NOTES

1. The Limits of U.S. Territorial Expansion

Epigraph: Mark Twain, Following the Equator: A Journey Around the World (Hartford, CT: American Publishing Co., 1897), 623.

1. Throughout this book, the term “leaders” refers to those individuals who directly shaped U.S. foreign policy. This group varies from case to case but usually includes the president and secretaries of state or war or both, who conduct diplomacy and order military operations; members of the Senate, who ratify treaties; and the House of Representatives, who control the budget available for purchases and wars.

2. Robert Gilpin, War and Change in World Politics (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1981); Jack Snyder, Myths of Empire: Domestic Politics and International Ambition (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1991); Fareed Zakaria, From Wealth to Power: The Unusual Origins of America’s World Role (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1998); Jeffrey W. Meiser, Power and Restraint: The Rise of the United States, 1898–1941 (Washington, DC: Georgetown University Press, 2015).

3. Stephen D. Krasner, Sovereignty: Organized Hypocrisy (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1999), 20–25.

4. Hans J. Morgenthau, Politics among Nations: The Struggle for Power and Peace (New York: McGraw Hill, 1993), 124–43; John J. Mearsheimer, The Tragedy of Great Power Politics (New York: W. W. Norton 2001), 55–82.

5. Max Weber, “Politics as a Vocation,” in From Max Weber: Essays in Sociology, ed. H. H. Gerth and C. Wright Mills (New York: Routledge, 2005), 78; Alexander Wendt, Social Theory of International Politics (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1999), 201–14.

6. Thomas M. Wilson and Hastings Donnan, eds., Border Identities: Nation and State at International Frontiers (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1998); Juliet J. Fall, “Artificial States? On the Enduring Geographical Myth of Natural Borders,” Political Geography 29, no. 3 (2010): 140–47; James D. Fearon, “Signaling Foreign Policy Interests: Tying Hands versus Sinking Costs,” Journal of Conflict Resolution 41, no. 1 (1997): 68–90.

7. Michael W. Doyle, Empires (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1986), 35.

8. Kenneth N. Waltz, Theory of International Politics (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1979), 71–72, 121–28; Colin Elman, “Horses for Courses: Why Not Neorealist Theories of Foreign Policy?” Security Studies 6, no. 1 (1996): 12–17.

9. Marc Trachtenberg, A Constructed Peace: The Making of the European Settlement, 1945–1963 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1999), 36.

10. Geoffrey Blainey, The Causes of War (New York: Free Press, 1988), 59.

11. Paul Kennedy, The Rise and Fall of the Great Powers: Economic Change and Military Conflict from 1500 to 2000 (New York: Vintage Books, 1987); Stuart J. Kaufman, Richard Little, and William C. Wohlforth, eds., The Balance of Power in World History (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2007).

12. David Day, Conquest: How Societies Overwhelm Others (New York: Oxford University Press, 2008), 3.

13. Charles Tilly, Coercion, Capital, and European States, AD 990–1990 (Cambridge, MA: Basil Blackwell, 1990), 28.

14. Gilpin, War and Change, 106.

15. Zakaria, From Wealth to Power.

16. On race’s significance in American political development: Desmond King and Rogers M. Smith, “Racial Orders in American Political Development,” American Political Science Review 99, no. 1 (2005): 75–92; Joseph Lowndes, Julie Novkov, and Dorian T. Warren, eds., Race and American Political Development (New York: Routledge, 2008); Mini symposium “American Political Development through the Lens of Race,” Political Research Quarterly 61, no. 4 (2008): 649–718.

17. Paul Frymer, Building an American Empire: The Era of Territorial and Political Expansion (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2017); Kevin Bruyneel, “Hierarchy and Hybridity: The Internal Postcolonialism of Mid-Nineteenth-Century American Expansionism,” in Lowndes, Novkov, and Warren, Race and American Political Development, 106–24.

18. Julie Novkov, Racial Union: Law, Intimacy, and the White State in Alabama, 1865–1954 (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 2008); Moon-Ho Jung, Coolies and Cane: Race, Labor, and Sugar in the Age of Emancipation (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2006); Stephen Skowronek, “The Reassociation of Ideas and Purposes: Racism, Liberalism, and the American Political Tradition,” American Political Science Review 100, no. 3 (2006): 385–401; Nikhil P. Singh, Black Is a Country: Race and the Unfinished Struggle for Democracy (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2004); Richard F. Bensel, Yankee Leviathan: The Origins of Central State Authority in America, 1859–1877 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1990).

19. See chapters 3, 6, 7; Stephen Skowronek, Building a New American State: The Expansion of National Administrative Capacities, 1877–1920 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1982).

20. Hilde E. Restad, American Exceptionalism: An Idea that Made a Nation and Remade the World (New York: Routledge, 2015); Godfrey Hodgson, The Myth of American Exceptionalism (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2009); Seymour M. Lipset, American Exceptionalism: A Double-Edged Sword (New York: W. W. Norton, 1996).

21. UN Charter art. 2, para. 4; cf. G. John Ikenberry, After Victory: Institutions, Strategic Restraint, and the Rebuilding of Order after Major Wars (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2001), chaps. 5–7; Oona A. Hathaway and Scott J. Shapiro, The Inter-nationalists: How a Radical Plan to Outlaw War Remade the World (New York: Simon and Schuster, 2017).

22. Ray S. Baker and William E. Dodd, eds., The Public Papers of Woodrow Wilson, vol. 2 (New York: Harper, 1925), 407; cf. George W. Egerton, Great Britain and the Creation of the League of Nations: Strategy, Politics, and International Organization, 1914–1919 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1978), 131.

23. Stephen C. Schlesinger, Act of Creation: The Founding of the United Nations (Boulder, CO: Westview, 2003), 111.

24. Harry S. Truman, Memoirs, vol. 2 (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1956), 333; George H. W. Bush, “Address on Iraq’s Invasion of Kuwait” (speech, Washington, DC, August 8, 1990), Miller Center, https://millercenter.org/the-presidency/presidential-speeches/august-8-1990-address-iraqs-invasion-kuwait.

25. Charles Tilly, “Reflections on the History of European State-Making,” in The Formation of National States in Western Europe, ed. Charles Tilly (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1975), 24.

26. Richard N. Rosecrance, The Rise of the Trading State: Commerce and Conquest in the Modern World (New York: Basic Books, 1986); cf. Robert O. Keohane and Joseph S. Nye, Power and Interdependence: World Politics in Transition (Boston: Little, Brown, 1977).

27. Robert H. Jackson, Quasi-States: Sovereignty, International Relations and the Third World (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1993); Jeffrey Herbst, “War and the State in Africa,” International Security 14, no. 4 (1990): 117–39.

28. Alexander Hamilton, “The Federalist No. 7,” in The Federalist: A Commentary on the Constitution of the United States, ed. Robert Scigliano (New York: Random House, 2001), 34; cf. John A. Vasquez, The War Puzzle (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1993), 130; Gary Goertz, Paul F. Diehl, and Alexandru Balas, The Puzzle of Peace: The Evolution of Peace in the International System (New York: Oxford University Press, 2016).

29. Robert Jervis, “Theories of War in an Era of Leading-Power Peace,” American Political Science Review 96, no. 1 (2002): 1–14.

30. Martha Finnemore and Kathryn Sikkink, “International Norm Dynamics and Political Change,” International Organization 52, no. 4 (1998): 887–917; Tanisha M. Fazal, State Death: The Politics and Geography of Conquest, Occupation, and Annexation (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2007), 47.

31. Nuno P. Monteiro, Theory of Unipolar Politics (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2014), 63; cf. Mearsheimer, Tragedy of Great Power Politics, 5.

32. Will Dunham, “Kerry Condemns Russia’s ‘Incredible Act of Aggression’ in Ukraine,” Reuters, March 2, 2014, http://www.reuters.com/article/2014/03/02/us-ukraine-crisis-usa-kerry-idUSBREA210DG20140302.

33. M. Taylor Fravel, “International Relations Theory and China’s Rise: Assessing China’s Potential for Territorial Expansion,” International Studies Review 12, no. 4 (2010): 507.

34. Waltz, Theory of International Politics; Mearsheimer, Tragedy of Great Power Politics.

35. Gilpin, War and Change, chap. 5; Kennedy, Rise and Fall of the Great Powers; Snyder, Myths of Empire.

36. Zakaria, From Wealth to Power; Scott A. Silverstone, Divided Union: The Politics of War in the Early American Republic (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2004); Meiser, Power and Restraint.

37. See chapters 3–7; Colin Elman, “Extending Offensive Realism: The Louisiana Purchase and America’s Rise to Regional Hegemony,” American Political Science Review 98, no. 4 (2004): 563–76.

38. Blainey, Causes of War, 59.

39. Silverstone, Divided Union, 59–62.

40. Zakaria, From Wealth to Power, 11.

41. Meiser, Power and Restraint, xvi, 12.

42. Snyder, Myths of Empire, 49, 257.

43. Arthur M. Schlesinger, The Imperial Presidency (New York: Houghton Mifflin, 2004).

44. Sean Lynn-Jones, “Realism and America’s Rise: A Review Essay,” International Security 23, no. 2 (1998): 170.

45. Waltz, Theory of International Politics; Jeffrey W. Taliaferro, “Security Seeking under Anarchy: Defensive Realism Revisited,” International Security 25, no. 3 (2000/01): 128–61.

46. Mearsheimer, Tragedy of Great Power Politics, 238; cf. Elman, “Extending Offensive Realism”; Christopher Layne, “The ‘Poster Child for Offensive Realism’: America as a Global Hegemon,” Security Studies 12, no. 2 (2002): 120–64.

47. Carl Kaysen, “Is War Obsolete? A Review Essay,” International Security 14, no. 4 (1990): 53–57; Stephen Van Evera, Causes of War: Power and the Roots of Conflict (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1999), chap. 5.

48. Stephen G. Brooks, Producing Security: Multinational Corporations, Globalization, and the Changing Calculus of Conflict (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2005), 61.

49. Stephen Van Evera, “Why Europe Matters, Why the Third World Doesn’t: American Grand Strategy after the Cold War,” Journal of Strategic Studies 13, no. 2 (1990): 5.

50. Stephen G. Brooks, “The Globalization of Production and the Changing Benefits of Conquest,” Journal of Conflict Resolution 43, no. 5 (1999): 655–66.

51. Richard Cobden, The Political Writings of Richard Cobden (London: Unwin, 1903), 225; Norman Angell, The Great Illusion (New York: G. P. Putnam’s Sons, 1933); Dale C. Copeland, Economic Interdependence and War (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2015), 18–20.

52. Erik Gartzke, “The Capitalist Peace,” American Journal of Political Science 51, no. 1 (2007): 172; cf. Patrick J. McDonald, The Invisible Hand of Peace: Capitalism, the War Machine, and International Relations Theory (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2009).

53. Lars-Erik Cederman, T. Camber Warren, and Didier Sornette, “Testing Clausewitz: Nationalism, Mass Mobilization, and the Severity of War,” International Organization 65, no. 4 (2011): 605–38; Mike Bourne, Arming Conflict: The Proliferation of Small Arms (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2007).

54. John Mueller, Retreat from Doomsday: The Obsolescence of Major War (New York: Basic Books, 1989).

55. Kenneth N. Waltz, “Nuclear Myths and Political Realities,” American Political Science Review 84, no. 3 (1990): 730–45.

56. William C. Wohlforth, “The Stability of a Unipolar World,” International Security 24, no. 1 (1999): 5–41.

57. Western Europe’s GDP was roughly $160 billion in 1820 versus $7.5 trillion in 2001, while China’s was roughly $230 billion in 1820 versus $4.5 trillion in 2001: Angus Maddison, The World Economy: Historical Statistics (Paris: OECD, 2003), 249.

58. Peter Liberman, Does Conquest Pay? (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1996), 4.

59. Paul K. MacDonald, “Is Imperial Rule Obsolete?: Assessing the Barriers to Overseas Adventurism,” Security Studies 18, no. 1 (2009): 79–114.

60. Richard W. Maass, “Salami Tactics: Faits Accompli and the Future of U.S.– Russian Relations,” paper presented at the International Studies Association Annual Convention, Baltimore, February 22–25, 2017; Glenn Snyder, “The Balance of Power and the Balance of Terror,” in Paul Seabury, ed., The Balance of Power (San Francisco: Chandler, 1965), 184–201.

61. Liberman, Does Conquest Pay?, chap. 3; Stephen Van Evera, “Hypotheses on Nationalism and War,” International Security 18, no. 4 (1994): 5–39. Mearsheimer ultimately explains U.S. reluctance to annex Canada and Mexico by claiming that “because of the power of nationalism, subduing the people in those countries and turning them into Americans would have been a difficult if not impossible task”: Mearsheimer, Tragedy of Great Power Politics, 488, n. 18. Yet Canadian and Mexican nationalism did not develop on a sufficient scale until well after U.S. leaders resolved not to pursue those territories, and U.S. decisions not to pursue them had little to do with the potential difficulty of subduing their populations (see chapters 5 and 6).

62. Robert Jervis, Perception and Misperception in International Politics (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1976); Jack S. Levy, “Misperception and the Causes of War: Theoretical Linkages and Analytical Problems,” World Politics 36, no. 1 (1983): 76–99.

63. Randall L. Schweller, “Managing the Rise of Great Powers: History and Theory,” in Engaging China: The Management of an Emerging Power, ed. Alastair I. Johnston and Robert S. Ross (London: Routledge, 1999), 3.

64. William A. Williams, The Tragedy of American Diplomacy (New York: W. W. Norton, 1972), 20, critiquing Samuel F. Bemis, A Diplomatic History of the United States, 5th ed. (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1965), 463–75.

65. Walter LaFeber, The New Empire: An Interpretation of American Expansion, 1860–1898 (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1963), 1; cf. Charles S. Campbell, The Transformation of American Foreign Relations, 1865–1900 (New York: Harper and Row, 1976); Lloyd C. Gardner, Walter F. LaFeber, and Thomas J. McCormick, Creation of the American Empire, vol. 1 (Chicago: Rand McNally, 1973); Ernest N. Paolino, The Foundations of the American Empire: William Henry Seward and U.S. Foreign Policy (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1973); William A. Williams, The Roots of the Modern American Empire: A Study of the Growth and Shaping of Social Consciousness in a Marketplace Society (New York: Random House, 1969); LaFeber, New Empire; R. W. Van Alstyne, The Rising American Empire (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1960).

66. Stuart C. Miller, Benevolent Assimilation: The American Conquest of the Philippines, 1899–1903 (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1982), 4.

67. A. G. Hopkins, American Empire: A Global History (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2018); Adam Burns, American Imperialism: The Territorial Expansion of the United States, 1783–2013 (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2017); Richard H. Immerman, Empire for Liberty: A History of American Imperialism from Benjamin Franklin to Paul Wolfowitz (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2010); Walter Nugent, Habits of Empire: A History of American Expansion (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2008); Niall Ferguson, Colossus: The Rise and Fall of the American Empire (New York: Penguin Books, 2004); Andrew J. Bacevich, American Empire: The Realities and Consequences of U.S. Diplomacy (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2002); cf. Walter L. Hixson, The Myth of American Diplomacy: National Identity and U.S. Foreign Policy (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2008), 13; Ian Tyrrell, Transnational Nation: United States History in Global Perspective since 1789 (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2007), chap. 10; Thomas Bender, A Nation among Nations: America’s Place in World History (New York: Hill and Wang, 2006), chap. 4.

68. For a related critique: Paul K. MacDonald, “Those Who Forget Historiography Are Doomed to Republish It: Empire, Imperialism and Contemporary Debates about American Power,” Review of International Studies 35, no. 1 (2009): 45–67. Even U.S. foreign policy in the 1920s and 1930s is better described using neutrality than isolationism: Brooke L. Blower, “From Isolationism to Neutrality: A New Framework for Understanding American Political Culture, 1919–1941,” Diplomatic History 38, no. 2 (2014): 345–76.

69. Cf. Victor Bulmer-Thomas, Empire in Retreat: The Past, Present, and Future of the United States (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2018), 129–30; Charles S. Maier, Among Empires: American Ascendancy and Its Predecessors (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2007), 143–44.

70. William A. Williams, Empire as a Way of Life (New York: Oxford University Press, 1980), 96; cf. 100–102; William A. Williams, The Roots of the Modern American Empire: A Study of the Growth and Shaping of Social Consciousness in a Marketplace Society (New York: Random House, 1969).

71. Walter LaFeber, The American Age: United States Foreign Policy at Home and Abroad, 2nd ed. (New York: W. W. Norton, 1994), 171; cf. 157; LaFeber, New Empire.

72. Walter A. McDougall, Promised Land, Crusader State: The American Encounter with the World since 1776 (New York: Houghton Mifflin, 1997), 215–16; Frank Ninkovich, The Global Republic: America’s Inadvertent Rise to World Power (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2014), chap. 2. Suggestions that prohibitive military costs prevented further U.S. annexations have been understandably rarer; an exception is Ferguson, Colossus, 40, 60.

73. Frederick Merk, Manifest Destiny and Mission in American History (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1963), 215.

74. Reginald Horsman, Race and Manifest Destiny: The Origins of American Racial Anglo-Saxonism (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1981), 245.

75. Thomas R. Hietala, Manifest Design: American Exceptionalism and Empire (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2003), xvii, 134; cf. 158–66.

76. Cf. Michael H. Hunt, Ideology and U.S. Foreign Policy (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1987), chap. 3; D. W. Meinig, The Shaping of America: A Geographical Perspective on 500 Years of History, vol. 2 (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1993), 188–96; Walter L. Hixson, The Myth of American Diplomacy: National Identity and U.S. Foreign Policy (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2008), chaps. 1–4.

77. Eric T. L. Love, Race over Empire: Racism and U.S. Imperialism, 1865–1900 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2004), 199.

78. David C. Hendrickson, Union, Nation, or Empire: The American Debate over International Relations, 1789–1941 (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 2009), 60–62, 113–14, 177, 181–84.

79. Frymer, Building an American Empire, 17, 15; cf. 175–76.

80. For a similar argument on U.S. anticolonialism and imperialism: Jay Sexton, The Monroe Doctrine: Empire and Nation in Nineteenth-Century America (New York: Hill and Wang, 2011), 5.

81. Nugent, Habits of Empire, chaps. 1–4; George C. Herring, From Colony to Superpower: U.S. Foreign Relations since 1776 (New York: Oxford University Press, 2008), 26–34; David Mayers, Dissenting Voices in America’s Rise to Power (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2007), chap. 1; Hendrickson, Union, Nation, or Empire, 47–53.

82. E.g., Frymer, Building an American Empire.

83. E.g., Nugent, Habits of Empire.

84. David Narrett, Adventurism and Empire: The Struggle for Mastery in the Louisiana–Florida Borderlands, 1762–1803 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2015), chaps. 8–10; William C. Davis, The Rogue Republic: How Would-Be Patriots Waged the Shortest Revolution in American History (Boston: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, 2011); James G. Cusick, The Other War of 1812: The Patriot War and the American Invasion of Spanish East Florida (Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 2003); James E. Lewis Jr., The American Union and the Problem of Neighborhood: The United States and the Collapse of the Spanish Empire, 1783–1829 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1998); Joseph B. Smith, The Plot to Steal Florida: James Madison’s Phony War (New York: Arbor House, 1983); Isaac J. Cox, The West Florida Controversy, 1798–1813 (Gloucester, MA: Peter Smith, 1967); Rembert W. Patrick, Florida Fiasco: Rampant Rebels on the Georgia–Florida Border, 1810–1815 (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1954).

85. Recent contributions include John P. Bowes, Land Too Good for Indians: Northern Indian Removal (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 2016); Blake A. Watson, Buying America from the Indians: “Johnson v. McIntosh” and the History of Native Land Rights (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 2012); Lindsay G. Robertson, Conquest by Law: How the Discovery of America Dispossessed Indigenous Peoples of Their Lands (New York: Oxford University Press, 2005); Frederick E. Hoxie, Ronald Hoffman, and Peter J. Albert, eds., Native Americans in the Early Republic (Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press, 1999); R. Douglas Hurt, The Ohio Frontier: Crucible of the Old Northwest, 1720–1830 (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1998).

86. On Jackson: Robert V. Remini, Andrew Jackson and His Indian Wars (New York: Viking, 2001); Anthony F. C. Wallace, The Long, Bitter Trail: Andrew Jackson and the Indians (New York: Hill and Wang, 1993); Ronald Satz, American Indian Policy in the Jacksonian Era (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1975). On a longer view of removal: Anthony F. C. Wallace, Jefferson and the Indians: The Tragic Fate of the First Americans (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1999); Francis P. Prucha, American Indian Treaties: The History of a Political Anomaly (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1997); Francis P. Prucha, The Great Father: The United States Government and the American Indians (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1984).

87. Cf. Tyrrell, Transnational Nation, 78; Remini, Andrew Jackson and His Indian Wars, 278–79; Michael D. Green, The Politics of Indian Removal (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1982), 45–46.

88. The best recent account is John Ferling, Almost a Miracle: The American Victory in the War of Independence (New York: Oxford University Press, 2007); cf. Gustave Lanctot, Canada and the American Revolution, 1774–1783 (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1967). Mark R. Anderson, The Battle for the Fourteenth Colony: America’s War of Liberation in Canada, 1774–1776 (Lebanon, NH: University Press of New England, 2013) focuses on the 1775 invasion of Quebec; cf. William Duane, Canada and the Continental Congress (Philadelphia: Edward Gaskill, 1850); George M. Wrong, Canada and the American Revolution: The Disruption of the First British Empire (New York: Macmillan, 1935); James M. Callahan, American Foreign Policy in Canadian Relations (New York: Macmillan, 1937).

89. Richard W. Maass, “‘Difficult to Relinquish Territory Which Had Been Conquered’: Expansionism and the War of 1812,” Diplomatic History 39, no. 1 (2015): 70–97, dismantles the myth of an expansionist War of 1812, building on many strong histories, including Troy Bickham, The Weight of Vengeance: The United States, the British Empire, and the War of 1812 (New York: Oxford University Press, 2012); Donald R. Hickey, The War of 1812: A Forgotten Conflict (Chicago: University of Illinois Press, 2012); Alan Taylor, The Civil War of 1812: American Citizens, British Subjects, Irish Rebels, and Indian Allies (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2010); J. C. A. Stagg, Mr. Madison’s War: Politics, Diplomacy, and Warfare in the Early American Republic, 1783–1830 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1983); Roger H. Brown, Republic in Peril: 1812 (New York: W. W. Norton, 1971); Reginald Horsman, The Causes of the War of 1812 (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1962); Bradford Perkins, Prologue to War: England and the United States, 1805–1812 (Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1961).

90. The best studies of U.S. northward ambitions in this period include Francis M. Carroll, A Good and Wise Measure: The Search for the Canadian–American Boundary, 1783–1842 (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2003); Reginald C. Stuart, United States Expansionism and British North America, 1775–1871 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1988); Howard Jones, To the Webster–Ashburton Treaty: A Study in Anglo-American Relations, 1783–1843 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1977). On Oregon: Walter R. Borneman, Polk: The Man Who Transformed the Presidency and America (New York: Random House, 2009), 150–70, 216–24; Robert W. Merry, A Country of Vast Designs: James K. Polk, the Mexican War and the Conquest of the American Continent (New York: Simon and Schuster, 2009); Nugent, Habits of Empire, chap. 6; David M. Pletcher, The Diplomacy of Annexation: Texas, Oregon, and the Mexican War (Columbia: University of Missouri Press, 1973).

91. The most notable work here is still David E. Shi, “Seward’s Attempt to Annex British Columbia, 1865–1869,” Pacific Historical Review 47, no. 2 (1978): 217–38. On the Fenian raids: Brian Jenkins, Fenians and Anglo-American Relations during Reconstruction (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1969); Hereward Senior, The Last Invasion of Canada: The Fenian Raids, 1866–1870 (Toronto: Dundurn Press, 1991); Peter Vronsky, Ridgeway: The American Fenian Invasion and the 1866 Battle that Made Canada (Toronto: Allen Lane, 2011). On the Red River rebellion: J. M. Bumsted, The Red River Rebellion (Winnipeg: Watson and Dwyer, 1996); J. M. Bumsted, Reporting the Resistance: Alexander Begg and Joseph Hargrave on the Red River Resistance (Winnipeg: University of Manitoba Press, 2003). For contemporary public opinion on annexation north and south of the border: Donald F. Warner, The Idea of Continental Union: Agitation for the Annexation of Canada to the United States, 1849–1893 (Lexington: University of Kentucky Press, 1960).

92. Matthew Karp, This Vast Southern Empire: Slaveholders at the Helm of American Foreign Policy (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2016); Amy S. Greenberg, A Wicked War: Polk, Clay, Lincoln, and the 1846 U.S. Invasion of Mexico (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2012); Mayers, Dissenting Voices, chap. 5; Michael A. Morrison, Slavery and the American West: The Eclipse of Manifest Destiny (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1997); William E. Weeks, Building the Continental Empire: American Expansion from the Revolution to the Civil War (Chicago: Ivan R. Dee, 1996); Karl M. Schmitt, Mexico and the United States, 1821–1973: Conflict and Coexistence (New York: John Wiley and Sons, 1974); Pletcher, Diplomacy of Annexation; Frederick Merk, Slavery and the Annexation of Texas (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1972); Kinley J. Brauer, Cotton versus Conscience: Massachusetts Whig Politics and Southwestern Expansion, 1843–1848 (Lexington: University of Kentucky Press, 1967); Justin H. Smith, The Annexation of Texas (New York: Barnes and Noble, 1941).

93. Merk, Manifest Destiny and Mission, chaps. 5–8; Horsman, Race and Manifest Destiny, chaps. 11–13; Hietala, Manifest Design.

94. Robert E. May, Slavery, Race, and Conquest in the Tropics: Lincoln, Douglas, and the Future of Latin America (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2013); Robert E. May, Manifest Destiny’s Underworld: Filibustering in Antebellum America (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2002); Robert E. May, The Southern Dream of a Caribbean Empire, 1854–1861 (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1973); cf. Philip S. Foner , A History of Cuba and Its Relations with the United States, 2 vols. (New York: International Publishers, 1962/1963).

95. Love, Race over Empire, chap. 2; cf. William J. Nelson, Almost a Territory: America’s Attempt to Annex the Dominican Republic (Newark: University of Delaware Press, 1990); Luis Martínez-Fernández, “Caudillos, Annexationism, and the Rivalry between Empires in the Dominican Republic, 1844–1874,” Diplomatic History 17, no. 4 (1993): 571–98; G. Pope Atkins and Larman C. Wilson, The Dominican Republic and the United States: From Imperialism to Transnationalism (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1998), 14–27.

96. Nick Cleaver, Grover Cleveland’s New Foreign Policy: Arbitration, Neutrality, and the Dawn of American Empire (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2014); Richard F. Hamilton, President McKinley, War and Empire, 2 vols. (New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Publishers, 2006/2007); John L. Tone, War and Genocide in Cuba, 1895–1898 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2006); David M. Pletcher, The Diplomacy of Trade and Investment: American Economic Expansion in the Hemisphere, 1865–1900 (Columbia: University of Missouri Press, 1998); John L. Offner, An Unwanted War: The Diplomacy of the United States and Spain over Cuba, 1895–1898 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1992); Louis A. Pérez Jr., Cuba between Empires, 1878–1902 (Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1983); Lester D. Langley, Struggle for the American Mediterranean: United States–European Rivalry in the Gulf-Caribbean, 1776–1904 (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1976); H. Wayne Morgan, America’s Road to Empire: The War with Spain and Overseas Expansion (New York: John Wiley and Sons, 1965).

97. William M. Morgan, Pacific Gibraltar: U.S.–Japanese Rivalry over the Annexation of Hawai’i, 1885–1898 (Annapolis: Naval Institute Press, 2011), an excellent reevaluation of Hawaiian annexation, falls into this category; cf. Love, Race over Empire, chap. 4; David M. Pletcher, The Diplomacy of Involvement: American Economic Expansion across the Pacific, 1784–1900 (Columbia: University of Missouri Press, 2001); Thomas J. Osborne, “Empire Can Wait”: American Opposition to Hawaiian Annexation, 1893–1898 (Kent, OH: Kent State University Press, 1981); Merze Tate, Hawaii: Reciprocity or Annexation (East Lansing: Michigan State University Press, 1968); Merze Tate, The United States and the Hawaiian Kingdom: A Political History (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1965); Sylvester K. Stevens, American Expansion in Hawaii, 1842–1898 (New York: Russell and Russell, 1945).

