LESSON 10
What Is Your Take on That?
あれどう思う？
Are Dō Omou?
In this lesson you will learn a variety ways of conveying the speaker’s attitude and feelings as well as changing the speaker’s perspectives.
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[cue 10-1] |
Basic Sentences
1. |
田中さんは来月結婚するそうです。 Tanaka-san wa raigetsu kekkon suru sō desu. I heard that Mr. Tanaka will get married next month. |
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2. |
雨が降りそうですね。 Ame ga furi sō desu ne. It looks like (it’s going to) rain. |
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3. |
健二さんは陽子さんとつき合っているらしいです。 Kenji-san wa Yōko-san to tsukiatte iru rashii desu. It seems that Kenji is going out with Yoko. |
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4. |
あの人は日本語が上手で日本人のようです。 Ano hito wa Nihongo ga jōzu de Nihon-jin no yō desu. That person speaks good Japanese, and is just like a Japanese person. |
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5. |
お酒を飲んだり，カラオケをしたりしました。 O-sake o nondari, karaoke o shitari shimashita. I did such things as drink and sing karaoke. |
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6. |
テレビを見ながら食べます。 Terebi o mi-nagara tabemasu. I eat while watching TV. |
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7. |
私には兄弟がありません。 Watashi ni wa kyōdai ga arimasen. I don’t have siblings. |
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8. |
音楽を専攻することにしました。 Ongaku o senkō suru koto ni shimashita. I decided to major in music. |
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9. |
カメラを壊してしまいました。 Kamera o kowashite shimaimashita. I broke the camera. |
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10. |
母は怒るかもしれません。 Haha wa okoru ka mo shiremasen. My mother might get mad. |
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11. |
こんなことが分からないわけがありません。 Konna koto ga wakaranai wake ga arimasen. There is no reason why he cannot understand such a thing. |
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12. |
男性の友達がいないことはありません。 Dansei no tomodachi ga inai koto wa arimasen. It is not that I don’t have any male friends. |
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13. |
弟が壊したに違いありません。 Otōto ga kowashita ni chigai arimasen. My little brother must have broken (it). |
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14. |
何について話すのかしら。 Nani ni tsuite hanasu no kashira. I wonder what he is going to talk about. |
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15. |
子どもに野菜を食べさせました。 Kodomo ni yasai o tabesasemashita. I made my child eat vegetables. |
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16. |
弟に先に卒業されました。 Otōto ni saki ni sotsugyō saremashita. My little brother graduated before I did. |
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17. |
先生に漢字を１００回ずつ書かされました。 Sensei ni kanji o hyak-kai zutsu kakasaremashita. I was made to write kanji characters 100 times each by my teacher. |
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18. |
小さい字が読めません。 Chīsai ji ga yomemasen. I cannot read small letters. |
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19. |
父はゴルフをしたがっています。 Chichi wa gorufu o shitagatte imasu. My father wants to play golf. |
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20. |
小さい頃はよく父に叱られたものです。 Chīsai koro wa yoku chichi ni shikarareta mono desu. When I was young, I was often scolded by my father. |
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[cue 10-2] |
Basic Vocabulary
THINGS TO TALK ABOUT
ニュース nyūsu |
news |
噂 uwasa |
rumor |
悪口 waruguchi |
gossip |
スポーツ supōtsu |
sports |
音楽 ongaku |
music |
ファッション fasshon |
fashion |
卒業 sotsugyō |
graduation |
転職 tenshoku |
changing jobs |
結婚 kekkon |
marriage |
