author's attitude toward the subject of the work conveyed mainly through word choice and setting
97. Topic sentence. A sentence, often at the beginning of a paragraph, that presents the main idea, theme, mood, or summary
98. Tragedy. A poem, play, or other writing dealing with a serious theme in which a character is destined to fail because of a flaw of character
99. Understatement. The opposite of exaggeration; presenting something as less than it really is