98. Susan K. Harris, God’s Arbiters: Americans and the Philippines, 1898–1902 (New York: Oxford University Press, 2011); Paul A. Kramer, The Blood of Government: Race, Empire, the United States, and the Philippines (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2006); Sam Erman, Almost Citizens: Puerto Rico, the U.S. Constitution, and Empire (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2019); Gerald L. Neuman and Tomiko Brown-Nagin, eds., Reconsidering the Insular Cases: The Past and Future of the American Empire (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2015); Charles R. Venator-Santiago, Puerto Rico and the Origins of US Global Empire: The Disembodied Shade (New York: Routledge, 2015); César J. Ayala and Rafael Bernabe, Puerto Rico in the American Century: A History since 1898 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2007); Bartholomew H. Sparrow, The Insular Cases and the Emergence of American Empire (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 2006); Gary Lawson and Guy Seidman, The Constitution of Empire: Territorial Expansion and American Legal History (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2004); Christina D. Burnett and Burke Marshall, eds., Foreign in a Domestic Sense: Puerto Rico, American Expansion, and the Constitution (Durham: Duke University Press, 2001).

2. Explaining Annexation

1. Theda Skocpol, “Bringing the State Back In: Strategies of Analysis in Current Research,” in Bringing the State Back In, ed. Peter B. Evans, Dietrich Rueschemeyer, and Theda Skocpol (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1985), 16; cf. Fareed Zakaria, From Wealth to Power: The Unusual Origins of America’s World Role (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1998), 38; Robert Kagan, “Power and Weakness,” Policy Review 113 (2002): 3–28.

2. Geoffrey Blainey, The Causes of War (New York: Free Press, 1988), 149.

3. Robert Gilpin, War and Change in World Politics (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1981); G. John Ikenberry, After Victory: Institutions, Strategic Restraint, and the Rebuilding of Order after Major Wars (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2001).

4. John J. Mearsheimer, The Tragedy of Great Power Politics (New York: W. W. Norton, 2001), 157.

5. Paul Kennedy, The Rise and Fall of the Great Powers: Economic Change and Military Conflict from 1500 to 2000 (New York: Vintage Books, 1987), 321–23.

6. Brantly Womack, ed., China’s Rise in Historical Perspective (Lanham, MD: Rowman and Littlefield, 2010).

7. Hans J. Morgenthau, Politics among Nations: The Struggle for Power and Peace (New York: McGraw Hill, 1993), 124–43; Mearsheimer, Tragedy of Great Power Politics, 55–82.

8. This generalization excepts strategic needs for specific resources; e.g., Rosemary A. Kelanic, “The Petroleum Paradox: Oil, Coercive Vulnerability, and Great Power Behavior,” Security Studies 25, no. 2 (2016), 181–213; Robert G. Albion, Forests and Sea Power: The Timber Problem of the Royal Navy 1652–1862 (Annapolis: Naval Institute Press, 1926).

9. Jeffrey Herbst, States and Power in Africa: Comparative Lessons in Authority and Control (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2000), 16, 35–57. Precolonial Africa’s population density in 1750 was roughly 2.7 persons/km2 versus 45 persons/km2 in modern Iran, 229 persons/km2 in modern Germany, and 7,148 persons/km2 in modern Singapore. At the time of their acquisition, territories annexed by the United States were home to fewer than 0.5 persons/km2 on average: B. R. Mitchell, International Historical Statistics: The Americas, 1750–1993 (London: Macmillan, 1998).

10. Southeast Asia’s population density in 1700 was roughly 5 persons/km2: James C. Scott, Seeing Like a State: How Certain Schemes to Improve the Human Condition Have Failed (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1998), 185–86.

11. John L. Gaddis, Strategies of Containment: A Critical Appraisal of Postwar American National Security Policy (New York: Oxford University Press, 1982), 29, 278.

12. Jack Snyder, Myths of Empire: Domestic Politics and International Ambition (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1991), 10.

13. Stacie E. Goddard, Indivisible Territory and the Politics of Legitimacy: Jerusalem and Northern Ireland (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2009).

14. William C. Wohlforth, The Elusive Balance: Power and Perceptions during the Cold War (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1993), 1–5; Gabriel A. Almond and Stephen J. Genco, “Clouds, Clocks, and the Study of Politics,” World Politics 29, no. 4 (1977): 502–4; Mearsheimer, Tragedy of Great Power Politics, 55–57.

15. Robert Jervis, “Cooperation under the Security Dilemma,” World Politics 30, no. 2 (1978): 179. This prospect of successful policies having undesirable side effects distinguishes domestic impact theory from theories of audience costs resulting from failed policies: James D. Fearon, “Domestic Political Audiences and the Escalation of International Disputes,” American Political Science Review 88, no. 3 (1994): 577–92.

16. Rogers Smith, Civic Ideals: Conflicting Visions of Citizenship in U.S. History (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1997), 31. For this reason state admissions remained highly contentious even after the Civil War: Charles Stewart and Barry Weingast, “Stacking the Senate, Changing the Nation: Republican Rotten Boroughs, Statehood Politics, and American Political Development,” Studies in American Political Development 6, no. 2 (1992): 223–71.

17. Amy Oakes, “Diversionary War and Argentina’s Invasion of the Falkland Islands,” Security Studies 15, no. 3 (2006): 431–63; Jaroslav Tir, “Territorial Diversion: Diversionary Theory of War and Territorial Conflict,” Journal of Politics 72, no. 2 (2010): 413–25.

18. Dietrich Rueschemeyer and Peter B. Evans, “The State and Economic Transformation: Toward an Analysis of the Conditions Underlying Effective Intervention,” in Evans, Rueschemeyer, and Skocpol, Bringing the State Back In, 55–56; cf. Zakaria, From Wealth to Power, 39; Alberto Alesina and Enrico Spolaore, The Size of Nations (Cambridge: MIT Press, 2003), 4–6.

19. “The Sorcerer’s Apprentice” (German: Der Zauberlehrling) is a poem written by Johann Wolfgang von Goethe in 1797, popularly animated in Walt Disney’s 1940 Fantasia. Hoping to avoid chores, the apprentice magically animates a broom and commands it to fetch water for the tub. As the tub fills and begins to overflow, the apprentice realizes he does not know how to disenchant the broom. In desperation, he splits the broom with an axe, gasping in horror as the splinters grow into new brooms that continue fetching water until the house is flooded. The apprentice is saved only when the sorcerer returns and undoes his mischief, though here the analogy ends because the anarchic international system lacks such a safety net.

20. For example, Cicero opposed Caesar’s undermining of the Roman Republic regardless of its continued rise in power: Richard W. Maass, “Political Society and Cicero’s Ideal State,” Historical Methods: A Journal of Quantitative and Interdisciplinary History 45, no. 2 (2012): 79–92.

21. Montesquieu, The Spirit of the Laws, trans. Anne M. Cohler, Basia C. Miller, and Harold S. Stone (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1989), 124.

22. Barry R. Posen, “Nationalism, the Mass Army, and Military Power,” International Security 18, no. 2 (1993): 80–124; Deborah Avant, “From Mercenary to Citizen Armies: Explaining Change in the Practice of War,” International Organization 54, no. 1 (2000): 41–72.

23. Anthony D. Smith, “Culture, Community and Territory: The Politics of Ethnicity and Nationalism,” International Affairs 72, no. 3 (July 1996): 445–58.

24. Jerry Z. Muller, “Us and Them: The Enduring Power of Ethnic Nationalism,” Foreign Affairs 87, no. 2 (2008): 18–35; cf. Joseph B. Schechtman, Postwar Population Transfers in Europe, 1945–1955 (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1962), vii.

25. Dov H. Levin and Benjamin Miller, “Why Great Powers Expand in Their Own Neighborhood: Explaining the Territorial Expansion of the United States 1819–1848,” International Interactions 37, no. 3 (2011): 229–62; Stephen M. Saideman and R. William Ayres, For Kin or Country: Xenophobia, Nationalism, and War (New York: Columbia University Press, 2008); Stephen Van Evera, “Hypotheses on Nationalism and War,” International Security 18, no. 4 (1994): 5–39.

26. Steven L. Myers and Ellen Barry, “Putin Reclaims Crimea for Russia and Bitterly Denounces the West,” New York Times, March 18, 2014, http://www.nytimes.com/2014/03/19/world/europe/ukraine.html?_r=0.

27. Michael W. Doyle, “Liberalism and World Politics,” American Political Science Review 80, no. 4 (1986): 1151–69; Bruce M. Russett, Grasping the Democratic Peace: Principles for a Post–Cold War World (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1993); Spencer R. Weart, Never at War: Why Democracies Will Not Fight One Another (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1998).

28. David A. Lake, “Powerful Pacifists: Democratic States and War,” American Political Science Review 86, no. 1 (1992): 24–37; Dan Reiter and Allan C. Stam, Democracies at War (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2002); Michael C. Desch, Power and Military Effectiveness: The Fallacy of Democratic Triumphalism (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2008).

29. George F. Kennan, American Diplomacy: Expanded Edition (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1951), 66; cf. Snyder, Myths of Empire; Walter R. Mead, Special Providence: American Foreign Policy and How It Changed the World (New York: Routledge, 2002).

30. Russett, Grasping the Democratic Peace, 14–16; Weart, Never at War, 11–12; Bruce Russett and John Oneal, Triangulating Peace: Democracy, Interdependence, and International Organizations (New York: W. W. Norton, 2001), 44; Reiter and Stam, Democracies at War, 5–7.

31. Bruce Bueno de Mesquita, Alastair Smith, Randolph M. Siverson, and James D. Morrow, The Logic of Political Survival (Cambridge: MIT Press, 2005), 417–19.

32. John M. Owen IV, Liberal Peace, Liberal War (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1997), 32–41; Michael Doyle, “Kant, Liberal Legacies, and Foreign Affairs,” part 1, Philosophy and Public Affairs 12 (1983): 207.

33. Jessica L. P. Weeks, Dictators at War and Peace (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2014); Jessica C. Weiss, Powerful Patriots: Nationalist Protest in China’s Foreign Relations (New York: Oxford University Press, 2014).

34. I thank Bill Wohlforth for this counterargument. Others suggest that democracies should more easily mobilize for easy wars, making them more likely to try to annex weak states: Bruce M. Russett, “Democracy, War and Expansion through Historical Lenses,” European Journal of International Relations 15, no. 1 (2009): 9–36; Bueno de Mesquita et al., Logic of Political Survival, 252.

35. Scott A. Silverstone, Divided Union: The Politics of War in the Early American Republic (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2004), 40; cf. 15–17, 49; James Madison, “The Federalist No. 10” and “The Federalist No. 51,” in The Federalist: A Commentary on the Constitution of the United States, ed. Robert Scigliano (New York: Random House, 2001), 53–61, 330–35.

36. Snyder, Myths of Empire; Zakaria, From Wealth to Power; Silverstone, Divided Union; Jeffrey W. Meiser, Power and Restraint: The Rise of the United States, 1898–1941 (Washington, DC: Georgetown University Press, 2015).

37. Doyle, “Kant, Liberal Legacies, and Foreign Affairs,” 206; William J. Dixon, “Democracy and the Peaceful Settlement of International Conflict,” American Political Science Review 88, no. 1 (1994): 15; John Rawls, The Law of Peoples (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1999); Russett, Grasping the Democratic Peace, 30–37.

38. Sebastian Rosato, “The Flawed Logic of Democratic Peace Theory,” American Political Science Review 97, no. 4 (2003): 588–91; Lindsey A. O’Rourke, Covert Regime Change: America’s Secret Cold War (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2018); Michael C. Desch, “America’s Liberal Illiberalism: The Ideological Origins of Overreaction in U.S. Foreign Policy,” International Security 32, no. 3 (2007/08): 19.

39. Immanuel Kant, “Perpetual Peace,” trans. Lewis W. Beck, in Kant on History, ed. Lewis W. Beck (Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall, 2001), 86; Rawls, Law of Peoples.

40. Alexis de Tocqueville, Democracy in America, trans. Harvey C. Mansfield and Delba Winthrop (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2000), 235–49; John S. Mill, On Liberty (Wheeling, IL: Harlan Davidson, 1947).

41. Arash Abizadeh, “On the Demos and Its Kin: Nationalism, Democracy, and the Boundary Problem,” American Political Science Review 106, no. 4 (2012): 867–82.

42. I focus on xenophobia rather than racism for two reasons. First, although U.S. leaders’ xenophobia was often fueled by racist presumptions that people with darker skin were inherently inferior, it also frequently targeted cultural, religious, linguistic, and educational differences. Second, the causal logic of domestic impact theory functions similarly whether leaders’ xenophobia is driven by racial or other differences.

43. Peter Katzenstein, ed., The Culture of National Security: Norms and Identity in World Politics (New York: Columbia University Press, 1996); Alexander Wendt, Social Theory of International Politics (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1999), 170; Rawi Abdelal, National Purpose in the World Economy: Post-Soviet States in Comparative Perspective (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2001), 24–31.

44. James G. March and Johan P. Olsen, The Logic of Appropriateness (Oslo: University of Oslo Centre for European Studies, 2004); Rawi Abdelal, Yoshiko M. Herrera, Alastair Iain Johnston, and Rose McDermott, “Identity as a Variable,” Perspectives on Politics 4, no. 4 (2006): 695–711.

45. Deborah Welch Larson and Alexei Shevchenko, “Status Seekers: Chinese and Russian Responses to U.S. Primacy,” International Security 34, no. 4 (2010): 63–95; Michelle Murray, “Identity, Insecurity, and Great Power Politics: The Tragedy of German Naval Ambition before the First World War,” Security Studies 19, no. 4 (2010): 656–88.

46. Henri Tajfel, “Social Psychology of Intergroup Relations,” Annual Review of Psychology 33 (1982): 1–39; Jonathan Mercer, “Anarchy and Identity,” International Organization 49, no. 2 (1995): 229–52; Wendt, Social Theory of International Politics, 228.

47. Saideman and Ayres, For Kin or Country, 2.

48. Alexander DeConde, Ethnicity, Race, and American Foreign Policy: A History (Boston: Northeastern University Press, 1992), 12.

49. CG, 35th Cong., 1st sess., Appendix, 461.

50. CG, 41st Cong., 3rd sess., Appendix, 29; cf. CS, 5: 204.

51. CR, 55th Cong., 2nd sess., 5903.

52. Terry Martin, “The Origins of Soviet Ethnic Cleansing,” Journal of Modern History 70, no. 4 (1998): 815.

53. Ian Kershaw, Hitler, the Germans, and the Final Solution (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2008), 90.

54. Peter Gourevitch, “The Second Image Reversed: The International Sources of Domestic Politics,” International Organization 32, no. 4 (1978): 881–912.

55. Gideon Rose, “Neoclassical Realism and Theories of Foreign Policy,” World Politics 51, no. 1 (1998): 146; cf. Steven E. Lobell, Norrin M. Ripsman, and Jeffrey W. Taliaferro, eds., Neoclassical Realism, the State, and Foreign Policy (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2009); Brian Rathbun, “A Rose by Any Other Name: Neoclassical Realism as the Logical and Necessary Extension of Structural Realism,” Security Studies 17, no. 2 (2008): 294–321.

56. Stephen Van Evera, Guide to Methods for Students of Political Science (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1997), 19; cf. Harry Eckstein, “Case Study and Theory in Political Science,” in Case Study Method: Key Issues, Key Texts, ed. Roger Gomm, Martyn Hammersley, and Peter Foster (Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE, 2000), 126.

57. Wohlforth, Elusive Balance, 2.

58. Van Evera, Guide to Methods, 30–34.

59. Andrew Bennett, “Stirring the Frequentist Pot with a Dash of Bayes,” Political Analysis 14, no. 3 (2006): 341.

60. Andrew Bennett and Colin Elman, “Case Study Methods in the International Relations Subfield,” Comparative Political Studies 40, no. 2 (2007): 172.

61. John Gerring, Social Science Methodology: A Criterial Framework (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2001), 192–93; Dan Lindley, Promoting Peace with Information: Transparency as a Tool of Security Regimes (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2007), 51.

62. Jack S. Levy, “Prospect Theory, Rational Choice, and International Relations,” International Studies Quarterly 41 (1997): 87–112; Richard Maass, “Why Washington and Moscow keep talking past each other,” The Monkey Cage, March 12, 2014, https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/monkey-cage/wp/2014/03/12/why-washington-and-moscow-keep-talking-past-each-other/?noredirect=on&utm_term=.4a6793948be9.

63. Gary King, Robert O. Keohane, and Sidney Verba, Designing Social Inquiry: Scientific Inference in Qualitative Research (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1994), 129–36.

64. Jason Seawright and John Gerring, “Case Selection Techniques in Case Study Research: A Menu of Qualitative and Quantitative Options,” Political Research Quarterly 61, no. 2 (2008): 294–308; Bennett and Elman, “Case Study Methods,” 174–76.

65. On pretexts: Richard W. Maass and Joshua R. Itzkowitz Shifrinson, “Correspondence: NATO Non-expansion and German Reunification,” International Security 41, no. 3 (2016/17): 197.

66. James Mahoney and Gary Goertz, “The Possibility Principle: Choosing Negative Cases in Comparative Research,” American Political Science Review 98, no. 4 (2004): 653–69.

67. Aaron Rapport, “Hard Thinking about Hard and Easy Cases in Security Studies,” Security Studies 24, no. 3 (2015): 431–65; Henry E. Brady and David Collier, Rethinking Social Inquiry: Diverse Tools, Shared Standards (New York: Rowman and Littlefield, 2004), 297.

68. Jack S. Levy, “Qualitative Methods in International Relations,” in Evaluating Methodology in International Studies, ed. Frank P. Harvey and Michael Brecher (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 2002), 144.

69. Alexander L. George and Andrew Bennett, Case Studies and Theory Development in the Social Sciences (Cambridge, MA: Belfer Center for Science and International Affairs, 2004), 205–32; Andrew Bennett, “Process Tracing: A Bayesian Perspective,” in The Oxford Handbook of Political Methodology, ed. Janet Box-Steffensmeier, Henry E. Brady, and David Collier (New York: Oxford University Press, 2008), 702–21; James Mahoney, “Process Tracing and Historical Explanation,” Security Studies 24, no. 2 (2015): 200–218.

70. John Gerring, Case Study Research: Principles and Practices (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2007), 173, 180.

71. George and Bennett, Case Studies and Theory Development, 86–88; Marc Trachtenberg, The Craft of International History: A Guide to Method (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2006), 140–41.

72. Ian S. Lustick, “History, Historiography, and Political Science: Multiple Historical Records and the Problem of Selection Bias,” American Political Science Review 90, no. 3 (1996): 605–18.

3. To the Continent

1. This figure does not include 400,000 square miles of Pacific Northwest claims ceded by Spain in 1819 but disputed by Britain, roughly 250,000 of which were incorporated as Oregon Territory in 1848.

2. U.S. Declaration of Independence.

3. Russell Thornton, “Population History of Native North Americans,” in A Population History of North America, ed. Michael R. Haines and Richard H. Steckel (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2000), 24.

4. Bruce E. Johansen, The Native Peoples of North America: A History, vol. 1 (Westport, CT: Praeger, 2005), 182.

5. Karl M. Schmitt, Mexico and the United States, 1821–1973: Conflict and Coexistence (New York: John Wiley and Sons, 1974), 16.

6. Fisher Ames to Thomas Dwight, October 31, 1803, in Works of Fisher Ames, ed. Seth Ames, vol. 1 (Boston: Little, Brown, 1854), 329.

7. King George III, “Royal Proclamation,” October 7, 1763, in American State Papers: Public Lands 2: 95.

8. JCC, 13: 239–42, 263–65, 329–31, 339–41; JCC, 14: 920–26; JCC, 16: 115; RDC, 3: 300–302. RDC, 4: 78–79, 257, 743.

9. Adams, Franklin, and Jay to Livingston, July 18, 1783, RDC, 6: 567; cf. 468.

10. Franklin to Jay, October 2, 1780, RDC, 4: 75; cf. Jay to Franklin, September 11, 1783, RDC, 6: 692.

11. RDC, 6: 58.

12. Walter Nugent, Habits of Empire: A History of American Expansion (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2008), 15.

13. RDC, 6: 92.

14. H. James Henderson, Party Politics in the Continental Congress (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1974), 2; cf. 1.

15. Lynn Montross, The Reluctant Rebels: The Story of the Continental Congress, 1774–1789 (New York: Barnes and Noble, 1970), 8; cf. Robert Leckie, From Sea to Shining Sea: From the War of 1812 to the Mexican War, the Saga of America’s Expansion (New York: HarperCollins, 1993), 8.

16. Articles of Confederation, art. 2; cf. Montross, Reluctant Rebels, 12; Alan Taylor, The Civil War of 1812: American Citizens, British Subjects, Irish Rebels, and Indian Allies (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2010), 120.

17. JCC, 16: 114–15; cf. William Carmichael to the Committee of Foreign Affairs, May 28, 1780, RDC, 3: 737; RDC, 4: 40, 54.

18. François Barbé-Marbois, October 1780, “Observations on the Boundary between the Spanish Settlements and the United States,” in The Papers of James Madison: Congressional Series, ed. William T. Hutchinson and William M. E. Rachal, vol. 2 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1962), 116; cf. Gérard de Rayneval to Jay, September 6, 1782, in John Jay: The Winning of the Peace: Unpublished Papers, 1780–1784, ed. Richard B. Morris, vol. 2 (New York: Harper and Row, 1980), 331–32.

19. Benjamin Franklin and Silas Deane to the Committee of Secret Correspondence, March 12, April 9, 1777, RDC, 2: 283–90; Arthur Lee to Florida Blanca, March 17, 1777, ibid., 290–91; Lee to the Committee of Secret Correspondence, March 18, 1777, ibid., 292–96; cf. SL, 8: 8; Stacy Schiff, A Great Improvisation: Franklin, France, and the Birth of America (New York: Henry Holt, 2006).

20. Nugent, Habits of Empire, 30.

21. Franklin to Robert Livingston, August 12, 1782, RDC, 5: 657; cf. Marquis de Lafayette to Adams, October 6, 1782, ibid., 800; Lafayette to Livingston, March 2, 1783, RDC, 6: 270.

22. Morris, John Jay, 451; cf. Adams to Livingston, October 31, November 8, 1782, RDC, 5: 839, 866; Jay to Livingston, September 18, 1782, ibid., 740; ibid., 849.

23. Adams, Franklin, Jay, and Laurens to Livingston, December 14, 1782, RDC, 6: 133; cf. provisional articles of peace: ibid., 96–100; Richard Oswald to Thomas Town-shend, October 2, 1782, Morris, John Jay, 373.

24. RDC, 6: 466.

25. Nugent, Habits of Empire, 39–40; cf. Rayneval to Vergennes, December 25, 1782, RDC, 6: 166.

26. Adams, Franklin, Jay, and Laurens to Livingston, December 14, 1782, RDC, 6: 132; cf. Adams to Livingston, July 9, 1783, ibid., 530.

27. Samuel F. Bemis, A Diplomatic History of the United States, 5th ed. (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1965), 82; Leckie, From Sea to Shining Sea, 8–9; Gordon S. Wood, Empire of Liberty: A History of the Early Republic, 1789–1815 (New York: Oxford University Press, 2009), 634–35.

28. Washington to Madison, November 5, 1786, GW, 29: 51; CR, 55th Cong., 2nd sess., 6013; David P. Barash and Charles P. Webel, Peace and Conflict Studies, 3rd ed. (Washington: SAGE, 2014), 343.

29. Richard Beeman, Stephen Botein, and Edward C. Carter II, eds., Beyond Confederation: Origins of the Constitution and American National Identity (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1987).

30. Gordon to John Adams, September 7, 1782, in Papers of John Adams, ed. Gregg L. Lint, C. James Taylor, Margaret A. Hogan, Jessie May Rodrique, Mary T. Claffey, and Hobson Woodward, vol. 13 (Cambridge: Belknap Press, 2006), 450; Lee to Madison, April 3, 1790, JMa:H, 6: 11.

31. David Mayers, Dissenting Voices in America’s Rise to Power (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2007), 13.

32. Nugent, Habits of Empire, 55–56; Jon Kukla, A Wilderness So Immense: The Louisiana Purchase and the Destiny of America (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2003), 113.

33. Jefferson to Livingston, April 18, 1802, TJ:F, 9: 364.

34. Mayers, Dissenting Voices, 17.

35. Madison to Charles Pinckney, November 27, 1802, ASP:FR, 2: 527.

36. Hamilton to Charles Cotesworth Pinckney, December 29, 1802, AH, 26: 71. Hamilton favored conquering Louisiana and Florida during the Quasi-War: Adams to Timothy Pickering, October 3, 1798, The Works of John Adams, ed. Charles F. Adams, vol. 8 (Boston: Little, Brown, 1853), 600.

37. AC, 7th Cong., 2nd sess., 183; cf. 94.

38. Senate Journal, 7th Cong., 2nd sess., 274.

39. Jefferson to Livingston, April 18, 1802, TJ:W, 4: 431; cf. Clifford L. Egan, “The United States, France, and West Florida, 1803–1807,” Florida Historical Quarterly 47, no. 3 (1969): 227–52.

40. Jefferson to John Bacon, April 30, 1803, TJ:W, 8: 229; cf. E. Wilson Lyon, Louisiana in French Diplomacy, 1759–1804 (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1974), chap. 7.

41. Jefferson to Monsieur Dupont de Nemours, April 25, 1802, TJ:LB, 10: 318.

42. Livingston to Madison, April 11, 1803, AC, 7th Cong., 2nd sess., 1126.

43. T. Lothrop Stoddard, The French Revolution in San Domingo (New York: Houghton Mifflin, 1914), 327, 340; Philippe R. Girard, The Slaves Who Defeated Napoleon: Toussaint Louverture and the Haitian War of Independence, 1801–1804 (Birmingham: University of Alabama Press, 2011).

44. Mayers, Dissenting Voices, 18.

45. Barbé-Marbois, The History of Louisiana (Philadelphia: Carey and Lea, 1830), 264; cf. 312–13.

46. Colin Elman, “Extending Offensive Realism: The Louisiana Purchase and America’s Rise to Regional Hegemony,” American Political Science Review 98, no. 4 (2004): 574; Barbé-Marbois, History of Louisiana, 276.

47. Stephen E. Ambrose, Undaunted Courage: Meriwether Lewis, Thomas Jefferson, and the Opening of the American West (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1996), 102.

48. H. M. Brackenridge, Views of Louisiana (Pittsburgh: Cramer, Spear and Richbaum, 1814), 69–70.

49. François-Xavier Martin, The History of Louisiana, from the Earliest Period, vol. 2 (New Orleans: A. T. Penniman, 1829), 205; cf. Brackenridge, Views of Louisiana, 85–88; Nugent, Habits of Empire, 54–55.

50. Walter Stahr, John Jay: Founding Father (New York: Continuum, 2005), 97.

51. Livingston to Madison, April 11, 1803, AC, 7th Cong., 2nd sess., 1126.

52. Livingston to Madison, April 13, 1803, ibid., 1130.

53. Livingston to Madison, April 17, 1803, ibid., 1134; Madison to Livingston and Monroe, April 18, 1803, ibid., 1135; Livingston and Monroe to Madison, May 13, 1803, ibid., 1147.

54. Alexander Hamilton, “Purchase of Louisiana,” New-York Evening Post, July 5, 1803, AH, 26: 129–31; cf. Gilbert Lycan, Alexander Hamilton and American Foreign Policy: A Design for Greatness (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1970), 417.

55. Pickering to Theodore Lyman, February 11, 1804, Documents Relating to New England Federalism, 1800–1815, ed. Henry Adams (Boston: Little, Brown, 1905), 346.

56. AC, 8th Cong., 1st sess., 465.

57. William Plumer Jr., The Life of William Plumer (Boston: Phillips, Samson, 1857), 285.

58. Peter J. Kastor, The Nation’s Crucible: The Louisiana Purchase and the Creation of America (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2004), 4.

59. AC, 8th Cong., 1st sess., 461–62.

60. Charles W. Upham, The Life of Timothy Pickering, vol. 4 (Boston: Little, Brown, 1873), 79; Linda K. Kerber, Federalists in Dissent: Imagery and Ideology in Jeffersonian America (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1980), 42.

61. Jefferson to John Breckinridge, August 12, 1803, TJ:F, 10: 7.

62. Alexander DeConde, This Affair of Louisiana (New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1976), 190–91; cf. 95–96.

63. Livingston and Monroe to Madison, May 13, 1803, AC, 7th Cong., 2nd sess., 1146; cf. Livingston to Madison, May 20, 1803, ASP:FR, 2: 561; Jackson to Jefferson, August 7, 1803, AJ, 1: 68.