占い uranai |
fortune-telling |
CULTURE NOTE Blood Types and Personality
Many Japanese believe in the correlation between a person’s blood type and and his or her personality. Tons of books on blood-type-based fortune-telling have been published during the past several decades. When they meet new people, Japanese often try to guess each other’s blood type as they get to know each other, and eventually they will discuss their surmises and their actual blood types: “I thought your blood type was A,” “You are a typical B-type person,” etc. Here are examples of commonly held views:
Type A: careful, organized, shy
Type B: unique, creative, independent
Type AB: practical, unpredictable, has characteristics of both Type A and Type B
Type O: generous, open-minded, social
VERBS
叱る・叱ります shikaru/shikarimasu |
scolds |
ほめる・ほめます homeru/homemasu |
praises |
怒る・怒ります okoru/okorimasu |
gets angry |
たたく・たたきます tataku/tatakimasu |
hits, spanks, slaps |
壊す・壊します kowasu/kowashimasu |
breaks (something) |
RESOURCES
検索 kensaku |
(Internet) search |
グーグル Gūguru |
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ヤフー Yafū |
Yahoo |
Wi-Fi（ワイファイ） waifai |
Wi-Fi |
CONJUNCTIONS AND ADVERBS
とにかく tonikaku |
nevertheless, anyway |
ところが tokoroga |
however |
ところで tokorode |
by the way |
実は jitsu wa |
the fact is, actually |
Structure Notes
10.1. Hearsay そうです sō desu
When you want to report something you haven’t actually witnessed yourself, you usually end the sentence with sō desu, which has the meaning ‘I hear’ or ‘I’m given to understand’ or ‘what I’ve just said isn’t something I myself observed.’ The part that goes in front of sō desu ends in either the plain imperfect or the plain perfect. If the fact reported were from one’s observation or knowledge, there would be no sō desu and the sentence would end with a polite form. Here are some examples:
Own Observation |
Heard from Someone Else |
あそこは天気がいいです。 Asoko wa tenki ga ii desu. The weather is good over there. |
あそこは天気がいいそうです。 Asoko wa tenki ga ii sō desu. The weather is good over there, I hear. |
そうです。 Sō desu. That’s right. It’s so. |
そうだそうですね。 Sō da sō desu ne. So they say (they say it’s so). |
スミスさんはアメリカへお帰りになります。 Sumisu-san wa Amerika e okaeri ni narimasu. Mr. Smith is returning to America. |
スミスさんはアメリカへお帰りになるそうです。 Sumisu-san wa Amerika e okaeri ni naru sō desu. I hear Mr. Smith is returning to America. |
３時に来ると言いました。 San-ji ni kuru to iimashita. He said he will come at three p.m. |
３時に来ると言ったそうです。 San-ji ni kuru to itta sō desu. They say that he said he is coming at three p.m. |
10.2. Bound form -そう(な) -sō (na) ‘appearance’
There is a form -sō added to the infinitive of a verb, the base of an adjective, or an adjectival noun that makes a derived adjectival noun with the meaning ‘looking as if, having the appearance of.’ The resulting adjectival noun is followed by a form of the copula (da/na, etc.) or by the particle ni. Here are some examples:
Simple Statement |
Looking As If |
よく雨が降ります。 Yoku ame ga furimasu. It rains often. |
雨が降りそうです。 Ame ga furisō desu. It looks as if it will rain. |
休むことができるところです。 Yasumu koto ga dekiru tokoro desu. It’s a place where you can rest. |
休むことができそうなところです。 Yasumu koto ga dekisō na tokoro desu. It’s a place where it looks as if you could rest. |
このバッグは高いです。 Kono baggu wa takai desu. This bag is expensive. |
このバッグは高そうです。 Kono baggu wa takasō desu. This bag looks expensive. |
元気な子どもです。 Genki na kodomo desu. He’s a lively child. |
元気そうな子どもです。 Genki sō na kodomo desu. He’s a lively-looking child. |
To adjectives ii ‘good’ and nai ‘not exist,’ add -sasō instead of just -sō, as in yo-sasō ‘looking as if it were good’ and na-sasō ‘looking as if it were non-existent.’