64. Kastor, Nation’s Crucible, 7; cf. DeConde, This Affair of Louisiana, 212, 252.

65. Senator John Pope of Kentucky labeled Florida’s climate “more fatal to our people than the sword of a victorious enemy.” AC, 11th Cong., 3rd sess., 40.

66. Nugent, Habits of Empire, 120; James G. Cusick, The Other War of 1812: The Patriot War and the American Invasion of Spanish East Florida (Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 2003), 316, n. 6; David J. Weber, The Spanish Frontier in North America (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1992), 298.

67. Nugent, Habits of Empire, 99.

68. Madison to Monroe, July 29, 1803, ASP:FR, 2: 627.

69. AC, 11th Cong., 3rd sess., 40.

70. Nugent, Habits of Empire, 128–29.

71. Ibid., 103.

72. Madison to Pinckney, Madison to Monroe, July 29, 1803, ASP:FR, 2: 614, 626.

73. Livingston to Madison, May 20, 1803, ibid., 561; Livingston and Monroe to Madison, June 7, 1803, ibid., 564; Isaac J. Cox, The West Florida Controversy, 1798–1813 (Gloucester, MA: Peter Smith, 1967), 83.

74. SL, 2: 251–54.

75. Talleyrand to John Armstrong, December 21, 1804, ASP:FR, 2: 635; Livingston to Madison, June 20, 1804, JMa:H, 7: 124.

76. Madison to Monroe, April 15, 1804, ASP:FR, 2: 628.

77. Wanjohi Waciuma, Intervention in Spanish Floridas, 1801–1813: A Study in Jeffersonian Foreign Policy (Boston: Branden Press, 1976), 52; cf. ASP:FR, 2: 634.

78. Talleyrand to Armstrong, December 21, 1804, ASP:FR, 2: 635; Talleyrand to Chevalier de Santivanes, March 26, 1805, ibid., 659–60; Cox, West Florida Controversy, 102–38.

79. Madison to Armstrong and James Bowdoin, March 13, 1806, JMa:H, 7: 194; cf. Albert Gallatin to Jefferson, October 13, 1806, AG, 1: 311.

80. Jefferson to Madison, August 25, 1805, TJ:F, 10: 171; cf. Jefferson to Madison, September 16, 1805, ibid., 175; Jefferson to Madison, October 11, 1805, ibid., 176.

81. Rodrigo Botero, Ambivalent Embrace: America’s Troubled Relations with Spain from the Revolutionary War to the Cold War (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 2001), 34.

82. See chapter 5.

83. Jefferson to Dearborn, August 12, 1808, TJ:W, 5: 338; cf. Jefferson to Gallatin, August 9, 11, 1808, ibid., 335, 336; Jefferson to Robert Smith, August 12, 1808, ibid., 337; Jefferson to Madison, August 12, 1808, ibid., 339.

84. Jefferson to Monroe, January 28, 1809, TJ:W, 5: 420; Jefferson to Madison, April 19, 1809, TJ:F, 11: 106; Jefferson to Madison, April 27, 1809, TJ:LB, 12: 276–77.

85. Smith to Wykoff, June 20, 1810, TPUS 9, 884; Waciuma, Intervention in Spanish Floridas, 140–42, 166; Nugent, Habits of Empire, 104–5; Rembert W. Patrick, Florida Fiasco: Rampant Rebels on the Georgia–Florida Border, 1810–1815 (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1954), 10.

86. Smith to Holmes, July 21, 1810, in Waciuma, Intervention in Spanish Floridas, 144; cf. Madison to Smith, July 17, 1810, The Papers of James Madison: Presidential Series, ed. J. C. A. Stagg, vol. 2 (Charlottesville, VA: University Press of Virginia, 1992), 419–21; Smith to Pinkney, June 13, 1810, DC:ILN, 1: 5–6.

87. Holmes to Smith, October 3, 1810, in Joseph B. Smith, The Plot to Steal Florida: James Madison’s Phony War (New York: Arbor House, 1983), 66; cf. Stanley C. Arthur, The Story of the West Florida Rebellion (St. Francisville, LA: St. Francisville Democrat, 1935), 37–88, 105–24; Waciuma, Intervention in Spanish Floridas, 148–62; Robertson to Smith, July 6, 1810, TPUS, 9: 888–89; Holmes to Smith, July 31, August 8, 1810, ibid.: 889–91, 891–93.

88. ASP:FR, 3: 397; cf. 396; J. C. A. Stagg, Borderlines in Borderlands: James Madison and the Spanish-American Frontier, 1776–1821 (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2009), 69–76, 83.

89. Frank L. Owsley Jr. and Gene A. Smith, Filibusters and Expansionists: Jeffersonian Manifest Destiny, 1800–1821 (Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 2004), 63; Charles C. Griffin, The United States and the Disruption of the Spanish Empire, 1810–1822 (New York: Columbia University Press, 1937), 106–15.

90. J. C. A. Stagg, “James Madison and George Mathews: The East Florida Revolution of 1812 Reconsidered,” Diplomatic History 30, no. 1 (2006): 33; cf. Toulmin to Madison, October 31, November 6, 22, 28, December 6, 12, 1810, TPUS, 6: 128–30, 132, 135–39, 140–43, 149–51, 152–59; Stagg, Borderlines in Borderlands, 83–85; Cox, West Florida Controversy, 437–86; Waciuma, Intervention in Spanish Floridas, 171.

91. SL, 3: 471; cf. Stagg, Borderlines in Borderlands, 89–90.

92. Mathews and McKee were ordered to “pre-occupy by force the territory” if Britain moved to take it: Smith to Mathews and McKee, January 26, 1811, ASP:FR, 3: 571.

93. Mathews to Monroe, August 3, 1811, in Stagg, Borderlines in Borderlands, 105; Stagg, “James Madison and George Mathews,” 45–47; 54; Patrick, Florida Fiasco, 84; Cusick, Other War of 1812.

94. Monroe to Mitchell, May 2, 1812, Stagg, Borderlines in Borderlands, 123; Monroe to Mitchell, May 27, 1812, MPP, 1: 510; cf. Monroe to Mathews, April 4, 1812, ASP:FR, 3: 572; Madison to Jefferson, April 24, 1812, JMa:RF, 2: 534; Stagg, “James Madison and George Mathews,” 37–38, 49.

95. AC, 11th Cong., 3rd sess., 65–83.

96. AC, 12th Cong., 1st sess., 1683.

97. Gallatin to Monroe, May 8, 1813, AG, 1: 545; cf. House vote: AC, 12th Cong., 1st sess., 1685–86; Senate vote: ibid., 326; Patrick, Florida Fiasco, 151.

98. Madison’s draft message to Congress, ca. December 8, 1812, Stagg, Papers of James Madison: Presidential Series, 5: 487; cf. speech of Hunter: AC, 13th Cong., 1st sess., 522; Senate vote: AC, 12th Cong., 2nd sess., 130; Patrick, Florida Fiasco, 253.

99. Cox, West Florida Controversy, 616–19; Senate vote: AC, 12th Cong., 2nd sess., 132.

100. Eustis to Pinckney, December 2, 1812, Patrick, Florida Fiasco, 223; cf. 214–18, 225–36; Stagg, Borderlines in Borderlands, 127; Nugent, Habits of Empire, 118; Owsley and Smith, Filibusters and Expansionists, 77–81.

101. Monroe to Gallatin, Adams, and Bayard, April 27, 1813, Papers of James A. Bayard, 1796–1815, ed. Elizabeth Donnan (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1915), 214–15.

102. Stagg, Borderlines in Borderlands, 176, 181.

103. Richard Rush, “Memo of a Cabinet Meeting,” May 29, 1816, Stagg, Borderlines in Borderlands, 283, n. 49; cf. Madison to Jefferson, February 15, 1817, JMa:RF, 3: 34; James E. Lewis Jr., The American Union and the Problem of Neighborhood: The United States and the Collapse of the Spanish Empire, 1783–1829 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1998), 89.

104. William E. Weeks, John Quincy Adams and American Global Empire (Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 1992), 54.

105. Ibid., 69; Stagg, Borderlines in Borderlands, 197.

106. Mark Jarrett, The Congress of Vienna and Its Legacy: War and Great Power Diplomacy after Napoleon (New York: I. B. Tauris, 2013), 198–99; Bagot to Castlereagh, February 8, 1818, in Correspondence, Despatches, and Other Papers of Viscount Castlereagh, ed. Charles W. Vane, vol. 11 (London: John Murray, 1853), 404–5; Weeks, John Quincy Adams, 77–78; Lewis, American Union, 123.

107. Weeks, John Quincy Adams, 57–58; cf. Owsley and Smith, Filibusters and Expansionists, 122–40.

108. JQA:A, 4: 39, 42; cf. Monroe, First Annual Message, MPP, 2: 14.

109. Monroe, Special Message to Congress, January 13, 1818, MPP, 2: 24.

110. Monroe to Jackson, December 28, 1817, Weeks, John Quincy Adams, 109; cf. 113; Calhoun to Jackson, February 6, September 8, 1818, ASP:MA, 1: 697; AJ, 2: 393.

111. Jackson to Monroe, June 2, 1818, AJ, 2: 378; Jackson to Gaines, August 7, 1818, AJ, 2: 384; Jackson to Monroe, January 6, August 10, 1818, ibid., 346, 385–87; Robert V. Remini, Andrew Jackson and the Course of American Empire, 1767–1821 (New York: Harper and Row, 1981), 351–65.

112. Nugent, Habits of Empire, 122.

113. Onís to Adams, June 17, July 8, 1818, ASP:FR, 4: 495–96; Adams to Onís, July 23, 1818, ibid., 497–98; JQA:A, 4: 26, 79; Weeks, John Quincy Adams, 74, 117–18.

114. Monroe, Second Annual Message, MPP, 2: 40–41.

115. Adams to Erving, November 28, 1818, JQA:F, 6: 501–2; JQA:A, 4: 188; Weeks, John Quincy Adams, 55, 133, 151–55.

116. JQA:A, 4: 197–98.

117. Onís to Adams, February 1, 1819, ASP:FR, 4: 616; cf. Philip C. Brooks, Diplomacy and the Borderlands: The Adams–Onís Treaty of 1819 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1939), 136–39; JQA:A, 4: 208–9; Weeks, John Quincy Adams, 149.

118. JQA:A, 4: 274–75.

119. Griffin, Disruption of the Spanish Empire, 191–243.

120. Monroe, Special Message to Congress, March 8, 1822; MPP, 2: 116–18.

121. Weeks, John Quincy Adams, 72.

4. To the West

1. Richard B. Morris, The Peacemakers: The Great Powers and American Independence (New York: Harper and Row, 1965), 321–22.

2. Neville B. Craig, The Olden Time, vol. 2 (Cincinnati: Robert Clarke, 1876), 424–26; Reginald Horsman, Expansion and American Indian Policy, 1783–1812 (East Lansing: Michigan State University Press, 1967), 20; Colin G. Calloway, “The Continuing Revolution in Indian Country,” in Native Americans in the Early Republic, ed. Frederick E. Hoxie, Ronald Hoffman, and Peter J. Albert (Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press, 1999), 31.

3. David C. Hendrickson, Union, Nation, or Empire: The American Debate over International Relations, 1789–1941 (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 2009), 159.

4. Knox to Washington, June 15, 1789, ASP:IA, 1: 13; U.S. Census Bureau, Return of the Whole Number of Persons within the Several Districts of the United States (Philadelphia: J. Phillips, 1793), 3. Disease and war had cut the Native American population from perhaps 250,000 a century earlier: Peter Wood, “From Atlantic History to a Continental Approach,” in Atlantic History: A Critical Appraisal, ed. Jack P. Greene and Philip D. Morgan (New York: Oxford University Press, 2009), 422.

5. Calloway, “Continuing Revolution in Indian Country,” 3; cf. 25.

6. Knox to Washington, July 7, 1789, ASP:IA, 1: 53.

7. Ibid., 53; cf. Knox to Putnam, May 22, 1792, The Memoirs of Rufus Putnam, ed. Rowena Buell (Boston: Houghton, Mifflin, 1903), 257–67; Reginald Horsman, “The Indian Policy of an ‘Empire for Liberty,’” in Hoxie et al., Native Americans and the Early Republic, 46.

8. GW, 31: 396–403; cf. ibid., 32: 208, 34: 391.

9. Knox to Washington, July 7, 1789, ASP:IA, 1: 52.

10. Horsman, Expansion and American Indian Policy, 36.

11. Report of Secretary at War on Indian Hostilities, July 10, 1787, JCC, 32: 329; cf. Report of Secretary at War on Indian Affairs, July 20, 1787, JCC, 33: 388.

12. Report of Secretary at War on Indian Hostilities, July 10, 1787, JCC, 32: 331.

13. Schuyler to President of Congress, July 29, 1783, Papers of the Continental Congress, Item 153, Vol. 3, 603, National Archives, Washington, DC; cf. Schuyler to President of Congress, September 21, 1782, ibid., 593–95; Horsman, Expansion and American Indian Policy, 56.

14. Washington to James Duane, September 7, 1783, GW, 27: 133–40; Washington to the President of Congress, June 17, 1783, ibid., 17–18.

15. Knox to Washington, June 15, 1789, ASP:IA, 1: 13–14; cf. Knox to Washington, July 7, 1789, ibid., 53.

16. Report of Secretary at War on Indian Hostilities, July 10, 1787, JCC, 32: 331; Report of Secretary at War on Indian Affairs, July 20, 1787, JCC, 33: 389.

17. Knox to Washington, July 7, 1789, ASP:IA, 1: 54; cf. Knox to Washington, June 15, 1789, ibid., 13.

18. JCC, 27: 460–61; cf. October 1783 report on Northwest Native affairs: JCC, 25: 683–86.

19. GW, 32: 208.

20. Knox to Washington, July 7, 1789, ASP:IA, 1: 53–54; North Callahan, Henry Knox, General Washington’s General (New York: Rinehart, 1958), 322.

21. ASP:IA 1: 82.

22. Knox to the Northwestern Indians, April 4, 1792, ibid., 230.

23. GW, 32: 205–8; cf. GW, 34: 386–92.

24. Douglas Hurt, The Ohio Frontier: Crucible of the Old Northwest, 1720–1830 (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1998), 118; Colin G. Calloway, The American Revolution in Indian Country (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1995), 289. On Anglo-American fears of Native confederations: Robert M. Owens, Red Dreams, White Nightmares: Pan-Indian Alliances in the Anglo-American Mind, 1763–1815 (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 2015).

25. James McHenry to Thomas Lewis, March 30, 1799, War Department, Letters Sent, Indian Affairs, Vol. A, 29–35, National Archives, Washington, DC; cf. Francis P. Prucha, The Great Father: The United States Government and the American Indians (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1984), 162–63; Horsman, Expansion and American Indian Policy, 83.

26. James Wilkinson, Benjamin Hawkins, and Andrew Pickens to Henry Dearborn, December 18, 1801, ASP:IA, 1: 659.

27. An Act to Regulate Trade and Intercourse with the Indian Tribes, SL, 1: 331.

28. An Act to Regulate Trade and Intercourse with the Indian Tribes, ibid., 138; cf. 329, 453; Anthony F. C. Wallace, Jefferson and the Indians: The Tragic Fate of the First Americans (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1999), 207; Francis P. Prucha, American Indian Policy in the Formative Years: The Indian Trade and Intercourse Acts, 1790–1834 (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1962).

29. Knox to Washington, June 15, 1789, ASP:IA, 1: 13; Calloway, American Revolution in Indian Country, 3–4, 23; Horsman, Expansion and American Indian Policy, 107.

30. GW, 32: 208; Patricia N. Limerick, The Legacy of Conquest: The Unbroken Past of the American West (New York: W. W. Norton, 1987), 192; cf. Report of Secretary at War on Indian Hostilities, July 10, 1787, JCC, 32: 328; Timothy Pickering to William Blount, March 23, 1795, TPUS, 4: 392.

31. Horsman, Expansion and American Indian Policy, 27–29, 69–72.

32. Knox to Washington, December 29, 1794, ASP:IA, 1: 543–44.

33. Ibid., 544.

34. Jefferson to Chastellux, June 7, 1785, TJ:F, 3: 419.

35. Dearborn to Benjamin Hawkins, May 24, 1803, Prucha, Great Father, 143.

36. Horsman, Expansion and American Indian Policy, 111.

37. Jefferson, “Hints on the Subject of Indian Boundaries,” December 29, 1802, TJ:W, 9: 460–61; cf. Dearborn to Harrison, June 27, 1804, WHH, 1: 101.

38. Jefferson to Congress, January 18, 1803, MPP, 1: 352.

39. Jefferson to Jackson, February 16, 1803, TJ:W, 4: 464.

40. Jefferson to Hawkins, February 18, 1803, TJ:F, 9: 446–48.

41. Jefferson to Harrison, February 27, 1803, WHH, 1: 69–73; cf. Jefferson, “Hints on the Subject of Indian Boundaries,” December 29, 1802, TJ:W, 9: 460–62.

42. Jefferson to Horatio Gates, July 11, 1803, TJ:F, 10: 13; cf. Jefferson to John Dickinson, August 9, 1803, ibid., 29–30; Jefferson to John Breckinridge, August 12, 1803, TJ:LB, 10: 410; Annie H. Abel, “The History of Events Resulting in Indian Consolidation West of the Mississippi River,” in Annual Report of the American Historical Association for the Year 1906, vol. 1 (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1908), 244–48.

43. Jefferson, “Draft of an Amendment to the Constitution,” TJ:F, 10: 6–7.

44. An Act Erecting Louisiana into Two Territories, and Providing for the Temporary Government Thereof, SL, 2: 289.

45. Jefferson to the Chiefs of the Upper Cherokees, May 4, 1808, TJ:W, 8: 213–15; Jefferson to the Deputies of the Cherokee Upper Towns, January 9, 1809, ibid., 228–30; Jefferson to the Deputies of the Cherokees of the Upper and Lower Towns, January 9, 1809, ibid., 230–32.

46. TPUS, 5: 142–46; Abel, “Indian Consolidation,” 257.

47. Jefferson to the Chiefs of the Chickasaw Nation, March 7, 1805, TJ:W, 8: 199.

48. Dearborn to Return Meigs, March 25, 1808, William G. McLoughlin, Cherokee Renascence in the New Republic (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1986), 129; Abel, “Indian Consolidation,” 252–53.

49. Dearborn to Meigs, May 5, 1808, Abel, “Indian Consolidation,” 254; Robert V. Remini, Andrew Jackson and His Indian Wars (New York: Viking, 2001), 115; Nancy Shoemaker, American Indian Population Recovery in the Twentieth Century (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1999), 22.

50. Jefferson to the Chiefs of the Wyandots, Ottawas, Chippewas, Potawatomis, and Shawnees, January 10, 1809, TJ:W, 8: 234; cf. Jefferson to Captain Hendrick, the Delawares, Mohicans, and Munries, December 21, 1808, TJ:LB, 16: 452; Bernard W. Sheehan, Seeds of Extinction: Jeffersonian Philanthropy and the American Indian (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1973), 119–147.

51. Madison, First Inaugural Address, MPP, 1: 468.

52. Madison to William Wirt, October 1, 1830, JMa:RF, 4: 114; Abel, “Indian Consolidation,” 255; Prucha, American Indian Policy, 160; Wallace, Jefferson and the Indians, 214.

53. Eustis to Neelly, March 29, 1811, Horsman, Expansion and American Indian Policy, 162; Eustis to Hawkins, June 27, 1811, ibid., 160–61; cf. 119; Jefferson to Baron von Humboldt, December 6, 1813, TJ:F, 11: 353; Jefferson to Adams, June 11, 1812, TJ:F, 11: 255; Jefferson to the Chiefs of the Ottawas, Chippewas, Potawatomis, Wyandots, and Senecas of Sandusky, April 22, 1808, TJ:W, 8: 212; Abel, “Indian Consolidation,” 268–69.

54. Sean M. O’Brien, In Bitterness and in Tears: Andrew Jackson’s Destruction of the Creeks and Seminoles (Westport, CT: Praeger, 2003), ix–xv, 141–52; H. S. Halbert and T. H. Ball, The Creek War of 1813 and 1814 (Chicago: Donohue and Henneberry, 1895), 143–76; Remini, Andrew Jackson and His Indian Wars, 62–79; Walter Nugent, Habits of Empire: A History of American Expansion (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2008), 118.

55. Horsman, “Indian Policy,” 56; cf. Reginald Horsman, The Origins of Indian Removal, 1815–1824 (East Lansing: Michigan State University Press, 1970), 8–9, 11–13; Crawford to Meigs, May 27, 1816, ASP:IA, 2: 110; McMinn to Crawford, October 25, 1816, ASP:IA, 2: 115; Jon Meacham, American Lion: Andrew Jackson in the White House (New York: Random House, 2008), 92; William E. Weeks, John Quincy Adams and American Global Empire (Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 1992), 107.

56. Crawford to John Gaillard, March 13, 1816, ASP:IA, 2: 26–27.

57. AC, 14th Cong., 2nd sess., 78; ASP:IA, 2: 124; cf. Abel, “Indian Consolidation,” 258; Horsman, “Indian Policy,” 54; Horsman, Expansion and American Indian Policy, 147, 167.

58. Abel, “Indian Consolidation,” 277; cf. Mary Stockwell, The Other Trail of Tears: The Removal of the Ohio Indians (Yardley, PA: Westholme, 2014); John P. Bowes, Land Too Good for Indians: Northern Indian Removal (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 2016).

59. Nugent, Habits of Empire, 120; cf. Francis P. Prucha, American Indian Treaties: The History of a Political Anomaly (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1997), 129.

60. Jackson to Monroe, March 4, 1817, AJ, 2: 281; cf. Jackson, Meriwether, and Franklin to Crawford, September 20, 1816, ASP:IA, 2: 105; Jackson to Calhoun, September 2, 1820, AJ, 3: 31–32; Remini, Andrew Jackson and His Indian Wars, 111–12; Meacham, American Lion, 151.

61. Cherokee Agency to the Commissioners, July 2, 1817, ASP:IA, 2: 142–43.

62. William M. Jurgelski, “A New Plow in Old Ground: Cherokees, Whites, and Land in Western North Carolina, 1819–1829” (PhD diss., University of Georgia, 2004), 117.

63. U.S. Commissioners to Graham, July 9, 1817, AJ, 2: 305; cf. Graham to Commissioners, August 1, 1817, ASP:IA, 2: 143; Jurgelski, “New Plow,” 119.

64. Harlow G. Unger, The Last Founding Father: James Monroe and a Nation’s Call to Greatness (Boston: Da Capo, 2009).

65. Calhoun to Speaker of the House of Representatives, December 5, 1818, ASP:IA, 2: 183–84; cf. Monroe, First Annual Message, MPP, 2: 16.

66. The Committee on Indian Affairs replaced temporary committees like the 1818 Select Committee on the Extinguishment of Indian Title to Certain Lands. Except for Troup, it was not chaired by a senator from east of the Appalachians until 1873; cf. Horsman, Origins of Indian Removal, 12–15.

67. Nicholas Guyatt, Bind Us Apart: How Enlightened Americans Invented Racial Segregation (New York: Basic Books, 2016); Ronald T. Takaki, Iron Cages: Race and Culture in Nineteenth-Century America (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1979), 80–107.

68. CG, 25th Cong., 2nd sess., Appendix, 470.

69. Walter A. McDougall, Promised Land, Crusader State: The American Encounter with the World since 1776 (New York: Houghton Mifflin, 1997), 87–88.

70. Harry Ammon, James Monroe: The Quest for National Identity (Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press, 1990), 60.

71. Graham to Cass, March 23, 1817, ASP:IA, 2: 136; Abel, “Indian Consolidation,” 289–91.

72. Wallace, Jefferson and the Indians, 218.

73. Monroe to Jackson, October 5, 1817, AJ, 2: 332.

74. Calhoun to Shelby and Jackson, May 2, 1818, ASP:IA, 2: 173; Calhoun to Shelby, July 30, 1818, ibid., 178.

75. Jackson to Shelby, August 11, August 25, 1818, AJ, 2: 387–88, 391.

76. Jackson and Isaac Shelby to Calhoun, October 30, 1818, ibid., 399–401; Remini, Andrew Jackson and His Indian Wars, 175–78.

77. ASP:IA, 2: 240; cf. Arthur H. DeRosier, The Removal of the Choctaw Indians (Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 1970), 46–47; Remini, Andrew Jackson and His Indian Wars, 198–205.

78. Path Killer, Charles Hicks, and Thomas Wilson to the Secretary of War, October 28, 1817, ASP:IA, 2: 146; cf. Cherokee Chiefs to McMinn, November 21, 1818, ibid., 487; James Mooney, Myths of the Cherokee (Mineola, NY: Dover, 1996), 106; Jurgelski, “New Plow,” 131.

79. Calhoun to the Cherokee Delegation, February 11, 1819, ibid., 190; cf. Calhoun to Jackson, November 16, 1821, AJ, 3: 132; Calhoun to McMinn, March 16, December 29, 1818, ASP:IA, 2: 478, 480.

80. Royal G. Way, “The United States Factory System for Trading with the Indians, 1796–1822,” Mississippi Valley Historical Review 6, no. 2 (1919): 235; cf. AC, 17th Cong., 1st sess., 317, 331, 343, 352; House debate and vote: ibid., 1791–1801.

81. John Marshall, Johnson v. McIntosh, February 28, 1823; cf. Lindsay G. Robertson, Conquest by Law: How the Discovery of America Dispossessed Indigenous Peoples of Their Lands (New York: Oxford University Press, 2005); Blake A. Watson, Buying America from the Indians: “Johnson v. McIntosh” and the History of Native Land Rights (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 2012).

82. AC, 18th Cong., 1st sess., 1164.

83. Monroe, Special Message to Congress, January 27, 1825, MPP, 2: 280.

84. Paul C. Nagel, John Quincy Adams: A Public Life, A Private Life (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1997), 296–323.

85. JQA:A, 7: 411.

86. Ibid., 89–90.

87. Barbour to John Cocke, February 3, 1826, ASP:IA, 2: 646–49; cf. JQA:A, 7: 113.

88. JQA:A, 7: 411.

89. Report and Resolutions of the Legislature of Georgia with Accompanying Documents, January 23, 1827 (Washington: Gales and Seaton, 1827), 20–21; JQA:A, 7: 219, 220, 233; Barbour to Troup, January 29, 1827, ASP:IA, 2: 864; Report of Thomas H. Benton, March 1, 1827, ibid., 869–72; Michael D. Green, The Politics of Indian Removal (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1982), 133.

90. Green, Politics of Indian Removal, 134–39. Adams also unsuccessfully sought further cessions from the Choctaw and Chickasaw: Jackson to Terrill, July 29, 1826, AJ, 3: 308–9; Remini, Andrew Jackson and His Indian Wars, 224.

91. Acts of the General Assembly of the State of Georgia, Passed in Milledgeville at an Annual Session in November and December, 1827 (Milledgeville, GA: Camak and Ragland, 1827), 249; Acts of the General Assembly of the State of Georgia, Passed in Milledgeville at an Annual Session in November and December, 1828 (Milledgeville, GA: Camak and Ragland, 1829), 88–89.

92. RD, 21st Cong., 1st sess., 318.

93. Laws of the State of Mississippi; Embracing All Acts of a Public Nature from January Session 1824, to January Session 1838, Inclusive (Baltimore: John D. Toy, 1838), 195–97.

94. Adams, Fourth Annual Message, MPP, 2: 416; cf. Annual Report of the Secretary of War, November 25, 1832, ASP:MA, 5: 21.

95. RD, 20th Cong., 1st sess., 820, 823.

96. Jackson to Monroe, March 4, 1817, AJ, 2: 279–80; cf. Remini, Andrew Jackson and His Indian Wars, 228; Meacham, American Lion, 93.

97. Eaton to Carroll and Coffee, May 20, 1829, Remini, Andrew Jackson and His Indian Wars, 227.

98. RD, 21st Cong., 1st sess., 318.

99. Ibid., 312.

100. Ibid., 1013.

101. Ibid., 998, 1011.

102. Ibid., 1070–71.

103. Ibid., 1079.

104. Ibid., 325.

105. Ronald Satz, American Indian Policy in the Jacksonian Era (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1975), 78.

106. David Mayers, Dissenting Voices in America’s Rise to Power (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2007), 86–87; Donald B. Cole, The Presidency of Andrew Jackson (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1993), 71.

107. Cole, Presidency of Andrew Jackson, 72–74; cf. 291, n. 51. House vote: RD, 21st Cong., 1st sess., 1135; cf. RD, 21st Cong., 1st sess., 383; cf. SL, 4: 412; Address of Cherokee Nation to the people of the United States, July 17, 1830, Niles’ Weekly Register, August 21, 1830, Remini, Andrew Jackson and His Indian Wars, 254–55.

108. JQA:A, 8: 206.

109. USSS, 245: 240–42.

110. Ibid., 243–44; cf. Jackson to William Lewis, August 31, 1830, AJ, 4: 178–79.

111. USSS, 245: 261; cf. H. S. Halbert, “Story of the Treaty of Dancing Rabbit,” in Publications of the Mississippi Historical Society, ed. Franklin L. Riley, vol. 6 (Harrisburg, PA: Harrisburg Publishing, 1902), 389; Satz, American Indian Policy, 65–66, 70–78; Ronald N. Satz, “The Mississippi Choctaw: From the Removal Treaty to the Federal Agency,” in After Removal: The Choctaw in Mississippi, ed. Samuel J. Wells and Roseanna Tubby (Jackson: University Press of Mississippi, 1986), 4–8; DeRosier, Removal of the Choctaw Indians, 128.

112. Jackson to Coffee, April 7, 1832, AJ, 4: 430; cf. Green, Politics of Indian Removal, 176.

113. Remini, Andrew Jackson and His Indian Wars, 251.

114. AJ, 4: 483; Arrell M. Gibson, The Chickasaws (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1971), 174–76; Cole, Presidency of Andrew Jackson, 111, 118; Prucha, Great Father, 83.

115. H. Niles, ed., Niles’ Weekly Register, vol. 44 (Baltimore: Franklin Press, 1833), 256.

116. Anselm J. Gerwing, “The Chicago Indian Treaty of 1833,” Journal of the Illinois State Historical Society 57, no. 2 (1964): 128.

117. Cass to Jackson, November 29, 1833, RD, 23rd Cong., 1st sess., Appendix, 10.

118. John Marshall, Worcester v. Georgia, March 3, 1832.

119. Jackson to Coffee, April 7, 1832, AJ, 4: 430; cf. Jackson to Wilson Lumpkin, June 22, 1832, AJ, 4: 451; Remini, Andrew Jackson and His Indian Wars, 257.

120. William Davis to Lewis Cass, March 5, 1836, in Voices from the Trail of Tears, ed. Vicki Rozema (Winston-Salem, NC: John F. Blair, 2007), 63.

121. Remini, Andrew Jackson and His Indian Wars, 265–68.

122. Cass to Thomas Jesup, May 19, 1836, ASP:MA, 7: 312; cf. Cole, Presidency of Andrew Jackson, 112; Mary Young, “The Creek Frauds: A Study in Conscience and Corruption,” Mississippi Valley Historical Review 42 (1955): 411–37; Green, Politics of Indian Removal, 185; Remini, Andrew Jackson and His Indian Wars, 272–73; Prucha, Great Father, 81–82.

123. Cole, Presidency of Andrew Jackson, 110; cf. Anthony F. C. Wallace, The Long, Bitter Trail: Andrew Jackson and the Indians (New York: Hill and Wang, 1993), 87–88; Remini, Andrew Jackson and His Indian Wars, 238.

124. Mayers, Dissenting Voices, 98.

125. Wallace, Long, Bitter Trail, 93.

126. Remini, Andrew Jackson and His Indian Wars, 270; Prucha, Great Father, 87; Rozema, Voices from the Trail of Tears, 140; cf. 148.

127. J. W. Powell, Nineteenth Annual Report of the Bureau of American Ethnology, vol. 1 (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1900), 127; Winfield Scott, Memoirs of Lieut.-General Scott, vol. 1 (New York: Sheldon, 1864), 319; cf. Mayers, Dissenting Voices, 99–103; Meacham, American Lion, 318.

128. The entire as yet unassigned portion of the Louisiana Purchase was initially labeled “Indian country,” gradually narrowing to modern-day Oklahoma over the succeeding decades: SL, 4: 729.

129. RD, 23rd Cong., 1st sess., 4774; cf. 4773.

130. RD, 23rd Cong., 1st sess., 4776.

131. Paul Frymer, Building an American Empire: The Era of Territorial and Political Expansion (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2017), 5.

132. Cole, Presidency of Andrew Jackson, 116; Mayers, Dissenting Voices, 81; Remini, Andrew Jackson and His Indian Wars, 238, 277; Satz, American Indian Policy, 97.

133. Remini, Andrew Jackson and His Indian Wars, 277.

134. Mayers, Dissenting Voices, 105.

135. Alexis de Tocqueville, Democracy in America, trans. George Lawrence (New York: Harper and Row, 1966), 312.

136. Kevin Gover, “Address to Tribal Leaders,” Journal of American Indian Education 39, no. 2 (2000): 4–6.

5. To the North

1. JCC, 1: 105–13.

2. What is now eastern Canada was named the Province of Quebec after France ceded it to Britain in 1763. The Constitutional Act of 1791 divided it into two provinces, Lower Canada and Upper Canada, roughly corresponding to modern-day Quebec and Ontario, respectively. The 1840 Act of Union recombined them into the Province of Canada, and in 1867 the British North America Act added New Brunswick and Nova Scotia to form the Dominion of Canada, which subsequently expanded to its modern proportions.

3. Marvin McInnis, “The Population of Canada in the Nineteenth Century,” in A Population History of North America, ed. Michael R. Haines and Richard H. Steckel (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2000), 373.

4. John C. Miller, Origins of the American Revolution (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1943); Robert Middlekauff, The Glorious Cause: The American Revolution, 1763–1789 (New York: Oxford University Press, 2005); John Ferling, Almost a Miracle: The American Victory in the War of Independence (New York: Oxford University Press, 2007).

5. Gustave Lanctot, Canada and the American Revolution, 1774–1783 (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1967), 21–29.

6. McInnis, “Population of Canada,” 373; William Lerner, ed., Historical Statistics of the United States: Colonial Times to 1970, part 2 (Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Commerce, 1975), 1168.

7. William Duane, Canada and the Continental Congress (Philadelphia: Edward Gaskill, 1850), 4–6.

8. JCC, 2: 6870; James M. Callahan, American Foreign Policy in Canadian Relations (New York: Macmillan, 1937), 2; Lanctot, Canada and the American Revolution, 29, 37–38.

9. U.S. Declaration of Independence.

10. JCC, 2: 6870.

11. George M. Wrong, Canada and the American Revolution: The Disruption of the First British Empire (New York: Macmillan, 1935), 262; Richard B. Morris, The Peacemakers: The Great Powers and American Independence (New York: Harper and Row, 1965), 19; JCC, 14: 896–97; Joseph L. Davis, Sectionalism in American Politics, 1774–1787 (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1977), 26; H. James Henderson, Party Politics in the Continental Congress (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1974), 6, 261.

12. Edmund C. Burnett, The Continental Congress (New York: Macmillan, 1941), 113.

13. JCC, 1: 83.

14. Ibid., 88.

15. Duane, Canada and the Continental Congress, 4–6.

16. John H. Rhodehamel, ed., The American Revolution: Writings from the War of Independence (New York: Library of America, 2001), 75.

17. Lanctot, Canada and the American Revolution, 49, 62–75, 89–107; Wrong, Canada and the American Revolution, 282–88, 297–98.

18. Mark R. Anderson, The Battle for the Fourteenth Colony: America’s War of Liberation in Canada, 1774–1776 (Lebanon, NH: University Press of New England, 2013); Ferling, Almost a Miracle, 80–99.

19. Duane, Canada and the Continental Congress, 12–13.

20. JCC, 4: 149.

21. Wrong, Canada and the American Revolution, 260.

22. Duane, Canada and the Continental Congress, 12–13; Wrong, Canada and the American Revolution, 311–13.

23. Washington to Schuyler, May 17, 1776, GW, 5: 52; cf. Washington’s June letters to John Hancock, ibid., 111–14, 120–21, 129–31, 142, 159–60.

24. GW, 11: 493; BF, 6: 454.

25. Articles of Confederation, art. 11.

26. Burnett, Continental Congress, 218; cf. 213–29, 248–58.

27. Michael Stephenson, Patriot Battles: How the War for Independence Was Fought (New York: HarperCollins, 2007), 32–33.

28. Wrong, Canada and the American Revolution, 315.

29. Washington to Continental Congress, December 23, 1777, GW, 10: 195; cf. Wayne Bodle, The Valley Forge Winter: Civilians and Soldiers in War (University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press, 2002), 39–40.

30. Willard M. Wallace, Appeal to Arms: A Military History of the American Revolution (New York: Harper and Brothers, 1951), 170.

31. Stephenson, Patriot Battles, 27; Wrong, Canada and the American Revolution, 354–55.

32. Washington to Thomas Nelson, February 8, 1778, GW, 10: 433; Washington to President of Congress, November 11, 1778, GW, 13: 224, 230; cf. Washington to President of Congress, September 12, 1778, GW, 12: 434–36; Burnett, Continental Congress, 371; Callahan, Canadian Relations, 7.

33. Lanctot, Canada and the American Revolution, 173–89; Ferling, Almost a Miracle, 290–93, 316–18, 446–47.

34. Henderson, Party Politics, 197; Burnett, Continental Congress, 291.

35. Washington to President of Congress, November 11, 1778, GW, 13: 224, 230; cf. Washington to Henry Laurens, November 14, 1778, ibid., 256.

36. Lanctot, Canada and the American Revolution, 178, 205; Wrong, Canada and the American Revolution, 356; Ferling, Almost a Miracle, 548.

37. BF, 6: 454; Lanctot, Canada and the American Revolution, 181–82.

38. RDC, 3: 302; Samuel F. Bemis, A Diplomatic History of the United States, 5th ed. (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1965), 49; cf. Samuel F. Bemis, American Foreign Policy and the Blessings of Liberty (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1962), 113; Callahan, Canadian Relations, 8.

39. Bemis, Diplomatic History, 52; cf. 57; Bemis, American Foreign Policy, 114–28; Wrong, Canada and the American Revolution, 360–65; Walter Nugent, Habits of Empire: A History of American Expansion (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2008), 35–36.

40. Richard W. Maass, “‘Difficult to Relinquish Territory Which Had Been Conquered’: Expansionism and the War of 1812,” Diplomatic History 39, no. 1 (2015): 70–97.

41. Carl von Clausewitz, On War, ed. Michael Howard and Peter Paret (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1989), 605.

42. The British navy impressed more than fifteen thousand U.S. sailors from 1793 to 1812: Joshua Wolf, “‘The Misfortune to Get Pressed’: Impressment of American Seamen and the Ramifications on the United States, 1793–1812” (PhD diss., Temple University, 2015), 52; cf. Donald R. Hickey, Don’t Give Up the Ship! Myths of the War of 1812 (Chicago: University of Illinois Press, 2006), 20; John Quincy Adams to William Plumer, August 13, 1813, JQA:F, 4: 505; Jefferson to Madison, August 15, 1804, TJ:F, 10: 95; Madison to George Joy, May 22, 1807, JMa:RF, 2: 405.

43. Jefferson to Madison, August 4, 1805, TJ:F, 8: 374; Monroe to Madison, July 1, 1804, JMo, 4: 218.

44. Alfred T. Mahan, The Influence of Sea Power upon the French Revolution and Empire, 1793–1812, vol. 2 (Boston: Little, Brown, 1892), 355; cf. Reginald Horsman, The Causes of the War of 1812 (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1962), 56–57.

45. Tensions had run high since the previous June, when the H.M.S. Leopard fired on the U.S.S. Chesapeake, killing three, after it resisted being searched. The Leopard seized four deserters, including three formerly impressed Americans: Spencer C. Tucker and Frank T. Reuter, Injured Honor: The Chesapeake–Leopard Affair, June 22, 1807 (Annapolis: Naval Institute Press, 1996); Hickey, Don’t Give Up the Ship, 21.

46. Paul A. Gilje, Free Trade and Sailors’ Rights in the War of 1812 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2013); Bradford Perkins, Prologue to War: England and the United States, 1805–1812 (Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1961), 95; Troy Bickham, The Weight of Vengeance: The United States, the British Empire, and the War of 1812 (New York: Oxford University Press, 2012), 21.

47. Adams to Harrison Otis, March 31, 1808, JQA:F, 3: 200.

48. AC, 11th Cong., 2nd sess., 581.

49. AC, 12th Cong., 1st sess., 1399.

50. Horsman, Causes of the War of 1812, 264.

51. Gordon S. Wood, Empire of Liberty: A History of the Early Republic, 1789–1815 (New York: Oxford University Press, 2009), 655.

52. Monroe to John Taylor, June 13, 1812, JMo, 5: 206; Wilson Nicholas to Jefferson, February 4, 1810, in J. Jefferson Looney, ed., The Papers of Thomas Jefferson, Retirement Series, vol. 2 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2006), 195; Alan Taylor, The Civil War of 1812: American Citizens, British Subjects, Irish Rebels, and Indian Allies (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2010), 127.

53. Maass, “Expansionism and the War of 1812,” 72.

54. Madison, Third Annual Message, MPP, 1: 494; Madison to the House of Representatives of the State of South Carolina, January 8, 1812, JMa:RF, 2: 524; cf. Madison, Fourth Annual Message, MPP, 1: 520. Discussion of Britain’s maritime restrictions filled fifteen paragraphs of Madison’s war message: JMa:H, 8: 192–200. Two months after the declaration of war Madison learned that Britain had provisionally repealed the Orders, but since British Foreign Secretary “Castlereagh had reserved the right to restore the system in May, 1813,” Madison thought it “a trick to turn America from war”: Perkins, Prologue to War, 421.

55. J. C. A. Stagg, Mr. Madison’s War: Politics, Diplomacy, and Warfare in the Early American Republic, 1783–1830 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1983), 23–24.

56. Donald R. Hickey, The War of 1812: A Forgotten Conflict (Chicago: University of Illinois Press, 2012), 44; Roger H. Brown, Republic in Peril: 1812 (New York: W. W. Norton, 1971), 34; Wood, Empire of Liberty, 694–95.

57. Monroe to Russell, June 26, 1812, DC:CR, 1: 207; cf. George C. Daughan, 1812: The Navy’s War (New York: Basic Books, 2011), 39; Taylor, Civil War of 1812, 139; Scott A. Silverstone, Divided Union: The Politics of War in the Early American Republic (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2004), 96; Wood, Empire of Liberty, 676.

58. David Mayers, Dissenting Voices in America’s Rise to Power (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2007), 32; Horsman, Causes of the War of 1812, 236.

59. AC, 12th Cong., 1st sess., 711, 1388.

60. Winfield Scott, Memoirs of Lieut.-General Scott, vol. 1 (New York: Sheldon, 1864), 35; Stagg, Mr. Madison’s War, 3; J. C. A. Stagg, “Enlisted Men in the United States Army, 1812–1815: A Preliminary Survey,” William and Mary Quarterly 43, no. 4 (1986): 615–45; William B. Skelton, “High Army Leadership in the War of 1812: The Making and Remaking of the Officer Corps,” William and Mary Quarterly 51, no. 2 (1994): 253–74; Jeffrey Kimball, “The Fog and Friction of Frontier War: The Role of Logistics in American Offensive Failure during the War of 1812,” Old Northwest 5 (1979/80): 323–43.

61. William G. Dean, “British Garrisons to 1871,” in Historical Atlas of Canada: The Land Transformed, 1800–1891, ed. R. Louis Gentilcore, Don Measner, and Ronald H. Walder (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1993), 66; Lawrence S. Kaplan, “France and the War of 1812,” Journal of American History 57, no. 1 (1970): 37.

62. Wood, Empire of Liberty, 659.

63. Jefferson to William Duane, August 4, 1812, TJ:F, 11: 265; cf. Jefferson to Thad-deus Kosciusko, June 28, 1812, ibid., 260.

64. Monroe to John Taylor, June 13, 1812, JMo, 5: 211.

65. AC, 12th Cong., 1st sess., 1397; cf. Perkins, Prologue to War, 284.

66. AC, 9th Cong., 1st sess., 555; AC, 11th Cong., 2nd sess., 580.

67. AC, 12th Cong., 1st sess., 447.

68. McInnis, “Population of Canada,” 373; Robert Malcolmson, A Very Brilliant Affair: The Battle of Queenston Heights, 1812 (Toronto: Robin Brass Studio, 2003), 14–16.

69. Stagg, Mr. Madison’s War, 40; cf. Taylor, Civil War of 1812, 119.

70. Madison, “Political Observations,” April 20, 1795, JMa:RF, 4: 498; Stagg, Mr. Madison’s War, 38.

71. Stagg, Mr. Madison’s War, 40.

72. AC, 12th Cong., 1st sess., 416; Lawrence S. Kaplan, “France and Madison’s Decision for War in 1812,” Mississippi Valley Historical Review 50, no. 4 (1964): 663.

73. Brown, Republic in Peril, 120; Perkins, Prologue to War, 427.

74. Horsman, Causes of the War of 1812, 236; cf. 169–71; AC, 12th Cong., 1st sess., 481; Julius W. Pratt, Expansionists of 1812 (New York: Peter Smith, 1949), 166; Bradford Perkins, The Cambridge History of American Foreign Relations, vol. 1 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1993), 138.

75. Clay to Thomas Bodley, December 18, 1813, HC, 1: 842; cf. AC, 11th Cong., 2nd sess., 580.

76. Monroe to John Taylor, June 13, 1812, JMo, 5: 207; cf. Virginia Argus, November 11, 1811; Pratt, Expansionists of 1812, 267.

77. Madison to Henry Wheaton, February 26, 1827, JMa:RF, 3: 555.

78. James A. Bayard to Andrew Bayard, May 2, 1812, “Papers of James A. Bayard, 1796–1815,” in Annual Report of the American Historical Association, 1913, vol. 2, ed. Elizabeth Donnan (Washington, DC, 1915), 196.

79. Hugh Nelson to Charles Everett, December 16, 1811, Brown, Republic in Peril, 124.

80. Speech of Randolph: AC, 12th Cong., 1st sess., 533.

81. Gideon Granger to John Tod, December 26, 1811, Taylor, Civil War of 1812, 138.

82. AC, 12th Cong., 1st sess., 450, 712.

83. Liverpool to James Craig, April 4, 1810, Perkins, Prologue to War, 14.

84. Horsman, Causes of the War of 1812, 175–76, 266; Reginald Horsman, “Western War Aims, 1811–1812,” Indiana Magazine of History 53, no. 1 (1957): 5–8.

85. Jefferson to Letue, November 8, 1808, TJ:W, 5: 384; cf. Jefferson to Joseph Cabell, February 2, 1816, TJ:W, 6: 544; Jefferson to Lafayette, May 14, 1817, TJ:W, 7: 66; Madison to Monroe, November 28, 1818, JM:H, 8: 420; William E. Buckley, The Hartford Convention (New Haven: Tercentenary Commission, 1934), 5; Dinah Mayo-Bobee, New England Federalists: Widening the Sectional Divide in Jeffersonian America (Madison, NJ: Fairleigh Dickinson University Press, 2017).

86. Speeches of Boyd: AC, 12th Cong., 1st sess., 521; Quincy: AC, 12th Cong., 2nd sess., 170; Miller and Culpepper: AC, 13th Cong., 2nd sess., 958, 1364; Mayers, Dissenting Voices, 40; Reginald C. Stuart, Civil–Military Relations during the War of 1812 (Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO, 2009), 67; John R. Elting, Amateurs, To Arms! A Military History of the War of 1812 (Chapel Hill: Algonquin Books, 1991), 8; Pratt, Expansionists of 1812, 164.

87. “Report and Resolutions of Connecticut on the Militia Question,” August 25, 1812, in State Documents on Federal Relations: The States and the United States, ed. Herman V. Ames (Philadelphia: Department of History, University of Pennsylvania, 1911), 59–61; Wood, Empire of Liberty, 693.

88. Theodore Dwight, History of the Hartford Convention (New York: N. and J. White, 1833), 345–46, 357, 361, 370–71.

89. David C. Hendrickson, Union, Nation, or Empire: The American Debate over International Relations, 1789–1941 (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 2009), 63.

90. Taylor, Civil War of 1812, 138; McInnis, “Population of Canada,” 373.

91. Callahan, Canadian Relations, 66–67.

92. Jean-Claude Robert, “An Immigrant Population,” in Gentilcore, Measner, and Walder, Historical Atlas of Canada, 21; R. Louis Gentilcore, Don Measner, and David Doherty, “The Coming of the Loyalists,” ibid., 24; Wood, Empire of Liberty, 676.

93. AC, 9th Cong., 1st sess., 557.

94. Perkins, Prologue to War, 426.

95. Robert, “Immigrant Population,” 21; Perkins, Prologue to War, 286; Taylor, Civil War of 1812, 8; Bickham, Weight of Vengeance, 12.

96. Nugent, Habits of Empire, 80; Pratt, Expansionists of 1812, 6; Reginald C. Stuart, United States Expansionism and British North America, 1775–1871 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1988).

97. J. C. A. Stagg, “Between Black Rock and a Hard Place: Peter B. Porter’s Plan for an American Invasion of Canada in 1812,” Journal of the Early Republic 19, no. 3 (1999): 387, 421.

98. AC, 12th Cong., 1st sess., 322–24.

99. Brown, Republic in Peril, 125, 124.

100. Taylor, Civil War of 1812, 139, 418.

101. F. A. Golder, “The Russian Offer of Mediation in the War of 1812,” Political Science Quarterly 31, no. 3 (1916): 384, 382.

102. Monroe to Gallatin, Adams, and Bayard, April 15, 1813, DC:CR, 1: 213.

103. AC, 12th Cong., 2nd sess., 537.

104. Harper to Plumer, February 6, 1813, Pratt, Expansionists of 1812, 187.

105. AC, 13th Cong., 1st sess., 1073; cf. Pratt, Expansionists of 1812, 13, 188, 267.

106. Jefferson to Monroe, June 18, 1813, TJ:W, 6: 131; cf. Callahan, Canadian Relations, 79.

107. Monroe to Gallatin, Adams, and Bayard, June 23, 1813, DC:CR, 1: 212; Monroe to Adams and Bayard, January 1, 1814, DC:CR, 1: 216.

108. Jon Latimer, 1812: War with America (Cambridge: Belknap Press, 2007), 3; cf. Donald R. Hickey, “What Was the British Perspective?” Journal of the War of 1812 11, no. 4 (2009): 7–15.

109. Perkins, Prologue to War, 426; cf. Mayers, Dissenting Voices, 37.

110. In contrast, the Red River settlement in Manitoba was home to only about four thousand at this time: McInnis, “Population of Canada,” 373; cf. William L. Marr and Donald G. Paterson, Canada: An Economic History (Toronto: Gage, 1980), 42–116; Harold A. Innis, Essays in Canadian Economic History (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1956), 108–22; Harold A. Innis, The Fur Trade in Canada: An Introduction to Canadian Economic History (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1956).

111. John C. Dent, The Last Forty Years: Canada since the Union of 1841, vol. 1 (Toronto: George Virtue, 1881), 22–23.

112. Hunter’s Lodge invasions in November and December 1838 ended disastrously: Major L. Wilson, The Presidency of Martin Van Buren (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1984), 160.

113. Perkins, Cambridge History, 208.

114. Wilson, Van Buren, 147.

115. James C. Curtis, The Fox at Bay: Martin Van Buren and the Presidency, 1837–1841 (Lexington: University of Kentucky Press, 1970), 180; cf. 177.

116. CG, 25th Cong., 2nd sess., 87.

117. Ibid., 103–4.

118. Ibid., 81.

119. Ibid., 77.

120. Wilson, Van Buren, 158–61.

121. SL, 5: 212; cf. Bemis, Diplomatic History, 223.

122. Wilson, Van Buren, 161, 147; Curtis, Fox at Bay, 178; cf. 175; Bemis, Diplomatic History, 223.

123. Curtis, Fox at Bay, 181.

124. Wilson, Van Buren, 161–62.

125. Dean, “British Garrisons,” 66.

126. Curtis, Fox at Bay, 171; Ted Widmer, Martin Van Buren (New York: Henry Holt, 2005), 130–31.

127. CG, 25th Cong., 2nd sess., 82; cf. speech of Gray: ibid.

128. Ibid., 78.

129. Ibid., 79.

130. Ibid., 82, 79; cf. 87; speech of Clay: ibid.

131. Ibid., Appendix, 382–87.

132. Clay to George Featherstonhaugh, February 10, 1839, HC, 9: 284.

133. Widmer, Van Buren, 133, 88.

134. Detroit Advertiser, January 23, 1838, in Stuart, United States Expansionism, 132.

135. Stuart, United States Expansionism, 134.

136. Forsyth to Charles Bankhead, February 1836, DC:CR, 3: 4–6; Howard Jones, To the Webster–Ashburton Treaty: A Study in Anglo-American Relations, 1783–1843 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1977), 15–18.

137. CG, 25th Cong., 3rd sess., Appendix, 212–13; cf. JB, 3: 481–502.

138. CG, 25th Cong., 3rd sess., Appendix, 310, 314–15; cf. CG, 26th Cong., 1st sess., 322–24.

139. Francis M. Carroll, A Good and Wise Measure: The Search for the Canadian–American Boundary, 1783–1842 (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2003), 217.

140. John Tyler to Daniel Webster, March 12, 1846, Jones, Webster–Ashburton Treaty, ix.

141. Pakenham to Aberdeen, August 1844, in James J. Barnes and Patience P. Barnes, Private and Confidential: Letters from Ministers in Washington to Foreign Secretaries in London, 1844–67 (Selinsgrove, PA: Susquehanna University Press, 1993), 25.

142. Nugent, Habits of Empire, 158.

143. Ibid., 173–74.

144. CG, 29th Cong., 1st sess., 134.

145. Norman A. Graebner, Empire on the Pacific: A Study in American Continental Expansion (New York: Ronald Press, 1955), 3, 32, 143, 222.

146. David M. Pletcher, The Diplomacy of Annexation: Texas, Oregon, and the Mexican War (Columbia: University of Missouri Press, 1973), 107; Edward P. Crapol, John Tyler, the Accidental President (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2006), 146–47.

147. Nugent, Habits of Empire, 159; Robert Boyd, The Coming of the Spirit of Pestilence: Introduced Infectious Diseases and Population Decline among Northwest Coast Indians, 1774–1874 (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1999), 262.

148. Nugent, Habits of Empire, 175.

149. Charles G. Sellers, James K. Polk: Continentalist, 1843–1846 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1966), 384; cf. Willard E. Ireland, “British Columbia’s American Heritage,” in Historical Essays on British Columbia, ed. J. Friesen and H. K. Ralston (Ottawa: Carleton Library, 1980), 113.

150. MPP, 4: 381.

151. Polk, First Annual Message, MPP, 4: 395.

152. JP, 1: 69, 82–83, 78.

153. CG, 25th Cong., 2nd sess., 168–69.

154. CG, 28th Cong., 2nd sess., Appendix, 137.

155. CG, 29th Cong., 1st sess., 297.

156. Ibid., 389.

157. New York Morning News, December 27, 1845.

158. JP, 1: 4; 64; cf. 80.

159. Ibid., 133; 159; cf. 155.

160. Ibid., 191.

161. CG, 28th Cong., 2nd sess., 135.

162. CG, 29th Cong., 1st sess., 133.

163. Ibid., 115; cf. speech of Parrish: ibid., 241.

164. JP, 1: 155.

165. McLane to Buchanan, February 3, 1846, Sellers, Polk: Continentalist, 380; cf. JP, 1: 209.

166. JP, 1: 453.

167. Pakenham to Aberdeen, June 13, 1846, in Barnes and Barnes, Private and Confidential, 35; cf. Stuart Anderson, “British Threats and the Settlement of the Oregon Boundary Dispute,” Pacific Northwest Quarterly 66, no. 4 (1975): 153–60.

168. McInnis, “Population of Canada,” 373; cf. Don Measner and Christine Hampson, “The Canadian Population, 1871, 1891,” in Gentilcore, Measner, and Walder, Historical Atlas of Canada, 80–81.

169. W. T. Easterbrook and Hugh G. J. Aitken, Canadian Economic History (Toronto: Macmillan, 1958), 389.

170. Prime Minister Palmerston “led his government into an increasingly pragmatic, pro-Southern, position” when he expected the South to win, but as northern victory grew more likely he reined in prosouthern Cabinet members and Emperor Napoleon III: David Brown, Palmerston: A Biography (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2010), 452; cf. 451–55.

171. Glyndon Van Deusen, William Henry Seward (New York: Oxford University Press, 1967), 548.

172. Palmerston to Queen Victoria, January 20, 1865, George Earle Buckle, ed., The Letters of Queen Victoria: A Selection from Her Majesty’s Correspondence and Journal, vol. 1 (London: John Murray, 1926), 248–49; cf. Brian Jenkins, Fenians and Anglo-American Relations during Reconstruction (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1969), 40–42.