Simple Statement |
Looking As If |
その魚はいいです。 Sono sakana wa ii desu. That fish is good. |
その魚はよさそうです。 Sono sakana wa yosasō desu. That fish looks as if it’s good. |
渋滞はありません。 Jūtai wa arimasen. There is no traffic jam. |
渋滞はなさそうです。 Jūtai wa nasasō desu. It looks as if there is no traffic jam. |
日本人じゃありません。 Nihon-jin ja arimasen. He isn’t Japanese. |
日本人じゃなさそうです。 Nihon-jin ja nasasō desu. He doesn’t look as if he is Japanese. |
Notice the difference in meaning between expressions with the form -sō (appearance) and expressions ending in sō desu (hearsay):
Appearance |
Hearsay |
雪が降りそうです。 Yuki ga furisō desu. It looks as if it’s going to snow. |
雪が降るそうです。 Yuki ga furu sō desu. They say it’s going to snow. |
お金がなさそうでした。 O-kane ga nasasō deshita. It looks as if he did not have money. |
お金がなかったそうです。 O-kane ga nakatta sō desu. I was given to understand that he did not have money. |
10.3. …らしい …rashii
Rashii is added at the end of a sentence and shows that the fact expressed by the sentence is the speaker’s objective, logical, careful, and non-intuitive conjecture based on what he or she heard, saw, or read. The verbs and adjectives that precede rashii must be in the plain form, except that the da that appears at the end of a copula and at the end of an adjectival noun must be deleted.
大川さんのお宅は古いらしいですね。
Ōkawa-san no otaku wa furui rashii desu ne.
Mr. Okawa’s house seems to be old.
田中さんは娘さんの結婚式に出なかったそうです。
Tanaka-san wa musumesan no kekkonshiki ni denakatta sō desu.
Mr. Tanaka seems not to have attended his daughter’s wedding.
森さんは部長になりたかったらしいです。
Mori-san wa buchō ni naritakatta rashii desu.
Mr. Mori seems to have wanted to become the division manager.
日本ではフェイスブックよりツイッターの方が人気があるらしいです。
Nihon de wa Feisubukku yori Tsuittā no hō ga ninki ga aru rashii desu.
Twitter seems to be more popular than Facebook in Japan.
あのホテルのオーナーは日本人らしいですよ。
Ano hoteru no ōnā wa Nihon-jin rashii desu yo.
It seems that the owner of that hotel is Japanese.
あのホテルは静からしいですよ。
Ano hoteru wa shizuka rashii desu yo.
That hotel seems to be quiet.
When rashii follows a noun, an additional reading ‘is a typical ideal model of’ arises. For example, the following sentence has two interpretations, which can be clarified by the context:
あの人は日本人らしいです。
Ano hito wa Nihon-jin rashii desu.
That person seems to be Japanese.
or
That person is the very model of a Japanese person.
10.4. Expressions meaning ‘like’
There are several ways to say ‘A is like B, A looks like B, A resembles B, etc.’ Here is a list of some of these expressions:
AはBのようだ。
A wa B no yō da.
A is like B.
AはBみたいだ。
A wa B mitai da.
A is like B.
AはBに似ている。
A wa B ni nite iru.
A resembles B.
AはBと似ている。
A wa B to nite iru.
A resembles B.
AとBは似ている。
A to B wa nite iru.
A and B are similar.
Here are some example sentences:
陽子さんは天使のようです。
Yōko-san wa tenshi no yō desu.
Yoko is like an angel.
タブレットPCはeリーダーに似ています。
Taburetto PC wa i-rīdā ni nite imasu.
Tablet PCs are similar to e-book readers.
陽子さんはお母さんと似ています。
Yōko-san wa okāsan to nite imasu.
Yoko resembles her mother.
この双子の姉妹はあまり似ていません。
Kono futago no shimai wa amari nite imasen.
These twin sisters do not look much alike.
10.5. The alternative -たり／-だり -tari/-dari
The alternative is a mood indicated by the endings -tari or -dari. The alternative forms are made in the same way as the perfect or the conditional; but instead of ending in -ta (-da) or -tara (-dara), they end in -tari (-dari). For example:
Some sentences contain one alternative form; others contain several. The most frequent type of sentence using the alternative contains two. The last alternative, or the only one, is always followed by some form of the verb suru ‘does’—working as a kind of dummy auxiliary.