173. John M. Taylor, William Henry Seward: Lincoln’s Right Hand (New York: HarperCollins, 1991), 252.

174. Donald Stoker, The Grand Design: Strategy and the U.S. Civil War (New York: Oxford University Press, 2010), 374; Jeremy Black, America as a Military Power: From the American Revolution to the Civil War (Westport, CT: Praeger, 2002), 136–78.

175. Allan R. Millet and Peter Maslowski, For the Common Defense: A Military History of the United States of America (New York: Macmillan, 1994), 248.

176. Dean, “British Garrisons,” 66.

177. Peter Vronsky, Ridgeway: The American Fenian Invasion and the 1866 Battle that Made Canada (Toronto: Allen Lane, 2011), 3; Jenkins, Fenians, 42.

178. Jenkins, Fenians, 26, 28–33, 48.

179. Hereward Senior, The Last Invasion of Canada: The Fenian Raids, 1866–1870 (Toronto: Dundurn Press, 1991), 48.

180. Bruce to Russell, October 31, 1865, in Jenkins, Fenians, 58.

181. Archibald to Russell, January 9, 1865, ibid., 43; cf. 34.

182. New York Tribune, November 16, 1865, ibid., 43.

183. Clarendon to Bruce, November 16, 1865, ibid., 63; cf. 23.

184. Ibid., 129.

185. Bruce to Russell, August 8, 1865, ibid., 51.

186. Bruce to Clarendon, April 17, 1866, ibid., 150.

187. Ibid., 44–46, 128–29.

188. Joe P. Smith, “American Republican Leadership and the Movement for the Annexation of Canada in the Eighteen-Sixties,” Report of the Annual Meeting of the Canadian Historical Association 14, no. 1 (1935): 67, 70.

189. CG, 39th Cong., 1st sess., July 3, 1866, 3548; bill text: H.R. 754, 39th Cong. (1866).

190. Smith, “American Republican Leadership,” 70–71; cf. Joe P. Smith, “The Republican Expansionists of the Early Reconstruction Era” (PhD diss., University of Chicago, 1933), 123–24.

191. Smith references Seward’s April 1, 1861, memo to Lincoln as advocating “a programme of expansion in North and Central America,” Smith, “American Republican Leadership,” 67; it actually advocated using the threat of European interventions in the Western Hemisphere to inspire patriotism and avoid civil war. Its only mention of Canada reads, “I would seek explanations from Great Britain and Russia, and send agents into Canada, Mexico and Central America, to rouse a vigorous continental spirit of independence on this continent against European intervention,” William H. Seward, “Some Thoughts for the President’s Consideration,” April 1, 1861, Reel 188, William Henry Seward Papers, Library of Congress. Smith also claims that Seward sent Robert Walker to spread proannexation propaganda in Montreal, Smith, “American Republican Leadership,” 67–68, yet Seward wrote, “I see that some of the hostile presses in Canada report that Mr. Robert J. Walker has been engaged as an agent of this government in a plot for the annexation of Canada to the United States, and that he contradicts the allegation. . . . Mr. Walker’s visit and sojourn in Canada have been without any previous direction from and without even the knowledge of this government. It is not believed here that he has engaged in any proceedings unfriendly to Canada or the British authority existing there.” Seward to Adams, March 27, 1865, FRUS: 1865, vol. 1, 295.

192. Vronsky, Ridgeway, 25.

193. Bruce to Clarendon, January 9, 1866, ibid., 26; cf. Bruce to Clarendon, March 16, 1866, ibid.; Alexander Galt to George Brown, December 5, 1865, in Jenkins, Fenians, 107; Thornton to Stanley, August 18, 1868, ibid., 277; Thornton to Clarendon, July 26, 1869, ibid., 295.

194. Vronsky, Ridgeway, 27.

195. Seward to Reverdy Johnson, August 27, 1868, State Department: Foreign Dispatches to Great Britain, France, 1861–1869, 216–17, WHSP.

196. Thornton to Stanley, March 30, 1868, Jenkins, Fenians, 264; cf. 100; Thornton to Stanley, May 2, 1868, ibid., 271; Seward to Reverdy Johnson, August 27, 1868, State Department: Foreign Dispatches to Great Britain, France, 1861–1869, 216–17, WHSP.

197. Jenkins, Fenians, 272.

198. Ibid., 138; Senior, Last Invasion, 50–51.

199. Vronsky, Ridgeway, 27–30.

200. Hemans to Bruce, June 4, 1866, Jenkins, Fenians, 147; Vronsky, Ridgeway, 34–38.

201. Seward to Bruce, May 14, 1866, Jenkins, Fenians, 141.

202. Vronsky, Ridgeway, 243.

203. Jenkins, Fenians, 150.

204. Thornton to Clarendon, August 2, 1869, ibid., 295.

205. Ibid., 296.

206. Ibid., 302.

207. Allan Nevins, Hamilton Fish: The Inner History of the Grant Administration (New York: Dodd, Mead, 1936), 393.

208. UG, 20: 177; Nevins, Fish, 395.

209. Thornton to Clarendon, June 21, 1870, Jenkins, Fenians, 311.

210. Peter B. Waite, The Life and Times of Confederation, 1864–1867: Politics, Newspapers, and the Union of British North America (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1962), 273; cf. Fish to Grant, September 12, 1870, UG, 20: 294; Senior, Last Invasion, 56–57.

211. C. D. Howe, The Canada Year Book 1948–49 (Ottawa: Edmond Cloutier, 1949), 154; Wayne Suttles, ed., Handbook of North American Indians, vol. 7 (Washington: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1990), 147; “Speech of Hon. Charles Sumner, of Massachusetts, on the Cession of Russian America to the United States” (Washington: Congressional Globe Office, 1867), 24–25; Russell Thornton, “Population History of Native North Americans,” in A Population History of North America, ed. Michael R. Haines and Richard H. Steckel (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2000), 23; Nugent, Habits of Empire, 249; David E. Shi, “Seward’s Attempt to Annex British Columbia, 1865–1869,” Pacific Historical Review 47, no. 2 (1978): 220; J. M. Bumsted, Reporting the Resistance: Alexander Begg and Joseph Hargrave on the Red River Resistance (Winnipeg: University of Manitoba Press, 2003), 3; J. M. Bumsted, The Red River Rebellion (Winnipeg: Watson and Dwyer, 1996), 18.

212. Frank Golder, “The Purchase of Alaska,” American Historical Review 25, no. 3 (1920): 411–25; Nikolay N. Bolkhovitinov, “The Crimean War and the Emergence of Proposals for the Sale of Russian America, 1853–1861,” Pacific Historical Review 59, no. 1 (1990): 15–49; Stephen Haycox, Alaska: An American Colony (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 2002), 154–56; cf. “Speech of Hon. Charles Sumner,” 8.

213. Ronald J. Jensen, The Alaska Purchase and Russian–American Relations (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1975), 67–79.

214. Frederick Merk, Manifest Destiny and Mission in American History (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1963), 229.

215. Seward to Francis Vinton, May 23, 1867, State Department: Domestic Letters, vol. 2: 1868–1869, 452–54, WHSP; Seward to David Seymour, July 2, 1867, ibid., 456.

216. “Speech of Hon. Charles Sumner,” 17.

217. Ibid., 24.

218. Report of Major General George H. Thomas, September 27, 1869, included in the Report of the Secretary of War, November 20, 1869, House Executive Documents, 41st Cong., 2nd sess., vol. 1, 119.

219. “Speech of Hon. Charles Sumner,” 48.

220. Report of Major General George H. Thomas, 120.

221. “Speech of Hon. Charles Sumner,” 15; Haycox, Alaska, 171.

222. Seward to Lovell H. Rosseau, August 7, 1867, State Department: Domestic Letters, vol. 2: 1868–1869, 469, WHSP; cf. “Speech of Hon. Charles Sumner,” 15.

223. C. M. Clay to Seward, May 10, 1867, FRUS: 1867–68, vol. 1, 391.

224. Virginia H. Reid, The Purchase of Alaska: Contemporary Opinion (Long Beach, CA: Press-Telegram Printers, 1939), 20–34; Van Deusen, William Henry Seward, 537–41; Merk, Manifest Destiny and Mission, 229.

225. Eric T. L. Love, Race over Empire: Racism and U.S. Imperialism, 1865–1900 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2004), 32.

226. New York Tribune, April 1, 1867, George F. G. Stanley, The Birth of Western Canada: A History of the Riel Rebellions (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1960), 35; Love, Race over Empire, 33; Walter Stahr, Seward: Lincoln’s Indispensable Man (New York: Simon and Schuster, 2013), 498.

227. Eduard de Stoeckl to Alexander Gorchakov, April 19, 1867, in Shi, “Seward’s Attempt,” 224; cf. Richard E. Neunherz, “‘Hemmed In’: Reactions in British Columbia to the Purchase of Russian America,” Pacific Northwest Quarterly 80, no. 3 (1989): 101.

228. Willard E. Ireland, “British Columbia’s American Heritage,” in Historical Essays on British Columbia, ed. J. Friesen and H. K. Ralston (Ottawa: Carleton Library, 1980), 119; Van Deusen, William Henry Seward, 548–49.

229. Seward to Charles F. Adams, July 7, 1866, State Department: Foreign Dispatches to Great Britain, France, 1861–1869, 192–93, WHSP.

230. Shi, “Seward’s Attempt,” 222.

231. Neunherz, “Hemmed In,” 102–5.

232. Allen Francis to Seward, April 23, July 2, 1867, Neunherz, “Hemmed In,” 104, 107; cf. Shi, “Seward’s Attempt,” 222–23, 228, 231.

233. Charles F. Adams Jr., to Charles F. Adams, June 29, 1867, Shi, “Seward’s Attempt,” 224; cf. 228; Donald F. Warner, The Idea of Continental Union: Agitation for the Annexation of Canada to the United States, 1849–1893 (Lexington: University of Kentucky Press, 1960), 129.

234. Shi, “Seward’s Attempt,” 231.

235. Calvin Pease and James G. Randall, eds., The Diary of Orville Hickman Browning (Springfield: Illinois State Historical Library 1933), 213.

236. Neunherz, “Hemmed In,” 110; Shi, “Seward’s Attempt,” 232.

237. Bruce to Stanley, August 30, 1867, Shi, “Seward’s Attempt,” 231; cf. CG, 40th Cong., 2nd sess., 79; Lester B. Shippee, Canadian–American Relations, 1849–1874 (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1939), 201; Nevins, Fish, 397.

238. Shi, “Seward’s Attempt,” 234.

239. “W. H. Seward Notes Made During Northwest Trip, 1869,” Miscellaneous and Personal—Speeches and Proclamations, File Drawer 32, Folder 168, WHSP.

240. CG, 41st Cong., 2nd sess., 324.

241. Ibid., 325.

242. Dale Gibson, Law, Life, and Government at Red River, vol. 1 (Montreal: McGill-Queen’s University Press, 2015), 204; Stanley, Birth of Western Canada, 13.

243. W. L. Morton, ed., Alexander Begg’s Red River Journal and Other Papers Relative to the Red River Resistance of 1869–1870 (Toronto: Champlain Society, 1956), 3–4; Bumsted, Reporting the Resistance, 9–16; Alexander Begg, The Creation of Manitoba: or, A History of the Red River Troubles (Toronto: A. H. Hovey, 1871).

244. Bumsted, Red River Rebellion, 30–31; Hamilton Fish, Diary, January 6, 1870, in Nevins, Fish, 386.

245. Stanley, Birth of Western Canada, 24.

246. Correspondence and Papers Connected with Recent Occurrences in the North-West Territories (Ottawa: I. B. Taylor, 1870), 80.

247. Bumsted, Red River Rebellion, 50, 116–17; Morton, Begg’s Red River Journal, 86, 96, 240, 259.

248. Fish to Taylor, December 30, 1869, The James Wickes Taylor Correspondence, 1859–1870, vol. 3 (Altona, MB: D. W. Friesen and Sons, 1968), 97–98; cf. James Taylor to Grant, January 1871, UG, 20: 407–8.

249. Taylor to Chase, December 17, 1861, Taylor Correspondence, 21; Stanley, Birth of Western Canada, 36.

250. Taylor to N. W. Kittson, May 15, 1869, Taylor Correspondence, 71.

251. UG, 20: 337–38.

252. Fish, Diary, January 6, 1870, in Nevins, Fish, 386.

253. Fish to John Motley, January 14, 1870, Box 214, Hamilton Fish Papers, Library of Congress.

254. Fish, Diary, January 15, 1870, in Nevins, Fish, 387.

255. Nevins, Fish, 395–97.

256. CG, 41st Cong., 2nd sess., 2889.

257. Warner, Continental Union, 121–22; cf. CG, 41st Cong., 2nd sess., 2889.

258. UG, 20: 453; cf. Bumsted, Red River Rebellion, 198.

259. Nevins, Fish, 396.

260. Boutwell to Grant, July 29, 1870, UG, 20: 282.

261. Willard E. Ireland, “British Columbia’s American Heritage,” in Historical Essays on British Columbia, ed. J. Friesen and H. K. Ralston (Ottawa: Carleton Library, 1980), 119.

262. Nevins, Fish, 470–93; Rosemary Neering, The Pig War: The Last Canada–U.S. Border Conflict (Victoria, BC: Heritage, 2011).

263. George C. Herring, From Colony to Superpower: U.S. Foreign Relations since 1776 (New York: Oxford University Press, 2008), 255.

264. Nevins, Fish, 384–87.

265. Bayard to Lionel Sackville-West, March 28, 1885, in Canadian Military History: Selected Readings, ed. Marc Milner (Mississauga, ON: Copp Clark Pitman, 1993), 8.

266. Callahan, Canadian Relations, 412; Warner, Continental Union, 216, 218, 234–35. Cummings’s and Gallinger’s proposals: CR, 52nd Cong., 1st sess., 1270; Warner, Continental Union, 240–41.

267. Warner, Continental Union, 213, 242.

6. To the South

1. John L. O’Sullivan, “Annexation,” United States Magazine and Democratic Review 17, no. 85 (1845): 5.

2. Morfit to Forsyth, September 14, 1836, USSS, 24th Cong., 2nd sess., Condition of Texas (H.Doc. 35), 30.

3. Morfit to Forsyth, August 27, 1836, ibid., 12; cf. Andrés Tijerina, Tejanos and Texas under the Mexican Flag, 1821–1836 (College Station: Texas A&M University Press, 1994), 22; B. R. Mitchell, International Historical Statistics: The Americas, 1750–1993 (London: Macmillan, 1998), 35.

4. The U.S. economy grew by 1,270% over the same period: Andrés Reséndez, Changing National Identities at the Frontier: Texas and New Mexico, 1800–1850 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2005), 93–94.

5. Ibid.

6. Kinley J. Brauer, Cotton versus Conscience: Massachusetts Whig Politics and Southwestern Expansion, 1843–1848 (Lexington: University of Kentucky Press, 1967).

7. Houston to William Murphy, May 6, 1844, SH, 4: 322.

8. Ibid., 323.

9. Jackson to Butler, December 9, 1831, February 25, 1832, AJ, 4: 380, 410; cf. Butler to Jackson, June 21, 1832, ibid., 450; Karl M. Schmitt, Mexico and the United States, 1821–1973: Conflict and Coexistence (New York: John Wiley and Sons, 1974), 38–41.

10. Frederick Merk, Slavery and the Annexation of Texas (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1972), 171.

11. Anson Jones, Memoranda and Official Correspondence Relating to the Republic of Texas, Its History and Annexation (New York: D. Appleton, 1859), 116.

12. Morfit to Forsyth, September 12, 1836, USSS, 24th Cong., 2nd sess., Condition of Texas (H.Doc. 35), 26–27.

13. Jackson, Message to Congress, December 21, 1836, MPP, 4: 1487; Morfit to Forsyth, September 10, 1836, in David M. Pletcher, The Diplomacy of Annexation: Texas, Oregon, and the Mexican War (Columbia: University of Missouri Press, 1973), 72–73.

14. Sam Houston, “Valedictory to the Texas Congress,” December 9, 1844, SH, 4, 403; Houston to Murphy, May 6, 1844, SH, 4: 322; William C. Binkley, The Expansionist Movement in Texas, 1836–1850 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1925), chap. 5; Merk, Slavery, 172.

15. James Reilly to Jones, June 17, 1842, in Jones, Memoranda, 170.

16. See figure 1.2.

17. CG, 28th Cong., 1st sess., 482.

18. Buchanan, Speech on the Annexation of Texas, February 14, 1845, JB, 6: 100.

19. See figure 1.2; Pletcher, Diplomacy of Annexation, 58.

20. Smith to Jones, July 1, 1844, in Jones, Memoranda, 369.

21. Aberdeen to Bankhead, September 30, 1844, in Pletcher, Diplomacy of Annexation, 186; Justin H. Smith, The Annexation of Texas (New York: Barnes and Noble, 1941), 402–3.

22. Aberdeen to Elliot, December 31, 1844, in Pletcher, Diplomacy of Annexation, 187.

23. Smith to Jones, December 24, 1844, in Jones, Memoranda, 412.

24. Peel to Aberdeen, February 23, 1845, in Merk, Slavery, 165.

25. Ibid.

26. On race and the Texas Revolution: Alexander DeConde, Ethnicity, Race, and American Foreign Policy: A History (Boston: Northeastern University Press, 1992), 29–30.

27. Mitchell, International Historical Statistics, 137–38; Reginald Horsman, Race and Manifest Destiny: The Origins of American Racial Anglo-Saxonism (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1981), 213.

28. Tijerina, Tejanos and Texas, 137.

29. CG, 28th Cong., 2nd sess., Appendix, 212, 313.

30. CG, 28th Cong., 1st sess., Appendix, 764, 776, 771.

31. CG, 24th Cong., 1st sess., 394; CG, 28th Cong., 2nd sess., Appendix, 212, 313.

32. Merk, Slavery, 210.

33. Houston to William Murphy, May 6, 1844, SH, 4: 324.

34. Charles S. Sydnor, The Development of Southern Sectionalism 1819–1848 (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1948).

35. Smith, Annexation of Texas, 68.

36. Nolan McCarty, Keith T. Poole, and Howard Rosenthal, “Congress and the Territorial Expansion of the United States,” in Party, Process, and Political Change in Congress: New Perspectives on the History of Congress, ed. David W. Brady and Mathew D. McCubbins (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2002), 392–451; cf. Barry R. Weingast, “Political Stability and Civil War: Institutions, Commitment, and American Democracy,” in Analytic Narratives, ed. Robert H. Bates, Avner Greif, Margaret Levi, Jean-Laurent Rosenthal, and Barry R. Weingast (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1998), 148–93.

37. Matthew Karp, This Vast Southern Empire: Slaveholders at the Helm of American Foreign Policy (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2016), 82–149.

38. CG, 27th Cong., 2nd sess., 174.

39. Merk, Slavery, 208.

40. James Reilly to Anson Jones, undated, in Jones, Memoranda, 231.

41. James M. Callahan, American Foreign Policy in Mexican Relations (Whitefish, MT: Kessinger, 2010), 18.

42. Smith, Annexation of Texas, 14–19.

43. National Intelligencer, May 4, 1843, in Merk, Slavery, 206; cf. Pletcher, Diplomacy of Annexation, 115; National Intelligencer, May 13, 1843, 173–75; Brauer, Cotton versus Conscience, 55–57.

44. Merk, Slavery, 127.

45. Hunt to R. A. Irion, January 31, 1838, in “Diplomatic Correspondence of the Republic of Texas: Part 1,” Annual Report of the American Historical Association for the Year 1907, vol. 2 (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1908), 284–85.

46. Ibid., 287.

47. Glyndon Van Deusen, William Henry Seward (New York: Oxford University Press, 1967), 102.

48. Merk, Slavery, 210.

49. CG, 28th Cong., 1st sess., 607–11.

50. Jackson to Anthony Butler, October 19, 1829, AJ, 4: 79; Smith, Annexation of Texas, 27–28; Schmitt, Mexico and the United States, 58.

51. Schmitt, Mexico and the United States, 59.

52. Andrew Jackson, Eighth Annual Message, MPP, 3: 237.

53. Merk, Slavery, 45.

54. Pletcher, Diplomacy of Annexation, 73.

55. Merk, Slavery, 45.

56. CG, 24th Cong., 2nd sess., 83; Wharton to Houston, February 2, 1837, in “Diplomatic Correspondence of the Republic of Texas,” 179.

57. Merk, Slavery, 6.

58. Tyler to Webster, October 11, 1841, in Smith, Annexation of Texas, 103; Pletcher, Diplomacy of Annexation, 86.

59. Smith, Annexation of Texas, 106.

60. Van Zandt to Jones, March 15, 1843, in Jones, Memoranda, 213.

61. Upshur to Nathaniel Tucker, October 26, 1843, in Merk, Slavery, 244.

62. John Tod to Jones, October 25, 1843, in Jones, Memoranda, 262.

63. Van Zandt to Jones, March 15, 1843, ibid., 213.

64. Pletcher, Diplomacy of Annexation, 73; cf. Charles M. Wiltse, John C. Calhoun, Sectionalist, 1840–1850 (New York: Bobbs-Merrill, 1951), 199–216.

65. Calhoun to William King, August 12, 1844, JC, 5: 382–83.

66. Gen. J. P. Henderson to Jones, December 20, 1843, in Jones, Memoranda, 278; W. D. Miller to Jones, April 28, 1844, ibid., 346; J. H. Winchell to Jones, November 16, 1844, ibid., 402; G. W. Terrell to Jones, November 22, 1844, ibid., 405.

67. Van Zandt to Jones, April 19, 1843, in Pletcher, Diplomacy of Annexation, 116.

68. Van Zandt to Jones, August 12, 1843, in Jones, Memoranda, 244.

69. Thomas R. Hietala, Manifest Design: American Exceptionalism and Empire (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2003), 40.

70. Merk, Slavery, 20.

71. Calhoun to King, August 12, 1844, JC, 5: 389–90.

72. CG, 28th Cong., 2nd sess., Appendix, 100; cf. Hietala, Manifest Design, 31, 54.

73. Merk, Slavery, 96.

74. David C. Hendrickson, Union, Nation, or Empire: The American Debate over International Relations, 1789–1941 (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 2009), 166–70; Sanford Levinson and Bartholomew H. Sparrow, eds., The Louisiana Purchase and American Expansion, 1803–1898 (New York: Rowman and Littlefield, 2005), chaps. 4, 5; Michael A. Morrison, Slavery and the American West: The Eclipse of Manifest Destiny (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1997), chap. 1.

75. CG, 35th Cong., 2nd sess., 967; cf. Hietala, Manifest Design, 49; Smith, Annexation of Texas, 346.

76. Schmitt, Mexico and the United States, 63.

77. Polk to William Polk, January 29, 1846, JPC, 11: 57–58.

78. JP, 1: 306–7.

79. Ibid., 392; cf. 390.

80. Ibid., 354; Schmitt, Mexico and the United States, 63.

81. JP, 1: 379.

82. Ibid., 384.

83. Ibid., 395–99; cf. JP, 2: 257; Polk to William Polk, October 2, 1846, JPC, 11: 337–38.

84. JP, 1: 437–38.

85. Ibid., 400; cf. 429, 436.

86. Ibid., 437–38.

87. Ibid., 495–97; cf. JP, 2: 16.

88. Polk, Third Annual Message, MPP, 4: 540; cf. Zachary Taylor, First Annual Message, MPP, 5: 20.

89. George L. Rives, The United States and Mexico, 1821–1848, vol. 2 (New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1913), 45–46.

90. John J. Mearsheimer, The Tragedy of Great Power Politics (New York: W. W. Norton, 2001), 238; Sean Lynn-Jones, “Realism and America’s Rise: A Review Essay,” International Security 23, no. 2 (1998): 157–82.

91. Polk thought California might be purchased for $15 million but was willing to pay up to $40 million: JP, 1: 34–35.

92. Polk, Third Annual Message, MPP, 4: 538; cf. Donald F. Stevens, Origins of Instability in Early Republican Mexico (Durham: Duke University Press, 1991), 11.

93. Henry W. Temple, “William H. Seward,” in The American Secretaries of State and Their Diplomacy, ed. Samuel F. Bemis, vol. 7 (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1928), 105; cf. Stevens, Origins of Instability; Timothy J. Henderson, A Glorious Defeat: Mexico and Its War with the United States (New York: Hill and Wang, 2007), chaps. 1, 2.

94. CG, 29th Cong., 2nd sess., Appendix, 190.

95. Jeremy Black, America as a Military Power: From the American Revolution to the Civil War (Westport, CT: Praeger, 2002), 128; cf. W. A. DePalo, The Mexican National Army, 1822–1852 (College Station: Texas A&M University Press, 1997).

96. William B. Skelton, “Professionalization in the U.S. Army Officer Corps during the Age of Jackson,” Armed Forces and Society 1, no. 4 (1975): 443–71; William B. Skelton, An American Profession of Arms: The Army Officer Corps, 1784–1861 (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1992); Black, America as a Military Power, 112.

97. Black, America as a Military Power, 126–27.

98. Slidell to Buchanan, September 25, 1845, JB, 6: 264.

99. JP, 1: 71, 133; Polk to Louis McLane, June 22, 1846, JPC, 11: 216; MPP, 5: 2389; Merk, Slavery, 163; Rives, United States and Mexico, 45–46.

100. JP, 1: 133, 141, 395–99, 453.

101. Rives, United States and Mexico, 90–95.

102. George Bancroft to Polk, October 18, 1847, JPC, 13: 166; cf. Bancroft to Polk, November 18, 1847, JPC, 13: 198.

103. Horsman, Race and Manifest Destiny, 232.

104. Allan R. Millet and Peter Maslowski, For the Common Defense: A Military History of the United States of America (New York: Macmillan, 1994), 157.

105. Fred Anderson and Andrew Cayton, The Dominion of War: Empire and Liberty in North America, 1500–2000 (New York: Viking, 2005), 283.

106. Reséndez, Changing National Identities, 32; David J. Weber, The Mexican Frontier, 1821–1846: The American Southwest Under Mexico (Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1982), 195.

107. Russell Thornton, “Population History of Native North Americans,” in A Population History of North America, ed. Michael R. Haines and Richard H. Steckel (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2000), 28; Weber, Mexican Frontier, 206.

108. Weber, Mexican Frontier, 187–88, 206.

109. Ibid., 179.

110. Eugene D. Genovese, The Political Economy of Slavery: Studies in the Economy and Society of the Slave South (New York: Pantheon, 1965), 258.

111. Federal Union, November 10, 1846, in John H. Schroeder, Mr. Polk’s War: American Opposition and Dissent, 1846–1848 (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1973), 55.

112. Boston Advertiser, September 26, 1846, in Brauer, Cotton versus Conscience, 208.

113. Schroeder, Mr. Polk’s War, 152.

114. Brauer, Cotton versus Conscience, 210.

115. Ernest M. Lander, Reluctant Imperialists: Calhoun, the South Carolinians, and the Mexican War (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1980), 165, 160.

116. Schroeder, Mr. Polk’s War, 71–72.

117. JP, 2: 350, 308.

118. Ibid., 350.

119. Ibid., 283, 289.

120. Ibid., 308; cf. 457–58.

121. Ibid., 76–77; cf. Polk to Archibald Yell, October 2, 1846, JPC, 11: 339.

122. JP, 2: 283, 349–50, 472. Polk also entertained the notion of annexing a strip of Sonora down to 31˚ and the Department of Tamaulipas but declined to demand them: JP, 3: 163–64.

123. Polk, Third Annual Message, MPP, 4: 538.

124. Ibid., 544; cf. JP, 3: 229–30.

125. “New Territory versus No Territory,” Democratic Review 21 (October 1847): 291; Hietala, Manifest Design, 159.

126. Robert McCaa, “The Peopling of Mexico from Origins to Revolution,” in Haines and Steckel, Population History of North America, 279; Michael R. Haines, “The White Population of the United States, 1790–1920,” in Haines and Steckel, Population History of North America, 306.

127. Black, America as a Military Power, 126.

128. Ibid., 129.

129. Bancroft to Polk, May 18, 1847, JPC, 12: 261.

130. JP, 2: 339–40; JP, 3: 348.

131. Buchanan to James Shields, April 23, 1847, JB, 7: 287, 286.

132. Andrew Donelson to Polk, May 23, 1846, JPC, 11: 172; Donelson to Polk, March 13, 1848, JPC, 13: 365.

133. Washington Daily Union, January 4, 1848.

134. Calhoun to Thomas Clemson, June 15, 1847, in “Correspondence of John C. Calhoun,” in Annual Report of the American Historical Association for the Year 1899, vol. 2, ed. J. Franklin Jameson (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1900), 734; cf. Calhoun to Andrew F. Calhoun, December 11, 1847, ibid., 741.

135. JC, 4: 308; cf. CG, 29th Cong., 2nd sess., Appendix, 356.

136. JC, 4: 310–11.

137. JC, 4: 410; cf. CG, 30th Cong., 1st sess., 98.

138. CG, 30th Cong., 1st sess., 429.

139. Ibid., 283.

140. CG, 28th Cong., 2nd sess., Appendix, 397; cf. 353–54.

141. CG, 29th Cong., 1st sess., Appendix, 201; cf. 184.

142. Polk, Third Annual Message, MPP, 4: 541.

143. Hietala, Manifest Design, 158.

144. CG, 29th Cong., 2nd sess., 516.

145. CG, 30th Cong., 1st sess., Appendix, 272; CG, 29th Cong., 2nd sess., Appendix, 363.

146. CG, 29th Cong., 2nd sess., Appendix, 133; cf. speech of Delano: ibid., 281.

147. CG, 29th Cong., 2nd sess., Appendix, 327.

148. Schroeder, Mr. Polk’s War, 69.

149. Charleston Mercury, June 8, 1846, in Lander, Reluctant Imperialists, 12; cf. Charleston Mercury, May 25, 1846, in Horsman, Race and Manifest Destiny, 238.

150. Josiah C. Nott, Two Lectures on the Connection between the Biblical and Physical History of Man (New York: Bartlett and Welford, 1849), 36–38.

151. Augusta Chronicle and Sentinel, July 31, 1846, in Schroeder, Mr. Polk’s War, 53.

152. Ralph W. Emerson, The Journals and Miscellaneous Notebooks of Ralph Waldo Emerson, ed. Ralph H. Orth and Alfred R. Ferguson, vol. 9 (Cambridge: Belknap Press, 1971), 430–31.

153. Walt Whitman, The Gathering of the Forces, ed. Cleveland Rodgers and John Black, vol. 1 (New York: G. P. Putnam’s Sons, 1920), 247.

154. Horsman, Race and Manifest Destiny, 97, 209.

155. SH, 5: 34–35.

156. Illinois State Register, July 17, 1846, in John D. P. Fuller, The Movement for the Acquisition of All Mexico: 1846–1848 (Cambridge, MA: Da Capo Press, 1969), 41.

157. CG, 30th Cong., 1st sess., 158; cf. speeches of Brown and Leigh: CG, 28th Cong., 2nd sess., Appendix, 96–97; RD, 24th Cong., 1st sess., 201.

158. Waddy Thompson, Recollections of Mexico (New York: Wiley and Putnam, 1847), 239; cf. 23, 204.

159. CG, 29th Cong., 2nd sess., Appendix, 131.

160. CG, 29th Cong., 2nd sess., 291. California’s 1849 constitution allowed only Anglo-Americans to vote: Eric T. L. Love, Race over Empire: Racism and U.S. Imperialism, 1865–1900 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2004), 23.

161. Philadelphia Public Ledger, December 11, 1847, in Frederick Merk, Manifest Destiny and Mission in American History (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1963), 127; Pletcher, Diplomacy of Annexation, 555; cf. Andrew Lane to Polk, January 1, 1847, JPC, 12: 13.

162. New York Herald, October 28, 1847, in Hietala, Manifest Design, 160; cf. Richard B. Winders, Mr. Polk’s Army: The American Military Experience in the Mexican War (College Station: Texas A&M University Press, 1997), 183.

163. Louisville Democrat, March 9, 1848, in Merk, Manifest Destiny and Mission, 151–52.

164. “New Territory versus No Territory,” Democratic Review 21 (October 1847), 291; Hietala, Manifest Design, 159.

165. JP, 3: 276–77.

166. CG, 29th Cong., 2nd sess., Appendix, 191.

167. Amy S. Greenberg, A Wicked War: Polk, Clay, Lincoln, and the 1846 U.S. Invasion of Mexico (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2012), 259; Walter Nugent, Habits of Empire: A History of American Expansion (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2008), 215; Pletcher, Diplomacy of Annexation, chaps. 16, 17.

168. Although Polk entertained the Sierra Madre line as a maximum possible border—giving the United States Baja California, Sonora, Chihuahua, Coahuila, Nuevo León, and Tamaulipas—he judged it “doubtful whether this could be ever obtained by the consent of Mexico” and recognized that continuing the war would enflame domestic opposition “and thus lose the two provinces of New Mexico & Upper California, which were ceded to the U.S. by this treaty.” JP, 3: 347–48.

169. Washington Daily Union, February 28, 1848, in Hietala, Manifest Design, 164–65; cf. Washington Daily Union, March 30, 1848.

170. Louisville Democrat, March 9, 1848, in Merk, Manifest Destiny and Mission, 151–52.

171. Letcher to Webster, October 22, 1850, Senate Executive Documents, 32nd Cong., 1st sess., vol. 10, 37.

172. Geoffrey Blainey, The Causes of War (New York: Free Press, 1988), 59.

173. Lewis Einstein, “Lewis Cass,” in Bemis, American Secretaries of State, 6: 340–41.

174. Callahan, Mexican Relations, 260.

175. New York Times, January 25, 1860, in Pearl T. Ponce, “‘As Dead as Julius Caesar’: The Rejection of the McLane–Ocampo Treaty,” Civil War History 53, no. 4 (2007): 350.

176. CG, 34th Cong., 1st sess., Appendix, 668.

177. Ponce, “McLane–Ocampo Treaty,” 355.

178. Augusta Sentinel, February 24, 1860, in Ponce, “McLane–Ocampo Treaty,” 351.

179. Callahan, Mexican Relations, 191.

180. Ibid., 193.

181. CG, 32nd Cong., 3rd sess., Appendix, 270.

182. Clyde A. Duniway, “Daniel Webster (Second Term),” in Bemis, Secretaries of State, 6: 98.

183. Webster to Fillmore, May 19, 1852, in The Writings and Speeches of Daniel Webster, vol. 18, ed. Fletcher Webster (Boston: Little, Brown, 1903), 532.

184. Callahan, Mexican Relations, 205.

185. Marcy to Gadsden, July 15 and October 22, 1853, DC:IA, 9: 134–44, 145.

186. Callahan, Mexican Relations, 224.

187. Ibid., 223; cf. 227–28; Paul N. Garber, The Gadsden Treaty (Gloucester, MA: Peter Smith, 1959).

188. Joseph C. G. Kennedy, Population of the United States in 1860 (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1864), 568.

189. Einstein, “Lewis Cass,” 324; cf. Cass to Forsyth, July 17, 1857, Callahan, Mexican Relations, 248.

190. Callahan, Mexican Relations, 254–59.

191. Einstein, “Lewis Cass,” 337; cf. Callahan, Mexican Relations, 265.

192. Edward E. Dunbar, The Mexican Papers (New York: J. A. H. Hasbrouck, 1860), 98.

193. Ibid., 100.

194. Callahan, Mexican Relations, 270.

195. Ponce, “McLane–Ocampo Treaty.”

196. Buchanan, Message to Congress, December 19, 1859; JB, 10: 359; cf. JB, 12: 249; Einstein, “Lewis Cass,” 340–41; Callahan, Mexican Relations, 263.

197. Einstein, “Lewis Cass,” 346.

198. Ibid., 343.

199. Cass to McLane, September 20, 1860, ibid., 344–45; cf. Cass to Faulkner, August 31, 1860, ibid., 344.

200. Callahan, Mexican Relations, 274.

201. John Bigelow to Seward, April 28, 1862, Bigelow to Seward: Letters (Confidential), 1862–1866, 43, JBP. The intervention initially included the British and Spanish fleets until the French ambition for regime change became known. Bigelow reported that British leaders came to see their participation “as a trap to engage them to stand by France in case of difficulty with us.” Bigelow to Seward, June 25, 1863, ibid., 206.

202. Seward to William Dayton, September 24, 1861, March 3, 10, 31, July 11, 1862, State Department: Foreign Dispatches to Great Britain, France, 1861–1869, 248–49, 309, 315, 317, 344, WHSP; Seward to Charles Adams, February 19, 1862, ibid., 56; Seward to Horatio Perry, May 29, 1862, FRUS: 1862, 471; Bigelow to Seward, May 29, 1862, June 25, 1863, Bigelow to Seward: Letters (Confidential), 1862–1866, 57, 203–4, JBP.

203. Seward to Charles Adams, February 19, 1862, State Department: Foreign Dispatches to Great Britain, France, 1861–1869, 56, WHSP.

204. McCaa, “Peopling of Mexico,” 279.

205. Seward to Corwin, April 6, 1861, FRUS: 1861, 67.

206. Callahan, Mexican Relations, 282–83; cf. Vinod K. Aggarwal, Debt Games: Strategic Interaction in International Debt Rescheduling (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1996), 130.

207. Seward to Corwin, June 7, 1862, FRUS: 1862, 748; Seward to Corwin, June 24, 1862, FRUS: 1862, 748–49; cf. Van Deusen, Seward, 366; Ernest N. Paolino, The Foundations of the American Empire: William Henry Seward and U.S. Foreign Policy (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1973), 18.

208. Jefferson Davis, “Speech at Atlanta,” February 16, 1861, in The Papers of Jefferson Davis, vol. 7, ed. Lynda L. Crist and Mary S. Dix (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1992), 44; Callahan, Mexican Relations, 281.

209. Perry to Seward, August 26, 1862, FRUS: 1862, 514; cf. Donald Stoker, The Grand Design: Strategy and the U.S. Civil War (New York: Oxford University Press, 2010), 20; Robert E. May, The Southern Dream of a Caribbean Empire, 1854–1861 (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1973), 251; Callahan, Mexican Relations, 292; James M. Callahan, Evolution of Seward’s Mexican Policy (Morgantown: West Virginia University, 1909), 21.

210. Matías Romero to Seward, July 9, 1864, FRUS: 1865–1866, vol. 2, 576–77.

211. M. M. McAllen, Maximilian and Carlota: Europe’s Last Empire in Mexico (San Antonio: Trinity University Press, 2014), 183; cf. Box 80, Folder 4, WHSP. Juárez denied having made any such offer: Matías Romero to Seward, May 5, 1865, Juárez to Editor of the Diario, February 22, 1863, FRUS: 1865–1866, part 3, 496.

212. FRUS: 1865–1866, part 2, 262.

213. Seward to Adams, May 3, 1864, Callahan, Mexican Relations, 296; cf. Seward to Charles Adams, March 26, 1864, State Department: Foreign Dispatches to Great Britain, France, 1861–1869, 133, 135–36, WHSP; Frederic Bancroft, The Life of William H. Seward, vol. 2 (New York: Harper and Brothers, 1900), 430–31.

214. Bigelow to Seward, May 29, 1862, Bigelow to Seward: Letters (Confidential), 1862–1866, 53, JBP; cf. Bigelow to Seward, June 27, 1862, ibid., 66–67; John M. Taylor, William Henry Seward: Lincoln’s Right Hand (New York: HarperCollins, 1991), 252; see figure 1.2.

215. Bigelow to Seward, March 9, 1865, Bigelow to Seward: Letters (Confidential), 1862–1866, 436, JBP; cf. Bigelow to Seward, circa June 1, 1865, ibid., 472.

216. Bigelow to Seward, April 21, 1865, ibid., 463; cf. Bigelow to Seward, March 10, 1865, ibid., 440.

217. Bigelow to Seward, October 19, 1865, ibid., 584; Callahan, Mexican Relations, 317; cf. Bigelow to Seward, December 21, 1865, January 5, 1866, Bigelow to Seward: Letters (Confidential), 1862–1866, 644–46, 684, JBP.

218. CG, 39th Cong., 1st sess., 3917.

219. Seward to Bigelow, September 6, November 6, 1865, FRUS: 1865–1866, vol. 3, 412, 489.

220. Bigelow to Seward, November 30, 1865, FRUS: 1865–1866, part 3, 490; Callahan, Mexican Relations, 316; cf. Callahan, Seward’s Mexican Policy, 80; Dayton to Seward, April 22, 1864, FRUS: 1864, vol. 3, 76.

221. Seward to Bigelow, December 16, 1865, FRUS: 1865–1866, vol. 2, 429.

222. Joseph Wheelan, Terrible Swift Sword: The Life of General Philip H. Sheridan (Boston: Da Capo, 2012), 212–14; Millet and Maslowski, For the Common Defense, 251.

223. Lynn M. Case and Warren F. Spencer, The United States and France: Civil War Diplomacy (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1970), 562.

224. Frederic Bancroft, “The French in Mexico and the Monroe Doctrine,” Political Science Quarterly 11, no. 1 (1896): 39; cf. Donald B. Connelly, John M. Schofield and the Politics of Generalship (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2006), 184.

225. Bigelow to Seward, January 5, 1866, John Bigelow Papers, Bigelow to Seward: Letters (Official), 1866, New York Public Library, 4–5.

226. Seward to William Lawrence, July 21, 1866, State Department: Domestic Letters, Vol. 2: 1868–1869, 361 WHSP; Seward to Antonio López de Santa Anna Jr., November 8, 1866, ibid., 383.

227. WHS, 4: 122; cf. ibid., 320, 394–95, 406.

228. CG, 32nd Cong., 2nd sess., Appendix, 147.

229. Frederic Bancroft, “Seward’s Ideas of Territorial Expansion,” North American Review 167, no. 500 (1898): 84.

230. WHS, 3: 409.

231. Seward to Bigelow, March 28, 1865, FRUS: 1865–66, vol. 2, 388; Seward to Bigelow, September 6, 1865, FRUS: 1865–66, vol. 2, 413; cf. Paolino, Foundations of the American Empire, 11.

232. Callahan, Mexican Relations, 331; cf. 297; Van Deusen, Seward, 488; CG, 31st Cong., 1st sess., 267. Bigelow was of similar mind regarding “Spanish American states whose people belong to a different race from ours, who speak a different language, who profess a different religion and who have been trained under social and political institutions having very little in common with those of the United States.” Callahan, Seward’s Mexican Policy, 67. If it ever joined the United States, he wrote, “Mexico is to be conquered by immigration and not by the sword.” Ibid., 56.

233. WHS, 5: 557.

234. “W. H. Seward Remarks Made during Trip to Mexico c. 1869,” Miscellaneous and Personal—Speeches and Proclamations, File Drawer 32, Folder 113, WHSP.

235. WHS, 5: 580–81.

236. Kenneth E. Davison, The Presidency of Rutherford B. Hayes (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1972), 200.

7. To the Seas

1. Eric Williams, From Columbus to Castro: The History of the Caribbean (New York: Random House, 1984), 361; cf. César J. Ayala, American Sugar Kingdom: The Plantation Economy of the Spanish Caribbean, 1898–1934 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1999), 16–17.

2. CG, 35th Cong., 2nd sess., 453–54; cf. speech of Hale: ibid., Appendix, 161; Van Buren to Cornelius Van Ness, October 2, 1829, AIC, 34; Buchanan to Saunders, June 17, 1848, ibid., 49.

3. CG, 35th Cong., 2nd sess., 543; cf. speech of Avery: ibid., 560; House Foreign Affairs Committee report: ibid., Appendix, 97.

4. Tuskegee Republican, May 13, 1858, in Robert E. May, The Southern Dream of a Caribbean Empire, 1854–1861 (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1973), 14; cf. 16–17.

5. Walter Johnson, River of Dark Dreams: Slavery and Empire in the Cotton Kingdom (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2013), 304.

6. Van Buren to Van Ness, October 2, 1829, AIC, 34; cf. Jefferson to Monroe, October 24, 1823, TJ:F, 12: 320; Edward Everett to Eugéne de Sartiges, December 1, 1852, U.S. Department of State, Correspondence on the Proposed Tripartite Convention Relative to Cuba (Boston: Little, Brown, 1853), 34; Buchanan, Mason, and Soulé to Marcy, October 18, 1854, DC:IA, 7: 581; Buchanan, Second Annual Message, MPP, 5: 511.

7. CG, 35th Cong., 2nd sess., 453; cf. Rodrigo Botero, Ambivalent Embrace: America’s Troubled Relations with Spain from the Revolutionary War to the Cold War (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 2001), 72.

8. Stevenson to John Forsyth, June 16, 1837, AIC, 39–40.

9. Madison to William Pinkney, October 30, 1810, JMa:RF, 2: 488; cf. Isaac J. Cox, “The Pan-American Policy of Jefferson and Wilkinson,” Mississippi Valley Historical Review 1, no. 2 (1914): 223–28; Forsyth to Adams, November 20, 1822, AIC, 19; Adams to Forsyth, December 17, 1822, ibid., 20; Adams to Nelson, April 28, 1823, JQA:F, 7: 379; Jefferson to Monroe, October 24, 1823, TJ:F, 12: 318–21; Stevenson to Forsyth, June 16, 1837, AIC, 39–40; Webster to Campbell, January 14, 1843, ibid., 44; Buchanan to Romulus Saunders, June 17, 1848, ibid., 45–46.

10. Matthew Karp, This Vast Southern Empire: Slaveholders at the Helm of American Foreign Policy (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2016), 186–98.

11. Cuban slaveholders periodically favored annexation: Philip S. Foner, A History of Cuba and Its Relations with the United States, vol. 2 (New York: International Publishers, 1963), 9–19.

12. Forsyth to Adams, November 20, 1822, AIC, 19; cf. Forsyth to Aaron Vail, July 15, 1840, ibid., 41; Van Buren to Van Ness, October 2, 1829, ibid., 34.

13. Webster to Robert Campbell, January 14, 1843, ibid., 43–44.

14. Forsyth to Aaron Vail, July 15, 1840, ibid., 41–42; Abel Upshur to Washington Irving, January 9, 1844, ibid., 45.

15. Foner, History of Cuba, 1: 125; Isaac J. Cox, The West Florida Controversy, 1798–1813 (Gloucester, MA: Peter Smith, 1967), 290–92; Cox, “Pan-American Policy,” 222–23.

16. Robert Smith to Shaler, June 18, 1810, in James E. Lewis Jr., The American Union and the Problem of Neighborhood: The United States and the Collapse of the Spanish Empire, 1783–1829 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1998), 36; cf. Foner, History of Cuba, 1: 127–29.

17. Jackson to Monroe, June 2, 1818, AJ, 2: 378; cf. Randolph to Jackson, March 18, 1832, AJ, 4: 421.

18. Calhoun to Jackson, January 23, 1820, AJ, 4: 352.

19. Jefferson to Monroe, October 24, 1823, TJ:F, 12: 320.

20. Forsyth to Adams, November 20, 1822, February 10, 1823, AIC, 19, 20; Adams to Forsyth, December 17, 1822, ibid., 20; Adams to Nelson, April 28, 1823, JQA:F, 7: 381; Clay to Rufus King, October 17, 1825, HC, 4: 740; Van Buren to Van Ness, October 2, 1829, October 13, 1830, AIC, 34, 36; Forsyth to Vail, July 15, 1840, ibid., 41–42; Webster to Washington Irving, January 17, 1843, ibid., 42–43; Webster to Robert Campbell, January 14, 1843, ibid., 44.

21. Mary E. Snodgrass, The Civil War Era and Reconstruction: An Encyclopedia of Social, Political, Cultural, and Economic History (New York: Routledge, 2015), 487.

22. CG, 29th Cong., 1st sess., 92, 96.

23. JP, 3: 476–80, 482–83; cf. JP, 3: 446; Ángel Calderón de la Barca to Daniel Webster, August 2, 1850, DC:IA, 11: 529.

24. Saunders to Buchanan, December 14, 1848, AIC, 57; cf. Buchanan to Saunders, June 17, 1848, ibid., 47–50; Saunders to Buchanan, August 18, November 17, 1848, ibid., 55, 56.

25. Daniel Barringer to John Clayton, June 19, 1850, DC:IA, 11: 505–6; Calderón to Webster, August 2, 1850, ibid., 528–35; Webster to Fillmore, October 4, 1851, in A Digest of International Law, vol. 6, ed. John B. Moore (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1906), 459; Webster to John Crampton, April 29, 1852, AIC, 8; Marcy to Buchanan, July 2, 1853, DC:IA, 7: 93–95; Buchanan to Marcy, November 1, 1853, ibid., 509; May, Southern Dream, 24–29. On southern filibustering in the 1850s: Johnson, River of Dark Dreams, 303–94; Amy S. Greenberg, Manifest Manhood and the Antebellum American Empire (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2005).

26. Everett to Eugéne de Sartiges, December 1, 1852, U.S. Department of State, Correspondence on the Proposed Tripartite Convention Relative to Cuba (Boston: Little, Brown, 1853), 34.

27. Fillmore, Third Annual Message, MPP, 11: 293.

28. Ibid., 22–23, 41.

29. CG, 33rd Cong., 1st sess., 637.

30. Ibid., 1024; Alexander Walker to A. G. Haley, June 15, 1854, in May, Southern Dream, 34; Robert E. May, Manifest Destiny’s Underworld: Filibustering in Antebellum America (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2002).

31. CG, 33rd Cong., 1st sess., 1194, 1199–1200, 1298–1300.

32. Ibid., 647–48.

33. “No More Slave States,” New York Times, October 2, 1854.

34. May, Southern Dream, 60; CG, 33rd Cong., 1st sess., 647–48.

35. Marcy to Soulé, April 3, 1854, DC:IA, 11: 177.

36. Soulé to Marcy, July 15, 1854, ibid., 798.

37. May, Southern Dream, 67; CG, 33rd Cong., 1st sess., 2178.

38. Buchanan to Marcy, July 14, 1853, DC:IA, 7: 497; Buchanan to Marcy, July 11, 1854, ibid., 555; Buchanan to Slidell, May 23, 1854, JB, 9: 200–201.

39. Buchanan, Mason, and Soulé to Marcy, October 18, 1854, DC:IA, 7: 584.

40. John McRae to J. F. H. Claiborne, June 7, 1855, in May, Southern Dream, 73.

41. May, Southern Dream, 164.

42. Buchanan to Fallon, December 14, 1857, JB, 10: 165.

43. Augustus Dodge to Marcy, July 12, 1855, DC:IA, 11: 874; cf. Barringer to Everett, January 5, 1853, ibid., 690; Soulé to Marcy, May 3, July 22, 1854, ibid., 771, 800; William Robertson to Marcy, July 5, 1855, ibid., 870; Dodge to Marcy, April 10, 1856, ibid., 903; Dodge to Pedro Pidal, November 24, 1856, ibid., 911; Dodge to Cass, August 22, 1857, November 19, 1858, January 5, 1859, ibid., 936, 959–60, 963–64; William Preston to Cass, March 9, April 25, July 3, 1859, March 6, 1860, ibid., 965–66, 970, 973, 978.

44. One alternative scheme would have seen the United States seize Cuba as payment for Spanish debt to U.S. citizens; another called for U.S. citizens to buy up $200 million of Spanish debt to British subjects, available for an 83 percent discount at the time, and demand Cuba as repayment: CG, 35th Cong., 2nd sess., 185, 296–97; Robert Toombs to W. W. Burwell, March 30, 1857, in Annual Report of the American Historical Association for the Year 1911, vol. 2, ed. Ulrich B. Phillips(Washington, DC, 1913), 399.

45. Preston to Cass, April 25, 1859, DC:IA, 11: 970; cf. Preston to Cass, October 23, 1859, ibid., 974.

46. Buchanan, Second Annual Message, MPP, 5: 511.

47. CG, 35th Cong., 2nd sess., 538.

48. Ibid., 453, 543; cf. 705; CG, 35th Cong., 1st sess., 461.

49. CG, 35th Cong., 2nd sess., 704; cf. speech of Wright: CG, 35th Cong., 1st sess., 461.

50. CG, 35th Cong., 2nd sess., 561.

51. Ibid., 538–39; ibid., Appendix, 111–13.

52. Foner, History of Cuba, 2: 123.

53. M. W. Cluskey, ed., Speeches, Messages, and Other Writings of the Hon. Albert G. Brown (Philadelphia: Jas. B. Smith, 1859), 593–95; cf. speech of Wright: CG, 35th Cong., 1st sess., 458–59.

54. CG, 35th Cong., 2nd sess., Appendix, 114; cf. speech of Kellogg: CG, 35th Cong., 2nd sess., 563.

55. CG, 35th Cong., 2nd sess., 1183–84; cf. 1188; speech of Dixon: ibid., 1335.

56. Ibid., Appendix, 164.

57. May, Southern Dream, 180.

58. William Newmarch, ed., Journal of the Statistical Society of London, vol. 23 (London: John William Parker and Son, 1860), 195.

59. CG, 35th Cong., 2nd sess., 539.

60. Ibid., Appendix, 114.

61. Ibid., Appendix, 166.

62. Ibid., Appendix, 160; cf. speech of Doolittle: CG, 35th Cong., 2nd sess., 967.

63. CG, 35th Cong., 2nd sess., 1181; cf. 1182–83.

64. Ibid., 1337–38.

65. Buchanan to Saunders, June 17, 1848, AIC, 49; cf. speeches of Quitman and Branch: CG, 34th Cong., 1st sess., 668; CG, 35th Cong., 2nd sess., Appendix, 99.

66. “Political Items from the Atlantic,” Sacramento Daily Union, October 22, 1856.

67. CG, 35th Cong., 1st sess., Appendix, 461.

68. CG, 35th Cong., 2nd sess., 542.

69. Ibid., 1338.

70. Ibid., 1180–81; cf. Paul Frymer, Building an American Empire: The Era of Territorial and Political Expansion (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2017), 205–11.

71. CG, 35th Cong., 2nd sess., 1385.

72. CG, 36th Cong., 1st sess., 2456.

73. Thomas H. McKee, The National Conventions and Platforms of All Political Parties, 1789 to 1901 (Baltimore: Friedenwald Company, 1900), 109–11, 114–15; cf. Harold Holzer, ed., The Lincoln—Douglas Debates (New York: Fordham University Press, 2004), 153–54; “Farewell Speech of Hon. A. H. Stephens,” July 2, 1859, in Alexander H. Stephens in Public and Private, ed. Henry Cleveland (Philadelphia: National Publishing, 1866), 645–46; May, Southern Dream, 186–87. Neither sectional bloc was entirely uniform: May, Southern Dream, 190–205.

74. August Belmont to Stephen Douglas, December 31, 1860, in Robert E. May, Slavery, Race, and Conquest in the Tropics: Lincoln, Douglas, and the Future of Latin America (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2013), 219; cf. CG, 36th Cong., 2nd sess., 651.

75. Lincoln to James Hale, January 11, 1861, in Roy P. Basler, ed., The Collected Works of Abraham Lincoln, vol. 4 (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1953), 172.

76. CG, 34th Cong., 1st sess., 668; G. Pope Atkins and Larman C. Wilson, The Dominican Republic and the United States: From Imperialism to Transnationalism (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1998), 17.

77. Luis Martínez-Fernández, “Caudillos, Annexationism, and the Rivalry between Empires in the Dominican Republic, 1844–1874,” Diplomatic History 17, no. 4 (1993): 575–77.

78. Atkins and Wilson, Dominican Republic, 16.

79. Martínez-Fernández, “Caudillos,” 572–75, 579–81.

80. Atkins and Wilson, Dominican Republic, 18.

81. Sumner Welles, Naboth’s Vineyard: The Dominican Republic, 1844–1924, vol. 1 (New York: Payson and Clarke, 1928), 353; Martínez-Fernández, “Caudillos,” 592.

82. Smith to Seward, October 24, 1868, in Welles, Naboth’s Vineyard, 1: 350; cf. 346–47; Martínez-Fernández, “Caudillos,” 595.

83. Seward to Smith, November 17, 1868, in Welles, Naboth’s Vineyard, 1; 352.

84. Andrew Johnson, Fourth Annual Message, MPP, 6: 689; cf. Welles, Naboth’s Vineyard, 1: 356.

85. Eric T. L. Love, Race over Empire: Racism and U.S. Imperialism, 1865–1900 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2004), 28.

86. David M. Pletcher, The Diplomacy of Trade and Investment: American Economic Expansion in the Hemisphere, 1865–1900 (Columbia: University of Missouri Press, 1998), 162–63.

87. CG, 40th Cong., 3rd sess., 317, 339, 340; cf. 337; Jacob D. Cox, “How Judge Hoar Ceased to Be Attorney-General,” Atlantic Monthly 76, no. 454 (1895): 165.

88. Seward to Banks, January 29, 1869, in William J. Nelson, Almost a Territory: America’s Attempt to Annex the Dominican Republic (Newark: University of Delaware Press, 1990), 64; cf. CG, 40th Cong., 3rd sess., 769.