The meaning of the alternative is either (1) actions in alternation (now doing this, now doing that), (2) simultaneous actions (doing this and that at the same time), or (3) representative or typical actions (doing things like this; doing things like this and that). If there is only one alternative in the sentence, it is a representative or typical action. Here are some examples:
昨日はネットサーフィンをしたりツイッターをしたりしました。
Kinō wa nettosāfin o shitari Tsuittā o shitari shimashita.
Yesterday I did things like surf the Web and use Twitter.
手紙を書いたり本を読んだりします。
Tegami o kaitari hon o yondari shimasu.
I write letters and read books (in alternation, or typically).
新聞を見たりラジオを聞いたりしていました。
Shinbun o mitari rajio o kiitari shite imashita.
He was looking at the paper and listening to the radio (in alternation, or simultaneously, or typically).
東京へ行くと銀座を散歩したりします。
Tōkyō e iku to Ginza o sanpo shitari shimasu.
When I go to Tokyo, I walk around Ginza (and so on).
この頃はお天気がよかったり悪かったりしますね。
Konogoro wa o-tenki ga yokattari warukattari shimasu ne.
Lately the weather is good one day, bad the next, isn’t it?
雨が降ったりやんだりします。
Ame ga futtari yandari shimasu.
It rains intermittently (off and on).
田口さんは新聞記者だったり先生だったりしたことがあります。
Taguchi-san wa shinbun-kisha dattari, sensei dattari shita koto ga arimasu.
Mr. Taguchi has been at various times a reporter and a teacher.
ご飯を食べたり食べなかったりすれば病気になりますよ。
Go-han o tabetari tabe nakattari sureba byōki ni narimasu yo.
If you eat irregularly (sometimes eat, sometimes don’t eat), you’ll get sick.
10.6. …ながら …nagara
To describe two simultaneous actions by a single person, you can use the infinitive of a verb + nagara ‘while … ing’ for the subsidiary action: Rajio o kiki-nagara hon o yomimashita ‘I read the book while listening to the radio.’ If the two simultaneous actions are performed by different people, you have to say it another way: Watashi ga rajio o kiite iru aida ni tomodachi wa hon o yomimashita ‘While I was listening to the radio, my friend read a book.’
There is also another possible interpretation for expressions with -nagara. Just as English ‘while’ means either ‘during the same time as’ or ‘although,’ Japanese-nagara (or -nagara mo) sometimes means ‘though’:
朝ごはんを食べながら宿題をします。
Asa go-han o tabe-nagara shukudai o shimasu.
I do my homework while eating my breakfast.
ラジオを聞きながら本を読みました。
Rajio o kiki-nagara, hon o yomimashita.
While I listened to the radio, I also read a book.
本当のことを知っていながら, 何も言わなかったんですね。
Hontō no koto o shitte i-nagara, nani mo iwanakatta n desu ne.
Though you knew the truth, you didn’t say anything, right?
学生でありながら先生に反論した。
Gakusei de ari-nagara sensei ni hanron shita.
Though only a student, he argued with his teacher.
10.7. ある aru with people
The verb iru means ‘someone (or some animal) stays, someone exists (in a place)’ or, after a gerund, ‘someone or something is doing something.’ The verb aru means either ‘something exists (in a place)’ or ‘something or someone exists (as an absolute thing, as a relative, as a role), something or someone is available, we have something or someone.’ So, to say ‘I have three brothers and sisters,’ you can say Kyōdai ga san-nin arimasu as well as Kyōdai ga san-nin imasu. To say ‘My three brothers and sisters are at home,’ you say San-nin no kyōdai ga uchi ni imasu.
10.8. …ことにする/…ことになる …koto ni suru/…koto ni naru
After a modifying clause ending in the plain imperfect form, the expression koto ni suru means ‘decides to (do something’). After a noun, ni suru means ‘decides on.’
映画を見に行くことにしました。
Eiga o mi ni iku koto ni shimashita.
We decided to go see a movie.
映画にしました。
Eiga ni shimashita.
We decided on the movies.
The expression koto ni naru means ‘it is decided or settled that’; koto ni natte iru means ‘it has been decided or settled or arranged that.’ After a noun, ni naru means ‘is decided to be….’
英語の教師として日本へ行くことになっています。
Eigo no kyōshi to shite Nihon e iku koto ni natte imasu.
(It’s been decided or arranged that) we are to go to Japan as English teachers.
日本になりました。
Nihon ni narimashita.
It’s been decided that it’s Japan.
今日からここで働くことになりました。
Kyō kara koko de hataraku koto ni narimashita.
It’s been decided that I start working here starting today.
ツイッターでJ-POPの歌手をフォローすることにしました。
Tsuittā de J-POP no kashu o forō suru koto ni shimashita.
We decided to follow J-POP singers on Twitter.
10.9. …しまう shimau and …おく oku
The verb shimau means ‘stores, puts away.’ A gerund + shimau has the meaning ‘finishes up doing, does completely or thoroughly; does and ends up = ends up doing.’
本を読んでしまいました。
Hon o yonde shimaimashita.
I read the entire book.
お金は全部使ってしまいました。
O-kane wa zenbu tsukatte shimaimashita.
I used up all the money.
携帯の通話時間の上限を超してしまいました。
Keitai no tsūwa jikan no jōgen o koshite shimaimashita.
I used up my minutes for my cell phone.
うちの犬は長い間病気だったんですが，昨日死んでしまいました。
Uchi no inu wa nagai aida byōki datta n desu ga, kinō shinde shimaimashita.
Our dog was sick for a long time, but yesterday it died.
The verb oku means ‘puts,’ ‘places,’ or ‘puts aside.’ A gerund + oku has the meaning ‘does something and puts it aside; does something in preparation; does something for later on; does something in advance.’ The idea is that the action is done and then put to one side, with the expectation of some consequence or result at a later time rather than immediately.
この本を読んでおきましょう。
Kono hon o yonde okimashō.
I’ll get this book read (so we can answer questions when the teacher asks us about it).
来週の芝居へ行きたいから，切符を買っておいてください。
Raishū no shibai e ikitai kara, kippu o katte oite kudasai.
I want to go to the play next week, so please buy tickets (in advance).
兄はPCを一日中つけておきます。
Ani wa PC o ichinichijū tsukete okimasu.
My brother leaves his PC on all day.
Notice the difference in meaning between the gerund + shimau and the gerund + oku: shimau suggests completion and thoroughness; oku suggests preparatory action in anticipation of later consequences or benefits.
手紙を書いてしまいました。
Tegami o kaite shimaimashita.
I got the letter (all) written. I finished (writing) the letter.
手紙を書いておきました。
Tegami o kaite okimashita.
I got the letter written (so that it would be done, for some later consequence). I wrote the letter and put it aside. I wrote the letter in advance.
10.10. …わけ …wake
The noun wake means ‘meaning,’ ‘reason,’ ‘explanation,’ ‘case,’ or ‘special circumstances.’ It is often used in explaining a situation.
どういうわけですか。
Dō iu wake desu ka.
What do you mean? What does it mean?
わけを教えてください
Wake o oshiete kudasai.
Please explain the meaning of this.
どういうわけで仕事をやめたんですか。
Dō iu wake de shigoto o yameta n desu ka.
Why (with what reason) did he quit his job?
社長はそんなに忙しいわけはありません。
Shachō wa sonna ni isogashii wake wa arimasen.
There’s no reason the president of the firm should be so busy. He can’t be so busy.
そういうわけならどうしましょうか。
Sō iu wake nara dō shimashō ka.
If that’s the case, what shall we do?
わけが分からない。
Wake ga wakaranai.
I don’t know what’s what.