89. Grant, “Reasons why San Domingo should be annexed to the United States,” UG, 20: 74; cf. Grant’s interview, March 29, 1870, UG, 20: 134; Love, Race over Empire, 47–48.

90. Grant, “Reasons why San Domingo should be annexed to the United States,” UG, 20: 75.

91. Ibid., 76.

92. Fish to Babcock, July 13, 1869, Senate Executive Document 17, 41st Cong., 3rd sess., 79.

93. Frymer, Building an American Empire, 213.

94. Senate Executive Document 17, 41st Cong., 3rd sess., 98; Cox, “Judge Hoar,” 166; Allan Nevins, Hamilton Fish: The Inner History of the Grant Administration (New York: Dodd, Mead, 1936), 271.

95. Senate Documents, 66th Cong., 1st sess., vol. 14 (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1919), 207.

96. UG, 20: 123.

97. Nevins, Fish, 262.

98. Fish to George Bancroft, February 9, 1870, in Nevins, Fish, 313.

99. Nevertheless, Fish thought most Dominicans would have supported annexation: ibid., 315.

100. Ibid., 314.

101. Senate Documents, 66th Cong., 1st sess., vol. 14 (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1919), 208.

102. New York Herald, March 26, 28, 1870, in Love, Race over Empire, 56, 57.

103. David Donald, Charles Sumner and the Rights of Man (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1970), 442–43.

104. Edward L. Pierce, ed., Memoir and Letters of Charles Sumner, vol. 4 (Boston: Roberts Brothers, 1893), 441; Moorfield Storey, Charles Sumner (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1900), 328.

105. New York Herald, March 25, 1870, New York Tribune, March 28, 1870, in Love, Race over Empire, 56.

106. New York Times, March 26, 1870, New York Herald, March 26, 1870, ibid., 58.

107. Nicholas Guyatt, “America’s Conservatory: Race, Reconstruction, and the Santo Domingo Debate,” American Journal of History 97 (May 2011): 976.

108. Henry B. Adams, “The Session,” North American Review 111, no. 228 (1870): 58.

109. UG, 20: 171–72; cf. Nevins, Fish, 365–68; Cox, “Judge Hoar,” 162–73; Carl Schurz, The Reminiscences of Carl Schurz, vol. 2 (New York: Doubleday, Page, 1908), 403.

110. Senate Documents, 66th Cong., 1st sess., vol. 14 (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1919), 212.

111. UG, 20: 154; cf. Nevins, Fish, 326–27.

112. Nevins, Fish, 330–33. Like Cazneau and Fabens, Babcock owned land on the island and hoped annexation would make him rich: Atkins and Wilson, Dominican Republic, 24–25.

113. Ibid., 335, 318, 371; Senate Documents, 66th Cong., 1st sess., vol. 14 (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1919), 216.

114. Grant to Baez, October 17, 1870, UG, 20: 311.

115. Ulysses Grant, Second Annual Message, MPP, 7: 99–101.

116. CG, 41st Cong., 3rd sess., 53.

117. Ibid., 227, 231.

118. Ibid., 225; cf. 226.

119. Ibid., 412.

120. Ibid., Appendix, 26, 29.

121. Ibid., Appendix, 30; cf. Cox to Schurz, February 21, 1871, in Love, Race over Empire, 67–68.

122. Tanisha M. Fazal, State Death: The Politics and Geography of Conquest, Occupation, and Annexation (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2007), 138; cf. Frymer, Building an American Empire, 211–18.

123. CG, 41st Cong., 3rd sess., 416, 426.

124. Ulysses Grant, Eighth Annual Message, MPP, 7: 412–13.

125. Botero, Ambivalent Embrace, 92–93.

126. Howard W. Morgan, William McKinley and His America (Kent, OH: Kent State University Press, 2003), 253; CR, 55th Cong., 2nd sess., 3669, 3673.

127. They lost another 5,462 through disease: Richard F. Hamilton, President McKinley, War and Empire, vol. 2 (New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Publishers, 2007), 94.

128. War Department, Report on the Census of Cuba, 1899 (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1900), 72, 81, 97.

129. Louis A. Pérez Jr., Cuba between Empires, 1878–1902 (Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1983), 4; Lester D. Langley, Struggle for the American Mediterranean: United States–European Rivalry in the Gulf–Caribbean, 1776–1904 (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1976), 166.

130. Nevins, Fish, 194; cf. 191–200, 231–33, 619–31.

131. Edward S. Mihalkanin, American Statesmen: Secretaries of State from John Jay to Colin Powell (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 2004), 196.

132. Richard H. Bradford, The Virginius Affair (Boulder: Colorado Associate University Press, 1980), 39–41, 59–63, 91–94, 126; Nevins, Fish, 667–94.

133. Grover Cleveland, Fourth Annual Message (second term), MPP, 9: 719.

134. Pletcher, Diplomacy of Trade, 168.

135. Blaine to Comly, December 1, 1881, FRUS: 1894, Appendix 2, 1159; cf. Walter S. Vail, ed., The Words of James G. Blaine on the Issues of the Day (Boston: D. L. Guernsey, 1884), 201, 213.

136. Edward P. Crapol, James G. Blaine: Architect of Empire (Wilmington, DE: Scholarly Resources, 2000), 9–10.

137. Pérez, Cuba between Empires, 31.

138. Ibid., 32–33.

139. Cleveland to Olney, July 16, 1896, GC, 448.

140. Ibid., 449; Grover Cleveland, Third Annual Message (second term), MPP, 9: 636; cf. Gerald G. Eggert, Richard Olney: Evolution of a Statesman (University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press, 1974), 260–62; Nick Cleaver, Grover Cleveland’s New Foreign Policy: Arbitration, Neutrality, and the Dawn of American Empire (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2014), 159.

141. Grover Cleveland, “A Proclamation,” FRUS: 1895, vol. 2, 1195; cf. Cleveland to Judson Harmon, September 21, 1896, GC, 459; Gresham to Hannis Taylor, March 14, 1895, FRUS: 1895, vol. 2, 1177; Duke of Tetuan to Taylor, May 16, 1895, ibid., 1184–85; Cleaver, Cleveland’s New Foreign Policy, 147–96; Eggert, Olney, 257, 263.

142. Eggert, Olney, 269.

143. Olney to Cleveland, September 25, 1895, in Cleaver, Cleveland’s New Foreign Policy, 153–54; Olney to Dupuy de Lôme, December 12, 1895, FRUS: 1895, vol. 2, 1216; Fitzhugh Lee to Day, November 23, 1897, CR, 55th Cong., 2nd sess., 3836; speech of Caffery: ibid., 3956–57; John L. Tone, War and Genocide in Cuba, 1895–1898 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2006), 57–68.

144. Olney to Enrique Dupuy de Lôme, April 4, 1896, FRUS: 1897, 542.

145. Ibid., 543–44; Dupuy de Lôme to Olney, June 4, 1896, FRUS: 1897, 548; Botero, Ambivalent Embrace, 86; Grover Cleveland, Fourth Annual Message (second term), MPP, 9: 719; Eggert, Olney, 267–69.

146. SL, 29, Appendix: 10; Cleaver, Cleveland’s New Foreign Policy, 188.

147. Fareed Zakaria, From Wealth to Power: The Unusual Origins of America’s World Role (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1998), 154–64; Jeffrey W. Meiser, Power and Restraint: The Rise of the United States, 1898–1941 (Washington, DC: Georgetown University Press, 2015), xiii.

148. McKee, National Conventions and Platforms, 303.

149. McKinley, First Inaugural Address, MPP, 10: 16.

150. George W. Auxier, “Middle Western Newspapers and the Spanish–American War, 1895–1898,” Mississippi Valley Historical Review 26, no. 4 (1940): 529; cf. Richard F. Hamilton, President McKinley, War and Empire, vol. 1 (New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Publishers, 2006), 109, 232; Robert Kagan, Dangerous Nation (New York: Vintage, 2006), 388–89.

151. John A. Garraty, Henry Cabot Lodge: A Biography (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1953), 183.

152. Cleveland to Olney, November 11, 1897, in Hamilton, McKinley, War and Empire, 1: 110; cf. Robert C. Hilderbrand, Power and the People: Executive Management of Public Opinion in Foreign Affairs, 1897–1921 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1981), 13–14.

153. Louis A. Pérez Jr., Cuba: Between Reform and Revolution, 5th ed. (New York: Oxford University Press, 2015), 131; cf. John L. Offner, An Unwanted War: The Diplomacy of the United States and Spain over Cuba, 1895–1898 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1992), 46–47.

154. Tone, War and Genocide, 210–23; cf. 158; Pérez, Between Reform and Revolution, 130–31.

155. John Sherman to Stewart Woodford, July 16, 1897, FRUS: 1898, 559.

156. A. C. Brice to Day, October 15, 1897, FRUS: 1898, 597; Joseph Springer to Day, October 20, 1897, ibid., 599; cf. Fitzhugh Lee to Day, November 23, December 7, 14, 1897, January 3, 15, 1898, CR, 55th Cong., 2nd sess., 3836; Brice to Day, November 17, December 17, 1897, January 18, 1898, Pulaski Hyatt to Day, December 14, 21, 1897, John Joba to Day, November 11, 1897, Walter Barker to Day, November 25, 1897, ibid., 3837; Barker to Day, December 8, 1897, January 27, February 17, March 14, 21, 24, 1898, ibid., 3838.

157. CR, 55th Cong., 2nd sess., 3877; cf. speech of Lodge: ibid., 3781–84; Hamilton, McKinley, War and Empire, 1: 149–69, 213–14; Tone, War and Genocide, 218–21; Kagan, Dangerous Nation, 391.

158. Woodford to Sherman, September 13, 1897, FRUS: 1898, 564; cf. Sherman to Dupuy de Lôme, June 26, August 24, November 6, 1897, FRUS: 1897, 507–10; Wood-ford to Sherman, September 13, 20, October 4, 5, 11, 1897, FRUS: 1898, 562, 567, 573, 576, 580; Offner, Unwanted War, 46–47.

159. William McKinley, First Annual Message, MPP, 10: 36, 33.

160. Day to Woodford, March 3, March 20, 1898, FRUS: 1898, 681, 692; Woodford to Sherman, March 25, 1898, ibid., 700–701; speeches of Turpie, Hoar, and Stewart: CR, 55th Cong., 2nd sess., 3549, 3835, 3903; Senate Foreign Relations Committee report: CR, 55th Cong., 2nd sess., 3773.

161. Sherman to Woodford, March 1, 1898, FRUS: 1898, 667–68; cf. Tone, War and Genocide, 216–17; Offner, Unwanted War, 80–81, 112.

162. CR, 55th Cong., 2nd sess., 2916–19; cf. speeches of Berry and Tillman, ibid., 3880, 3892; Woodford to McKinley, March 29, 1898, FRUS: 1898, 720; Offner, Unwanted War, 134.

163. CR, 55th Cong., 2nd sess., 3162–65.

164. Ibid., 3128–32.

165. Ibid., 3280–84.

166. Woodford to Sherman, March 21, 25, 1898, FRUS: 1898, 694, 700.

167. Woodford to McKinley, March 29, 1898, FRUS: 1898, 719; cf. 718; Day to Woodford, March 27, 28, 29, 1898, ibid., 711–12, 713, 718. Viewing Cubans as not “fit for self-government” and a U.S. protectorate as “very like the assumption of the responsible care of a mad-house,” by mid-March Woodford personally saw annexation as the only path to peace: Woodford to McKinley, March 17, 1898, ibid., 687–88; cf. Woodford to McKinley, March 29, 1898, ibid., 720–21. He once raised the possibility of a purchase to Moret but acknowledged that most U.S. leaders rejected annexation: Woodford to McKinley, March 18, 1898, ibid., 690–91.

168. Woodford to Day, March 31, 1898, ibid., 726–27; Day to Woodford, April 4, 1898, ibid., 733; cf. Woodford to McKinley, March 24, 1898, ibid., 697.

169. H. H. Kohlsaat, From McKinley to Harding: Personal Recollections of Our Presidents (New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1923), 67.

170. CR, 55th Cong., 2nd sess., 3546–47; cf. speeches of Hoar and Fairbanks: ibid., 3835, 3845.

171. Ibid., 3497; cf. speeches of Mantle, Kenney, Lodge, Lindsay, and Gray: ibid., 3499–3501, 3547, 3781–84, 3790, 3841.

172. Ibid., 3774–75; cf. Langley, American Mediterranean, 165.

173. Speeches of Turpie, Lindsay, and Wellington: CR, 55th Cong., 2nd sess., 3548, 3789, 3952.

174. Walter LaFeber, The New Empire: An Interpretation of American Expansion, 1860–1898 (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1963), 384.

175. David Magie, Life of Garret Augustus Hobart: Twenty-fourth Vice-President of the United States (New York: G. P. Putnam’s Sons, 1910), 174.

176. Hamilton, McKinley, War and Empire, 1: 118; Offner, Unwanted War, 234; cf. ix.

177. Henry S. Pritchett, “Some Recollections of President McKinley and the Cuban Intervention,” North American Review 189, no. 640 (1909): 400–401.

178. Message, FRUS: 1898, 759; cf. CR, 55th Cong., 2nd sess., 3810, 3820–21.

179. Speeches of Lindsay, Turner, Teller, Wellington, Clark, Faulkner, and Clay: ibid., 3784, 3829, 3898, 3951, 3967, 3971, 3980.

180. Openly opposing annexation were Proctor (CR, 55th Cong., 2nd sess., 2919, 3983), Thurston (3164), Money (3284), Mason (3295), Allen (3413), Clay (3497), Stewart (3702, 4104), Butler (3732), Foraker (3780), Lodge (3783), Hoar (3786, 3835), Turner (3829), Gray (3841–42), Fairbanks (3842), Berry (3879–80), Tillman (3890), Wolcott (3893), Teller (3899), Cannon (3943), Wellington (3953), Caffery (3957), Hawley (3959), White (3961), Bate (3965), Pasco (3969), Wilson (3972), Elkins (3980), Pritchard (3984), Perkins (3985), and Davis (4017); cf. Lodge to Charles Francis Adams Jr., January 22, 1897, in Hamilton, McKinley, War and Empire, 1: 131. Annexation’s lone proponent in the Senate was Gallinger, but in light of its widespread opposition he too favored independence: ibid., 3131.

181. CR, 55th Cong., 2nd sess., 3786, 3835; cf. speeches of Mason, Gray, Fairbanks, Berry, and Wolcott: ibid., 3295, 3842, 3846, 3879, 3893.

182. Ibid., 2919.

183. Ibid., 3164; cf. speeches of Tillman and Stewart: ibid., 3891, 3901.

184. Offner, Unwanted War, 130.

185. CR, 55th Cong., 2nd sess., 3958–59; cf. speech of Money: ibid., 3284.

186. Ibid., 3983.

187. Speeches of Stewart, Butler, and Pettus: ibid., 3703, 3730–33; in the House, Lentz, Bailey, McMillin, and Dinsmore: ibid., 3765–68, 3814–16.

188. Ibid., 3969; cf. speeches of Berry, Tillman, Stewart, White, and Teller: ibid., 3879, 3890, 3904, 3961, 4095.

189. Ibid., 3954; cf. CR, 55th Cong., 3rd sess., 325–30.

190. Margaret Leech, In the Days of McKinley (New York: Harper and Brothers, 1959), 188.

191. CR, 55th Cong., 2nd sess., 4228–29; 4244; FRUS: 1898, 819–20.

192. Protocol, FRUS: 1898, 824–25. U.S. demands: ibid., 820–21; Spanish acceptance: Duke of Almodóvar del Río to Day, August 7, 1898, ibid., 822–23.

193. McKinley, Instructions to the Peace Commissioners, September 16, 1898, FRUS: 1898, 906–7.

194. Speeches of Lindsay, Turner, Turpie, Stewart, Allen, and Stewart again: CR, 55th Cong., 2nd sess., 3784–90, 3830, 3839–40, 3902, 3944–45, 4029; cf. speeches of Hoar, Gray, and Fairbanks: ibid., 3833, 3842, 3846.

195. Day to Hay, October 8, 12, 22, 27, 1898, ibid., 924, 927, 930, 937; Day to McKinley, October 1, 1898, ibid., 916–17; Hay to Day, October 13, 25, 1898, ibid., 927, 932; H. Wayne Morgan, ed., Making Peace with Spain: The Diary of Whitelaw Reid, September–December 1898 (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1965), 110.

196. Richard Olney, “The Growth of Our Foreign Policy,” Atlantic Monthly (1900): 291; Cleveland to Olney, March 26, 1900, GC, 526–27.

197. Webster to Timoteo Haalilio and William Richards, December 19, 1842, FRUS: 1894, Appendix 2, 44; CR, 55th Cong., 2nd sess., 5786; John Tyler, Message to Congress Regarding U.S.–Hawaiian Relations, December 30, 1842, MPP, 4: 211–14; Merze Tate, Hawaii: Reciprocity or Annexation (East Lansing: Michigan State University Press, 1968), 117, 187, 206; David M. Pletcher, The Diplomacy of Involvement: American Economic Expansion across the Pacific, 1784–1900 (Columbia: University of Missouri Press, 2001), 46–65.

198. CR, 55th Cong., 2nd sess., 5787; Seward to Edward McCook, September 12, 1867, Senate Committee on Foreign Relations, Papers Relating to the Annexation of the Hawaiian Islands to the United States (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1893), 139; Sylvester K. Stevens, American Expansion in Hawaii, 1842–1898 (New York: Russell and Russell, 1945), 108–40, 160–86.

199. Merze Tate, The United States and the Hawaiian Kingdom: A Political History (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1965), 155–93.

200. Pletcher, Diplomacy of Involvement, 250; William M. Morgan, Pacific Gibraltar: U.S.–Japanese Rivalry over the Annexation of Hawai’i, 1885–1898 (Annapolis: Naval Institute Press, 2011), 200; cf. 216.

201. Morgan, Pacific Gibraltar, 221; ibid., 200–209.

202. George F. Hoar, Autobiography of Seventy Years, vol. 2 (London: Bickers and Son, 1904), 307–8.

203. William McKinley, First Annual Message, MPP, 10: 39.

204. CR, 55th Cong., 2nd sess., 5829; 5840; cf. speeches of Hitt, Newlands, Barrows, Howard, Linney: ibid., 5772, 5830, 5843–44, 5899, 5982.

205. Ibid., 5990–91, 6008; cf. speeches of Hitt, Henry, Barrows, Grow, Sulzer, Barham: ibid., 5774, 5840, 5844, 5890, 5905, 5913.

206. Ibid., 5989; cf. speeches of Alexander, Newlands, Henry, Barrows, Stewart, Pearce, Barham, Packer, and Lacey: ibid., 5785, 5829, 5840, 5844, 5892, 5893–95, 5913, 5931, 6008.

207. Ibid., 5846, 5775, 5771.

208. Ibid., 5908.

209. Senate Reports, 53rd Cong., 2nd sess., no. 227; cf. speeches of Sulzer, Gillett, CR, 55th Cong., 2nd sess., 5905, 5783; Morgan, Pacific Gibraltar, 221–22, 234.

210. CR, 55th Cong., 2nd sess., 5785; cf. 5786; speeches of Hitt, Henry, Linney, and Hull: ibid., 5772–73, 5839, 5982, 5983.

211. Ibid., 5844.

212. Thomas J. Osborne, “Empire Can Wait”: American Opposition to Hawaiian Annexation, 1893–1898 (Kent, OH: Kent State University Press, 1981), chap. 8.

213. CR, 55th Cong., 2nd sess., 5844; cf. speeches of Hitt, Gillett, Alexander, Walker, Pearson, Pearce, and Linney: ibid., 5772, 5782, 5785, 5795, 5835, 5894, 5982; Pletcher, Diplomacy of Involvement, 273–74.

214. CR, 55th Cong., 2nd sess., 6527; cf. speeches of Alexander, Henry, Barrows, Grow, Hamilton, Lacey, and Cummings: ibid., 5787, 5838, 5843, 5890, 5909, 6008, 6012.

215. Hugh Dinsmore of Arkansas alone rebutted arguments that annexation was necessary to deter a Japanese takeover of Hawaii and for U.S. coastal defense, though even he conceded its strategic advantages: ibid., 5776, 5779–80. He also tried to argue that Alaska offered a shorter route to Asia than Hawaii due to the earth’s curvature, but this was effectively rebutted by Newlands and Grosvenor, among others: ibid., 5780, 5830, 5873.

216. Ibid., 5888; cf. speeches of Clardy, Dinsmore, Clark, Bland, Howard, Broussard, Meyer, Johnson, and Williams: ibid., 5775–76, 5778, 5792, 5842, 5903, 5937, 5987, 5998, 6013–14.

217. Ibid., 5974, 5792, cf. 5788, speeches of Gaines, Hitt, Clark, and Kitchin: ibid., 5774, 5775, 5790, 5932; CS, 5: 199, 204–5.

218. Ibid., 5998; cf. 5999; speeches by Bland, Hilborn, Broussard, Ball, Meyer, and Todd: ibid., 5841–42, 5927, 5937, 5977, 5987, 6009.

219. Ibid., 5903; cf. Morgan, Pacific Gibraltar, 178–79.

220. CR, 55th Cong., 2nd sess., 5845; cf. speeches of Dinsmore, Bell, Howard: ibid., 5778, 5832, 5904.

221. Ibid., 5982, 5967.

222. Ibid., 5790.

223. Ibid., 5791.

224. Ibid., 5833.

225. Ibid., 5792; cf. speeches of Dinsmore, Bland, Ball, and Johnson: ibid., 5777, 5842, 5977, 5998–99.

226. Ibid., 5791.

227. Speeches of Bland, Richardson, and Johnson: ibid., 5842, 5888, 5999.

228. Ibid., 5998.

229. Ibid., 5832–33; cf. speeches of Clark, Richardson, Kitchin, and Fitzgerald: ibid., 5788–92, 5888, 5932, 5967.

230. Ibid., 5910; cf. speeches of Hitt, Alexander, Newlands, Henry, Todd: ibid., 5773–74, 5786, 5831, 5838–40, 6010.

231. Ibid., 6012.

232. Stevens, American Expansion in Hawaii, 24–45; Tate, Hawaiian Kingdom, 1–18.

233. CR, 55th Cong., 2nd sess., 5788; cf. speeches of Gillett, Barrows, Grosvenor, Hull: ibid., 5783, 5844, 5880, 5983.

234. Ibid., 5879; cf. speech of Pearce: ibid., 5893.

235. Ibid., 5972; cf. speeches of Alexander and Pearce: ibid., 5787–88, 5896.

236. Ibid., 5930.

237. Ibid., 6010; cf. speech of Stewart: ibid., 5844.

238. Ibid., 5771; 6008; cf. 5775.

239. Ibid., 5831, 5830; cf. 5829, speeches of Alexander and Linney: ibid., 5787–88, 5982.

240. Ibid., 5989; cf. speeches of Hitt, Newlands, Henry, Grosvenor, Pearce, Barham, Danford, Bromwell, Packer, Berry, Hull: ibid., 5775, 5830–31, 5838, 5874, 5896, 5913, 5915, 5919, 5930, 5972, 5983.

241. Ibid., 6010.

242. Ibid., 5787.

243. Ibid., 5830; cf. speeches of Hitt and Pearce: ibid., 5775, 5897.

244. Ibid., 5982; cf. 5979

245. Ibid., 5930.

246. Ibid., 6008; cf. speeches of Henry, Bromwell, Packer, Linney, and Hull: ibid., 5837, 5919, 5930, 5982, 5983.

247. Ibid., 6017; cf. speech of Packer: ibid., 5930.

248. Ibid., 5783.

249. Ibid., 6008.

250. Ibid., 6019.

251. Ibid., 6522, 6525; cf. 6519, 6526, 6528; speech of Caffery: ibid., 6483.

252. Ibid., 6531; cf. speeches of Caffery, Mallory, Pettigrew, and Allen: ibid., 6484, 6577, 6622–23, 6634.

253. Ibid., 6534.

254. Ibid., 6484, 6486, 6611, 6620, 6705.

255. Speeches of Caffery, Bate, and Allen: ibid., 6484, 6525, 6643; cf. 6486, 6526.

256. Ibid., 6642; cf. speeches of Pettigrew and Allen: ibid., 6702.

257. Ibid., 6661.

258. Ibid., 6661, 6663; cf. 6662, speeches of Pettus, Lindsay, and Hale: ibid., 6573, 6666, 6708.

259. Ibid., 6702.

260. John A. S. Grenville, “American Naval Preparations for War with Spain, 1896–1898,” Journal of American Studies 2, no. 1 (1968): 35; 43–44.

261. George Dewey, Autobiography of George Dewey, Admiral of the Navy (New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1913), 175.

262. Hamilton, McKinley, War and Empire, 2: 84; cf. 70; Tyler Dennett, John Hay: From Poetry to Politics (New York: Dodd, Mead, 1934), 190–91; Offner, Unwanted War, 199.

263. In one of the more remarkable tales of conquest, U.S. ships under Captain Henry Glass boldly cruised into Guam’s harbor expecting a well-fortified enemy and firing shots toward the fort of Santa Cruz. But the local Spanish officials rowed out to meet them apologizing that lack of ammunition prevented them from returning what they thought was a U.S. salute. Much to their surprise Glass informed them that the United States and Spain were at war, and they were now his prisoners. The local Spanish governor surrendered the following day: Leslie W. Walker, “Guam’s Seizure by the United States in 1898,” Pacific Historical Review 14, no. 1 (1945): 1–12.

264. Ernest R. May, Imperial Democracy: The Emergence of America as a Great Power (New York: Harcourt, Brace and World, 1961), 251; Lewis L. Gould, The Presidency of William McKinley (Lawrence: Regents Press of Kansas, 1980), 118; Offner, Unwanted War, 213–15; Leech, Days of McKinley, 283–86; McKinley, Instructions to the Peace Commissioners, September 16, 1898, FRUS: 1898, 904–8; cf. Morgan, Making Peace with Spain, 30–31, 233–38; Hamilton, McKinley, War and Empire, 2: 67–68.

265. César J. Ayala and Rafael Bernabe, Puerto Rico in the American Century: A History since 1898 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2007), 14, 29.

266. Henry K. Carroll, Report on the Island of Porto Rico (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1899), 42.

267. CR, 56th Cong., 1st sess., 3692; Carroll, Report, 46, 51–52.

268. CR, 56th Cong., 1st sess., 3619.

269. Ibid., 3622; CR, 55th Cong., 3rd sess., 960; Allan Nevins, Henry White: Thirty Years of American Diplomacy (New York: Harper and Brothers, 1930), 136; cf. Walter LaFeber, The Cambridge History of American Foreign Relations, vol. 2 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1993), 156, 158.

270. Julius W. Pratt, “American Business and the Spanish–American War,” Hispanic American Historical Review 14, no. 2 (1934): 191; cf. 185–89, 196; Julius W. Pratt, Expansionists of 1898: The Acquisition of Hawaii and the Spanish Islands (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1936); Hamilton, McKinley, War and Empire, 2: xv, xvii, 93, 109–57. Decades later U.S. agricultural interests played a significant role finalizing Philippine independence: Thomas B. Pepinsky, “Trade Competition and American Decolonization,” World Politics 67, no. 3 (2015): 387–422.

271. Pletcher, Diplomacy of Involvement, 285.

272. Thomas A. Bailey, “Dewey and the Germans at Manila Bay,” American Historical Review 45, no. 1 (1939): 60–70; Dewey, Autobiography, 252–67.

273. Memorandum from Nakagawa, September 8, 1898, in James K. Eyre Jr., “Japan and the American Annexation of the Philippines,” Pacific Historical Review 11, no. 1 (1942): 64.

274. Buck to Day, July 6, 1898, ibid., 59.

275. Ephraim K. Smith, “‘A Question from Which We Could Not Escape’: William McKinley and the Decision to Acquire the Philippine Islands,” Diplomatic History 9 (1985): 369; cf. Report of the Philippine Commission to the President, vol. 1 (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1900), 8; Hamilton, McKinley, War and Empire, 2: 75; Leech, Days of McKinley, 327–36.

276. Charles B. Elliott, The Philippines to the End of the Military Regime (Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill, 1916), 342; cf. Jacob G. Schurman, Philippine Affairs: A Retrospect and Outlook (New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1902), 2; Henry S. Pritchett, “Some Recollections of President McKinley and the Cuban Intervention,” North American Review 189, no. 640 (1909): 400–401; Stuart C. Miller, Benevolent Assimilation: The American Conquest of the Philippines, 1899–1903 (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1982), 14.

277. Elizabeth C. Hoffman, American Umpire (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2013), 174.

278. Hay to Day, October 14, 1898, FRUS: 1898, 928; Hamilton, McKinley, War and Empire 2: 81; cf. Governor Roosevelt’s Letter of Acceptance, September 15, 1900, M. W. Blumenberg, ed., Official Proceedings of the Twelfth Republican National Convention (Philadelphia: Dunlap, 1900), 187.

279. H. C. Corbin to Major-General Merritt, August 17, 1898, MPP, 10: 217; cf. Hamilton, McKinley, War and Empire, 2: 75–76.

280. CR, 55th Cong., 3rd sess., 1450, 1480–84, 1530; cf. Hamilton, McKinley, War and Empire, 2: 83.

281. Joseph Wheeler, “Report on the Island of Guam, June 1900” (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1900), 20; Ayala and Bernabe, Puerto Rico, 32.

282. Carroll, Report, 11.

283. Ibid., 36, 56; cf. 10; Ayala and Bernabe, Puerto Rico, 15, 20, 24, 26; Gordon K. Lewis, Puerto Rico: Freedom and Power in the Caribbean (New York: Monthly Review Press, 1963), 85–86.

284. Carroll, Report, 56–57.

285. CR, 56th Cong., 1st sess., 3685.

286. Ibid., 2105.

287. Ibid., 4054, 3681–82.

288. CR, 56th Cong., 1st sess., 4058, 3689; cf. speeches of Newlands, McClellan, Clay, ibid., 1994, 2067, 3682.

289. Speeches of Perkins, Ross, and Hamilton, ibid., 3635, 3683, 4052; cf. Lewis, Puerto Rico, 3–4; Bartholomew H. Sparrow, The Insular Cases and the Emergence of American Empire (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 2006), 58–64.

290. CR, 56th Cong., 1st sess., 3632.

291. Ibid., 3635, 3638; cf. 3636–37; speech of Dolliver: ibid., 4068.

292. Ibid., 3622.

293. Carroll, Report, 59.

294. Cf. speech of Lindsay: ibid., 3693.

295. José A. Cabranes, “Citizenship and the American Empire,” University of Pennsylvania Law Review 127 (1978): 414–15; Juan R. Torruella, The Supreme Court and Puerto Rico: The Doctrine of Separate and Unequal (Dominican Republic: Editorial de la Universidad de Puerto Rico, 1988), 32–39.

296. CR, 56th Cong., 1st sess., 3608; cf. speeches of Newlands and Williams, ibid., 1994, 2162.

297. James H. Blount, The American Occupation of the Philippines, 1898–1912 (New York: G. P. Putnam’s Sons, 1912), 231–32; Paul A. Kramer, The Blood of Government: Race, Empire, the United States, and the Philippines (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2006); Love, Race over Empire, 7; cf. speech of Clay: CR, 56th Cong., 1st sess., 3681–82; Lanny Thompson, “The Imperial Republic: A Comparison of the Insular Territories under U.S. Dominion after 1898,” Pacific Historical Review 71, no. 4 (2002): 565; Susan K. Harris, God’s Arbiters: Americans and the Philippines, 1898–1902 (New York: Oxford University Press, 2011), chaps. 1, 2.

298. Carl Schurz, “Thoughts on American Imperialism,” Century Magazine (1898), in CS, 5: 481, 483, 505; cf. Schurz to McKinley, June 1, July 29, 1898, ibid., 472–76; Carl Schurz, American Imperialism (Boston: Dana Estes, 1899), 6, 13.

299. CR, 56th Cong., 1st sess., 3608, 3616.

300. CR, 55th Cong., 3rd sess., 922; CR, 56th Cong., 1st sess., 1520; cf. CR, 55th Cong., 3rd sess., 438, 1067, 1532; David S. Jordan, Imperial Democracy (New York, D. Appleton, 1899), 48.

301. CR, 55th Cong., 2nd sess., 6634; cf. 6642, 6712; speeches of Newlands and Lindsay: ibid., 5830–31, 6666–67.

302. Ibid., 6664.

303. CR, 56th Cong., 1st sess., 3622; cf. speech of Bate: ibid., 3613.

304. Ibid., 711; cf. speech of Lindsay: ibid., 3693.

305. Love, Race over Empire, xvii; Christopher Lasch, “The Anti-Imperialists, the Philippines, and the Inequality of Man,” Journal of Southern History 24, no. 3 (1958): 323; cf. 319, 321, 330; Frederick Merk, Manifest Destiny and Mission in American History (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1963), 237–47.

306. Lasch, “Anti-Imperialists,” 319, 322; Christina D. Burnett and Burke Marshall, “Between the Foreign and the Domestic: The Doctrine of Territorial Incorporation, Invented and Reinvented,” in Foreign in a Domestic Sense: Puerto Rico, American Expansion, and the Constitution, ed. Christina D. Burnett and Burke Marshall (Durham: Duke University Press, 2001), 4; Julian Go, “Modes of Rule in America’s Overseas Empire: The Philippines, Puerto Rico, Guam, and Samoa,” in The Louisiana Purchase and American Expansion, 1803–1898, ed. Sanford Levinson and Bartholomew H. Sparrow (New York: Rowman and Littlefield, 2005), 209–29.

307. CR, 55th Cong., 3rd sess., 20; cf. 432–33, 493–502, 641, 783–84, 930, 963–68, 1064–67, 1070, 1384, 1430, 1445–47, 1530.

308. CR, 56th Cong., 1st sess., 4057; cf. speech of Teller: CR, 55th Cong., 3rd sess., 969.

309. CR, 56th Cong., 1st sess., 4070.

310. Ibid., 2105.

311. CR, 55th Cong., 3rd sess., 20; cf. 528, 561, 1342, 1348, 1445, 1479.

312. Ibid., 296; cf. 563–72, 838.

313. CR, 56th Cong., 1st sess., 4052.

314. Ibid., 1914; cf. speech of Cullom: ibid., 3617.

315. Ibid., 3637.

316. Ibid., 3629.

317. Ibid., 1062.

318. Ibid., 295; cf. 969, 1447.

319. CR, 56th Cong., 1st sess., 1057.

320. Ayala and Bernabe, Puerto Rico, 26, 28; Kramer, Blood of Government, 165.

321. Efrén R. Ramos, “Deconstructing Colonialism: The ‘Unincorporated Territory’ as a Category of Domination,” in Burnett and Marshall, Foreign in a Domestic Sense, 115–16.

322. Downes v. Bidwell, 182 U.S. 287 (1901).

323. Downes v. Bidwell, 182 U.S. 287, 341–42 (1901).

324. Hawaii v. Mankichi, 190 U.S. 197–249 (1903); Rassmussen v. United States, 197 U.S. 516–36 (1905); cf. Dick Thornburgh, Puerto Rico’s Future: A Time to Decide (Washington, DC: Center for Strategic and International Studies, 2007), 48–49.

325. Abbott L. Lowell, “The Status of Our New Possessions: A Third View,” Harvard Law Review 13, no. 3 (1899): 176; cf. Burnett and Marshall, “Between the Foreign and the Domestic,” 6.

326. Abbott L. Lowell, “The Colonial Expansion of the United States,” Atlantic Monthly 83 (1899): 149–51.

327. Ibid., 152–53.

328. Gary Lawson and Guy Seidman, The Constitution of Empire: Territorial Expansion and American Legal History (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2004), 197; Rogers M. Smith, “The Bitter Roots of Puerto Rican Citizenship,” in Burnett and Marshall, Foreign in a Domestic Sense, 378; cf. Sam Erman, Almost Citizens: Puerto Rico, the U.S. Constitution, and Empire (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2019); Thornburgh, Puerto Rico’s Future, 46; Charles R. Venator-Santiago, Puerto Rico and the Origins of US Global Empire: The Disembodied Shade (New York: Routledge, 2015), 8–10, 45.

329. Hoffman, American Umpire, 175–76.

330. Philippine Autonomy Act, Pub. L. No. 64–240, 39 Stat. 545 (1916).

331. Chimène I. Keitner, “From Conquest to Consent: Puerto Rico and the Prospect of Genuine Free Association,” in Reconsidering the Insular Cases: The Past and Future of the American Empire, ed. Gerald L. Neuman and Tomiko Brown-Nagin (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2015), 85; cf. Balzac v. Porto Rico, 258 U.S. 298–314 (1922).

332. Hoffman, American Umpire, 163–69.

333. Ernest R. May, American Imperialism: A Speculative Essay (New York: Atheneum, 1968), 14.

334. FRUS: 1905, 334.

335. Woodrow Wilson, “Address before the Southern Commercial Congress” in Mobile, AL, October 27, 1913; Welles, Naboth’s Vineyard, 2: 277.

336. Lyndon B. Johnson, “Remarks in New York City at the Dinner of the Weizmann Institute of Science,” February 6, 1964; Lyndon B. Johnson, “Remarks at the Democratic Congressional Dinner in the Washington Hilton Hotel,” June 24, 1965; Lyndon B. Johnson, “Remarks to the 10th National Legislative Conference, Building and Construction Trades Department, AFL-CIO,” May 3, 1965.

337. Paul A. Kramer, “Empires, Exceptions, and Anglo-Saxons: Race and Rule between the British and U.S. Empires, 1880–1910,” Journal of American History 88, no. 4 (2002): 1316.

8. The International Implications of U.S. Annexation

Epigraph: Reginald Horsman, Race and Manifest Destiny: The Origins of American Racial Anglo-Saxonism (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1981), 231.

1. CR, 55th Cong., 2nd sess., 2919.

2. Steven E. Lobell, Norrin M. Ripsman, and Jeffrey W. Taliaferro, eds., Neoclassical Realism, the State, and Foreign Policy (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2009); Melvin Small, Democracy and Diplomacy: The Impact of Domestic Politics on U.S. Foreign Policy, 1789–1994 (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1996); James M. McCormick, ed., The Domestic Sources of American Foreign Policy: Insights and Evidence, 6th ed. (New York: Rowman and Littlefield, 2012); Helen V. Milner and Dustin Tingley, Sailing the Water’s Edge: The Domestic Politics of American Foreign Policy (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2015).

3. Peter J. Katzenstein, ed., Between Power and Plenty: Foreign Economic Policies of Advanced Industrial States (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1978); Stephen D. Krasner, Defending the National Interest: Raw Materials Investments and U.S. Foreign Policy (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1978).

4. Colin Dueck, Reluctant Crusaders: Power, Culture, and Change in American Grand Strategy (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2006); Kevin Narizny, The Political Economy of Grand Strategy (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2007).

5. Kevin Narizny, “Both Guns and Butter, or Neither: Class Interests in the Political Economy of Rearmament,” American Political Science Review 97, no. 2 (2003): 203–20; Rebecca U. Thorpe, The American Warfare State: The Domestic Politics of Military Spending (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2014).

6. Charles W. Ostrom Jr. and Brian L. Job, “The President and the Political Use of Force,” American Political Science Review 80, no. 2 (1986): 541–66; Patrick James and John R. Oneal, “The Influence of Domestic and International Politics on the President’s Use of Force,” Journal of Conflict Resolution 35, no. 2 (1991): 307–32.

7. Gustavo A. Flores-Macías and Sarah E. Kreps, “Political Parties at War: A Study of American War Finance, 1789–2010,” American Political Science Review 107, no. 4 (2013): 833–48; Kenneth A. Schultz and Barry R. Weingast, “The Democratic Advantage: Institutional Foundations of Financial Power in International Competition,” International Organization 57, no. 1 (2003): 3–42.

8. Jeffrey W. Legro, Rethinking the World: Great Power Strategies and International Order (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2005), chap. 3; Kevin Narizny, “Rational Idealism: The Political Economy of Internationalism in the United States and Great Britain, 1870–1945,” Security Studies 12, no. 3 (2003): 1–39.

9. Helen V. Milner and Dustin H. Tingley, “The Political Economy of U.S. Foreign Aid: American Legislators and the Domestic Politics of Aid,” Economics and Politics 22, no. 2 (2010): 200–232.

10. Jeffrey W. Meiser, Power and Restraint: The Rise of the United States, 1898–1941 (Washington, DC: Georgetown University Press, 2015); Scott A. Silverstone, Divided Union: The Politics of War in the Early American Republic (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2004); Fareed Zakaria, From Wealth to Power: The Unusual Origins of America’s World Role (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1998); Miriam F. Elman, “The Foreign Policies of Small States: Challenging Neorealism in Its Own Backyard,” British Journal of Political Science 25, no. 2 (1995): 171–217; Jack Snyder, Myths of Empire: Domestic Politics and International Ambition (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1991).

11. Peter Trubowitz, Politics and Strategy: Partisan Ambition and American Statecraft (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2011).

12. Peter Trubowitz, Defining the National Interest: Conflict and Change in American Foreign Policy (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1998).

13. Lawrence R. Jacobs and Benjamin I. Page, “Who Influences U.S. Foreign Policy?” American Political Science Review 99, no. 1 (2005): 107–23.

14. Henry R. Nau, Conservative Internationalism: Armed Diplomacy under Jefferson, Polk, Truman, and Reagan (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2013); Michael C. Desch, “America’s Liberal Illiberalism: The Ideological Origins of Overreaction in U.S. Foreign Policy,” International Security 32, no. 3 (2007/08): 19; Walter R. Mead, Special Providence: American Foreign Policy and How It Changed the World (New York: Routledge, 2002); Walter A. McDougall, Promised Land, Crusader State: The American Encounter with the World since 1776 (New York: Houghton Mifflin, 1997).

15. Stephen M. Saideman, The Ties that Divide: Ethnic Politics, Foreign Policy, and International Conflict (New York: Columbia University Press, 2001); Alexander DeConde, Ethnicity, Race, and American Foreign Policy: A History (Boston: Northeastern University Press, 1992).

16. Robert D. Putnam, “Diplomacy and Domestic Politics: The Logic of Two-Level Games,” International Organization 42, no. 3 (1988): 460.

17. David A. Lake, Hierarchy in International Relations (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2009), 15.

18. David A. Lake, Entangling Relations: American Foreign Policy in Its Century (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1999); David A. Lake, “Escape from the State of Nature: Authority and Hierarchy in World Politics,” International Security 32, no. 1 (2007): 47–79; David Sylvan and Stephen Majeski, U.S. Foreign Policy in Perspective: Clients, Enemies, and Empire (New York: Routledge, 2009).

19. Charles Lipson, “International Cooperation in Economic and Security Affairs,” World Politics 37, no. 1 (1984): 14.

20. Nuno P. Monteiro, Theory of Unipolar Politics (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2014); Nuno P. Monteiro, “Unrest Assured: Why Unipolarity Is Not Peaceful,” International Security 36, no. 3 (2011/12): 9–40.

21. Hilde E. Restad, American Exceptionalism: An Idea that Made a Nation and Remade the World (New York: Routledge, 2015); Godfrey Hodgson, The Myth of American Exceptionalism (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2009); Seymour M. Lipset, American Exceptionalism: A Double-Edged Sword (New York: W. W. Norton, 1996).

22. Echoing recent attention to race in studies of American political development: Desmond King and Rogers M. Smith, “Racial Orders in American Political Development,” American Political Science Review 99, no. 1 (2005): 75–92; Joseph Lowndes, Julie Novkov, and Dorian T. Warren, eds., Race and American Political Development (New York: Routledge, 2008).

23. William Kristol and Robert Kagan, “Toward a Neo-Reaganite Foreign Policy,” Foreign Affairs 75, no. 4 (1996): 18–32; Robert Kagan, “The Benevolent Empire,” Foreign Policy 111 (1998): 24–35.

24. Stephen G. Brooks, “Can We Identify a Benevolent Hegemon?” Cambridge Review of International Affairs 25, no. 1 (2012): 27–38; Christopher Layne, “The Uni-polar Illusion Revisited: The Coming End of the United States’ Unipolar Moment,” International Security 31, no. 2 (2006): 7–41.

25. Samuel P. Huntington, “The Lonely Superpower,” Foreign Affairs 78, no. 2 (1999): 48; cf. Francis Fukuyama, America at the Crossroads: Democracy, Power, and the Neoconservative Legacy (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2006), 111–13.

26. Layne, “Unipolar Illusion Revisited,” 19.

27. Keir A. Lieber and Gerard Alexander, “Waiting for Balancing: Why the World Is Not Pushing Back,” International Security 30, no. 1 (2005): 109–39.

28. John M. Owen IV, “Transnationalism, Liberalism and American Primacy; or, Benignity Is in the Eye of the Beholder,” in America Unrivaled, ed. G. John Ikenberry (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2002), 239–59.

29. Susan K. Harris, God’s Arbiters: Americans and the Philippines, 1898–1902 (New York: Oxford University Press, 2011); Paul A. Kramer, The Blood of Government: Race, Empire, the United States, and the Philippines (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2006); Tony Smith, America’s Mission: The United States and the Worldwide Struggle for Democracy in the Twentieth Century (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1994).

30. Greg Grandin, Empire’s Workshop: Latin America, the United States, and the Rise of the New Imperialism (New York: Henry Holt, 2006); Michael C. Desch, When the Third World Matters: Latin America and United States Grand Strategy (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1993); Walter LaFeber, Inevitable Revolutions: The United States in Central America (New York: W. W. Norton, 1993).

31. Theodore Roosevelt, Fourth Annual Message, MPP, 10: 831–32.

32. Alexander Cooley and Hendrik Spruyt, Contracting States: Sovereign Transfers in International Relations (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2009), chap. 4; Lake, Entangling Relations; Daniel Nexon and Thomas Wright, “What’s at Stake in the American Empire Debate,” American Political Science Review 101, no. 2 (2007): 253–71; Robert H. Wade, “The Invisible Hand of the American Empire,” Ethics and International Affairs 17, no. 2 (2003): 77–88.

33. G. John Ikenberry, Liberal Leviathan: The Origins, Crisis, and Transformation of the American World Order (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2011); G. John Ikenberry, “Institutions, Strategic Restraint, and the Persistence of American Postwar Order,” International Security 23, no. 3 (1998/99): 43–78; Carla Norloff, America’s Global Advantage: U.S. Hegemony and International Cooperation (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2010); Richard W. Maass, Carla Norloff, and Daniel W. Drezner, “Correspondence: The Profitability of Primacy,” International Security 38, no. 4 (2014): 188–205.

34. John M. Owen IV, The Clash of Ideas in World Politics: Transnational Networks, States, and Regime Change, 1510–2010 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2010); Mark L. Haas, The Ideological Origins of Great Power Politics (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2004), 6–8.

35. Abraham F. Lowenthal, ed., Exporting Democracy: The United States and Latin America (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1991); Smith, America’s Mission, chap. 3.

36. Sebastian Rosato, “The Flawed Logic of Democratic Peace Theory,” American Political Science Review 97, no. 4 (2003): 590–91; Lindsey A. O’Rourke, Covert Regime Change: America’s Secret Cold War (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2018).

37. Stephen Kinzer, Overthrow: America’s Century of Regime Change from Hawaii to Iraq (New York: Henry Holt, 2006); Robert S. Litwak, Regime Change: U.S. Strategy through the Prism of 9/11 (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2007).

38. Desch, “America’s Liberal Illiberalism,” 7.

39. LaFeber, Inevitable Revolutions, 22.

40. John S. Mill, “A Few Words on Non-Intervention,” in The Collected Works of John Stuart Mill, ed. John M. Robson, vol. 21 (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1984), 119; John Rawls, The Law of Peoples (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1999), 93; cf. Immanuel Kant, “Perpetual Peace,” trans. Lewis W. Beck, in Kant on History, ed. Lewis W. Beck (Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall, 2001); Michael W. Doyle, “Liberalism and World Politics,” American Political Science Review 80, no. 4 (1986): 1155–62.

41. Kant, “Perpetual Peace,” 86; cf. Kenneth N. Waltz, “Kant, Liberalism, and War,” American Political Science Review 56, no. 2 (1962): 333; Michael Doyle, “Kant, Liberal Legacies, and Foreign Affairs,” pt. 1, Philosophy and Public Affairs 12 (1983): 206.

42. USSS, 66th Cong., 1st sess., Treaty of Peace with Germany (S.Doc. 76), 42.

43. Niall Ferguson, Empire: The Rise and Demise of the British World Order and the Lessons for Global Power (New York: Basic Books, 2002), xxii; cf. Uday S. Mehta, Liberalism and Empire: A Study in Nineteenth-Century British Liberal Thought (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1999); Jennifer Pitts, A Turn to Empire: The Rise of Imperial Liberalism in Britain and France (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2005).

44. Russell Thornton, American Indian Holocaust and Survival: A Population History since 1492 (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1987); Andrew Bell-Fialkoff, “A Brief History of Ethnic Cleansing,” Foreign Affairs 72, no. 3 (1993): 110–21.

45. Michael Mann, The Dark Side of Democracy: Explaining Ethnic Cleansing (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2005), 2; cf. Bernard Yack, “Popular Sovereignty and Nationalism,” Political Theory 29, no. 4 (2001): 517–36; Paulina O. Espejo, “Paradoxes of Popular Sovereignty: A View from Spanish America,” Journal of Politics 74, no. 4 (2012): 1053–65.

46. Paul Frymer, Building an American Empire: The Era of Territorial and Political Expansion (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2017).

47. Thomas R. Hietala, Manifest Design: American Exceptionalism and Empire (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2003), 164.

48. Eric T. L. Love, Race over Empire: Racism and U.S. Imperialism, 1865–1900 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2004), 23.

49. Richard F. Bensel, Sectionalism and American Political Development, 1880–1980 (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1984), xix.

50. Trubowitz, Defining the National Interest, 27, 23.

51. Ibid., 20.

52. Rogers Smith, Civic Ideals: Conflicting Visions of Citizenship in U.S. History (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1997); Reginald Horsman, Race and Manifest Destiny: The Origins of American Racial Anglo-Saxonism (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1981); Love, Race over Empire; Michael H. Hunt, Ideology and U.S. Foreign Policy (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1987), chap. 3; Samuel P. Huntington, Who Are We? The Challenges to America’s National Identity (New York: Simon and Schuster, 2005).

53. Hans Kohn, The Idea of Nationalism: A Study in Its Origins and Background (New York: Macmillan, 1944); Liah Greenfeld, Nationalism: Five Roads to Modernity (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1992); Rogers Brubaker, “The Manichean Myth: Rethinking the Distinction between ‘Civic’ and ‘Ethnic’ Nationalism,” in Nation and National Identity: The European Experience in Perspective, ed. Hanspeter Kriesi, Klaus Armingeon, Hannes Siegrist, and Andreas Wimmer (Zurich: Verlag Ruegger, 1999), 55–72.

54. Smith, Civic Ideals, 1; cf. Lon Kurashige, Two Faces of Exclusion: The Untold History of Anti-Asian Racism in the United States (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2016).

55. Taras Kuzio, “The Myth of the Civic State: A Critical Survey of Hans Kohn’s Framework for Understanding Nationalism,” Ethnic and Racial Studies 25, no. 1 (2002): 20–39.

56. Nikhil P. Singh, Race and America’s Long War (Oakland: University of California Press, 2017); Zoltan Hajnal and Michael U. Rivera, “Immigration, Latinos, and White Partisan Politics: The New Democratic Defection,” American Journal of Political Science 58, no. 4 (2014): 773–89.

57. Monty G. Marshall, Ted R. Gurr, and Keith Jaggers, Polity IV Project, Political Regime Characteristics and Transitions, 1800–2013: Dataset Users’ Manual (Vienna, VA: Center for Systemic Peace, 2014); Barbara Wejnert, Diffusion of Democracy: The Past and Future of Global Democracy (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2014); John Markoff, Waves of Democracy: Social Movements and Political Change, 2nd ed. (New York: Routledge, 2016).

58. Benedict Anderson, Imagined Communities: Reflections on the Origin and Spread of Nationalism (New York: Verso, 1983); Ernest Gellner, Nations and Nationalism (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1983); E. J. Hobsbawm, Nations and Nationalism since 1780: Programme, Myth, Reality (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1990).

59. Ernest Gellner, “Nationalism and Xenophobia,” in New Xenophobia in Europe, ed. Bernd Baumgartl and Adrian Favell (London: Kluwer Law International, 1995), 6–9; cf. Henri Tajfel, “Social Psychology of Intergroup Relations,” Annual Review of Psychology 33 (1982): 1–39; Jonathan Mercer, “Anarchy and Identity,” International Organization 49, no. 2 (1995): 229–52.

60. Craig Parsons, A Certain Idea of Europe (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2003); Raymond Taras, Xenophobia and Islamophobia in Europe (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2012); Baumgartl and Favell, New Xenophobia.

61. Stephen G. Brooks, Producing Security: Multinational Corporations, Globalization, and the Changing Calculus of Conflict (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2005); Patrick J. McDonald, The Invisible Hand of Peace: Capitalism, the War Machine, and International Relations Theory (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2009); John Mueller, Retreat from Doomsday: The Obsolescence of Major War (New York: Basic Books, 1989); William C. Wohlforth, “The Stability of a Unipolar World,” International Security 24, no. 1 (1999): 5–41.

62. Zeev Maoz and Bruce Russett, “Normative and Structural Causes of Democratic Peace, 1946–1986,” American Political Science Review 87, no. 3 (1993): 624–38; Bruce M. Russett, Grasping the Democratic Peace: Principles for a Post–Cold War World (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1993); James Lee Ray, Democracy and International Conflict: An Evaluation of the Democratic Peace Proposition (Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 1995).

63. Rosato, “Flawed Logic.”

64. John M. Owen IV, Liberal Peace, Liberal War (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1997); Ido Oren, “The Subjectivity of the ‘Democratic’ Peace: Changing U.S. Perceptions of Imperial Germany,” International Security 20, no. 2 (1995): 147–84; Christopher Layne, “Kant or Cant: The Myth of the Democratic Peace,” International Security 19 (1994): 5–49.

65. Erik Gartzke, “The Capitalist Peace,” American Journal of Political Science 51, no. 1 (2007): 166–91; McDonald, Invisible Hand of Peace; Michael Mousseau, “The Social Market Roots of Democratic Peace,” International Security 33, no. 4 (2009): 52–86; Michael Mousseau, “The Democratic Peace Unraveled: It’s the Economy,” International Studies Quarterly 57, no. 1 (2013): 186–97.

66. Paul K. Huth, Standing Your Ground: Territorial Disputes and International Conflict (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1996); John A. Vasquez and Marie T. Henehan, Territory, War, and Peace (New York: Routledge, 2011).

67. Douglas M. Gibler, The Territorial Peace: Borders, State Development, and International Conflict (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2012); Douglas M. Gibler, “Bordering on Peace: Democracy, Territorial Issues, and Conflict,” International Studies Quarterly 51, no. 3 (2007): 509–32.

68. Gibler, Territorial Peace, 167.

69. Sharon Korman, The Right of Conquest: The Acquisition of Territory by Force in International Law and Practice (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1996); Mark W. Zacher, “The Territorial Integrity Norm: International Boundaries and the Use of Force,” International Organization 55, no. 2 (2001): 215–50; Tanisha M. Fazal, State Death: The Politics and Geography of Conquest, Occupation, and Annexation (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2007), 44–54; Boaz Atzili, Good Fences, Bad Neighbors: Border Fixity and International Conflict (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2012), 10–30.

70. Stephen A. Kocs, “Territorial Disputes and Interstate War, 1945–1987,” Journal of Politics 57, no. 1 (1995): 159; William J. Dixon, “Democracy and the Peaceful Settlement of International Conflict,” American Political Science Review 88, no. 1 (1994): 15.

71. Michael C. Desch, “War and Strong States, Peace and Weak States?” International Organization 50, no. 2 (1996): 237–68; Boaz Atzili, “When Good Fences Make Bad Neighbors: Fixed Borders, State Weakness, and International Conflict,” International Security 31, no. 3 (2006/07): 139–73.

72. George W. Egerton, Great Britain and the Creation of the League of Nations: Strategy, Politics, and International Organization, 1914–1919 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1978), 203; Stephen C. Schlesinger, Act of Creation: The Founding of the United Nations (Boulder, CO: Westview, 2003).

73. Fazal, State Death, 47.

74. William W. Burke-White, “Crimea and the International Legal Order,” Survival 56, no. 4 (2014): 65–80.

75. Mark L. Haas, “A Geriatric Peace? The Future of U.S. Power in a World of Aging Populations,” International Security 32, no. 1 (2007): 112–47; Michael Beckley, “China’s Century? Why America’s Edge Will Endure,” International Security 36, no. 3 (2011/12): 41–78.

76. Barry R. Posen, Restraint: A New Foundation for U.S. Grand Strategy (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2014); Stephen G. Brooks and William C. Wohlforth, America Abroad: The United States’ Global Role in the 21st Century (New York: Oxford University Press, 2016).

77. John Boyd Orr, Nobel Lecture, December 12, 1949.