そういうわけで行くことができませんでした。
Sō iu wake de iku koto ga dekimasen deshita.
Because of that, I couldn’t go.
10.11. Double negatives
In English, we sometimes hear two negative words in a sentence where one would be enough, for example, ‘Nobody never does anything’ with the same meaning as ‘Nobody ever does anything.’ In Japanese when two negatives are used, the meaning is always changed. Notice the translations of the following sentences.
靴をはいたままうちへ入る人もないことはありません。
Kutsu o haita mama uchi e hairu hito mo nai koto wa arimasen.
It isn’t that there aren’t also people who enter the house with their shoes on = Some people also enter the house with their shoes on.
日本語ができないわけじゃありません。
Nihongo ga dekinai wake ja arimasen.
It isn’t (the case) that I can’t speak Japanese.
結婚したくないというわけじゃありません。
Kekkon shitaku nai to iu wake ja arimasen.
It’s not that I don’t want to get married.
明日までにこの本を返さなければなりません。
Ashita made ni kono hon o kaesanakereba narimasen.
I have to return this book by tomorrow.
10.12. …に違いない …ni chigai nai
The noun chigai ‘discrepancy’ or ‘error’ is made from the infinitive of the verb chigau ‘is different.’ The expression chigai nai is based on the construction chigai wa nai ‘there is no error.’ After a noun, an imperfect or perfect verb, or an adjective, the expression ni chigai nai means ‘without a doubt,’ ‘no doubt,’ ‘certainly,’ or ‘surely.’ It is often translated as ‘must have done,’ ‘must be,’ etc., but of course this is not the ‘must’ of obligation (= ‘has to’).
パスワードはこれに違いありません。
Pasuwādo wa kore ni chigai arimasen.
The password must be this one. I’m sure this is it.
岡本さんが来るに違いありません。
Okamoto-san ga kuru ni chigai arimasen.
Mr. Okamoto will surely come.
私のパソコンはウイルスに感染したに違いありません。
Watashi no pasokon wa uirusu ni kansen shita ni chigai arimasen.
My PC must have been infected by viruses.
私の主人に違いありません。
Watashi no shujin ni chigai arimasen.
That is surely my husband.
仕事が嫌だったに違いありません。
Shigoto ga iya datta ni chigai arimasen.
He certainly disliked his job.
あんないい家は高いに違いありません。
Anna ii ie wa takai ni chigai arimasen.
Such a nice house must be expensive.
10.13. について ni tsuite and によって ni yotte
The verb tsuku has the basic meaning ‘comes in contact with.’ The expression NOUN+ ni tsuite mean ‘with respect to,’ ‘regarding,’ or ‘about.’
ソーシャルネットワークについてどう思いますか。
Sōsharu nettowāku ni tsuite dō omoimasu ka.
What do you think about social networking?
昨日のクラスでは漢字の起源について話しました。
Kinō no kurasu de wa kanji no kigen ni tsuite hanashimashita.
I talked about the origin of kanji in yesterday’s class.
The whole expression is usually treated as an adverb, modifying the following predicate, but it sometimes occurs also as a noun phrase modifying a noun (and linked to it by the particle no). There is no difference in meaning between the following two sentences although they differ in terms of structure:
経済について記事を書きました。
Keizai ni tsuite kiji o kakimashita.
I wrote an article about economics.
経済についての記事を書きました。
Keizai ni tsuite no kiji o kakimashita.
I wrote an article about economics.
The verb yoru has the basic meaning ‘leans on, relies on.’ The expressions NOUN + ni yoru to and NOUN + ni yoreba mean ‘if you rely on… = according to….’
新聞によると雨がふるそうです。
Shinbun ni yoru to ame ga furu sō desu.
According to the paper, it seems it’s going to rain.
The expression NOUN + ni yotte means ‘according to, depending on’:
場所によって気候が違います。
Basho ni yotte kikō ga chigaimasu.
The weather varies from place to place. (Depending on the place, the weather is different.)
人によって意見がちがいます。
Hito ni yotte iken ga chigaimasu.
Opinions differ with people. (Different people have different views.)
10.14. Causative, passive, and causative passive verbs
Most Japanese verbs have corresponding CAUSATIVES, PASSIVES, and CAUSATIVE PASSIVES.
The causative verbs are made, for the most part, by adding the ending -sase-ru to vowel stems and the ending -ase-ru to consonant stems. Some of the meanings of such a verb are ‘causes someone to do something; makes someone do something; lets someone do something.’ The forms kosaseru ‘lets/makes someone come’ (from kuru ‘comes’) and saseru ‘lets/makes someone do’ (from suru ‘does’) are irregular.
The passive verbs are made by adding the ending -rare-ru to vowel stems and the ending -are-ru to consonant stems. Some of the meanings are ‘is affected by another person’s action; undergoes the action; is adversely affected by the action.’ Japanese passives can be made both from transitive verbs (those which take a direct object, like taberu ‘eats’) and intransitive verbs (those which do not ordinarily take a direct object, like shinu ‘dies’ and iru ‘stays’). The forms korareru ‘has someone come’ or ‘is affected by someone’s coming’ and sareru ‘gets done’ or ‘is affected by someone’s doing’ are irregular.
There is also a passive formation made from causatives; this consists of adding the ending -rare-ru to the causative stem that ends in -(s)ase-, so that the complete ending for the causative passive is somewhat formidable: -(s)ase-rare-ru. There is a shortened form of this ending, alongside the longer form, for consonant verbs that do not end in su: -asare-ru instead of ase-rare-ru. This shortened form may be visualized as -as(e-r)are-ru. In other words, the last sound of the causative ending and the first sound of the passive ending are dropped. The meaning of the causative passive is something like ‘is made to do’ or ‘has to do.’
Of course, the final -ru in these various endings is just the regular ending for the imperfect mood of vowel verbs. These causatives, passives, and causative passives can be inflected for all the usual moods: kosaseru, kosaseta, kosaseyō, kosasetara, kosasetari, kosasereba, kosasemasu, etc.; sareru, sareta, sareyō, saretara, saretari, sarereba, saremasu, etc.; tabesaseru, tabesaseta, tabesaseyō, tabesasetara, tabesasetari, tabesasereba, tabesasemasu, etc. Here is a list of some typical verbs together with the causative, passive and causative passive forms. All the forms are imperfect.
10.15. Use of the causative
The basic meaning of the causative is ‘someone causes someone else to do something.’ The person who does the causing is indicated by the particle ga or wa. The person caused to perform the action takes the particle o if the verb is intransitive, and the particle ni if the verb is transitive. Compare the following:
父は兄を行かせました。
Chichi wa ani o ikasemashita.
My father had my older brother go there.
父は兄に手紙を書かせました。
Chichi wa ani ni tegami o kakasemashita.
My father had my older brother write a letter.
The causative is largely limited to situations in which a person is in a position to order or permit an action on the part of another person. For an act done as a favor, you use an expression with morau or itadaku. So, while you might say, ‘My father had my older brother write the letter’ with the causative, you probably wouldn’t say my older brother had my father write the letter’ with the causative, since the social situation would indicate this was a favor. Compare the above sentence with the following:
兄は父に手紙を書いてもらいました。
Ani wa chichi ni tegami o kaite moraimashita.
My brother had my father write a letter.
Here are some additional examples of uses of the causative:
どんなものを子どもに食べさせますか。
Donna mono o kodomo ni tabesasemasu ka.
What kind of things do you feed the children?
友達を待たせることはよくありませんよ。
Tomodachi o mataseru koto wa yoku arimasen yo.
It isn’t good to keep your friends waiting, you know.
毎日３時間バイオリンを練習させます。
Mainichi san-jikan baiorin o renshū sasemasu.
I make him practice violin for three hours every day.
父は兄に会社のウエブサイトを作らせました。
Chichi wa ani ni kaisha no uebusaito o tsukurasemashita.
My father made my brother create a Web site for his company.
10.16. Uses of the passive
If the underlying verb indicates an action that can be done to a person, the meaning of a passive expression is ‘someone has something done to him’ or ‘someone undergoes the action.’ The person undergoing the action is indicated by the particle wa or ga, and the person responsible for the action (the agent) is indicated by the particle ni.
子どもが母親にたたかれました。
Kodomo ga hahaoya ni tatakaremashita.
A child was hit by his mother.
But if the underlying verb indicates some action that can’t be done directly to a person, like ‘dies,’ ‘quits,’ and ‘comes,’ the meaning of the passive expression is ‘someone is unfavorably affected by another person’s action.’
山田さんはお子さんに死なれました。
Yamada-san wa o-kosan ni shinaremashita.
Mrs. Yamada had her child die (suffered the death of her child).
私は晩ご飯を食べようとしたときに友達に来られました。
Watashi wa ban go-han o tabeyō to shita toki ni tomodachi ni koraremashita.
Just as I was about to eat dinner, I had a friend drop in on me (unexpectedly).
If the underlying verb takes an object, indicated by the particle o, this object may be retained in the passive expression.
私はパソコンを盗まれました。
Watashi wa pasokon o nusumaremashita.
I had my PC stolen.
弟にクッキーを全部食べられました。
Otōto ni kukkī o zenbu taberaremashita.
I had my cookies all eaten up by my little brother.
Inanimate items can be used as the subject of a passive sentence:
沢山の国で英語が使われています。
Takusan no kuni de eigo ga tsukawarete imasu.
English is used in many countries.
お酒は米から作られます。
O-sake wa kome kara tsukuraremasu.
Sake is made from rice.
The passive is also used just as an EXALTED FORM with no special passive meaning. (See Lesson 9 for a variety of exalted forms.)
日本にはもう行かれましたか。
Nihon ni wa mō ikaremashita ka.
Has he gone to Japan?
ホテルはもう予約されましたか。
Hoteru wa mō yoyaku saremashita ka.
Have you already reserved a hotel room?
Here are some more examples of passives.
猫に魚を食べられました。
Neko ni sakana o taberaremashita
The cat ate our fish up.
学校へ行く途中で雨に降られました。
Gakkō e iku tochū de ame ni furaremashita.
On the way to school, I got rained on.
勉強しているときに友達に来られて困りました。
Benkyō shite iru toki ni tomodachi ni korarete komarimashita.
I had a friend drop in on me in the middle of my studying, darn it.
電車の中でiPodをとられました。
Densha no naka de iPod o toraremashita
I had my iPod swiped on the train.
先生に呼ばれて叱られました。
Sensei ni yobarete shikararemashita.
I was called and scolded by the teacher.
10.17. Use of the causative passive
Expressions with the causative passive mean things like ‘someone was made to do something by someone else.’ The person made to perform the action is indicated by the particle wa or ga, the person by whom he is made to perform the action is indicated by the particle ni.
私は医者に薬をのませられました。／私は医者に薬をのまされました。
Watakushi wa isha ni kurusi o nomase-raremashita./Watakushi wa isha ni kurusi o nomasaremashita.
I was ordered to take medicine by the doctor.
(=The doctor had me take medicine.)
先生に漢字を100回ずつ書かせられました。／先生に漢字を100回ずつ書かされました。
Sensei ni kanji o hyak-kai zutsu kakase-raremashita./Sensei ni kanji o hyak-kai zutsu kakasaremashita.
I was made to write kanji characters 100 times each by my teacher.
日本語のクラスではペアワークやグループワークをさせられます。
Nihongo no kurasu de wa peawāku ya gurūpuwāku o saseraremasu.
In our Japanese class we are made to do pair work and group work.
シンデレラは継母に掃除や洗濯をさせられました。
Shinderera wa mamahaha ni sōji ya sentaku o saseraremashita.
Cinderella was made to do things like clean and do the laundry by her stepmother.
10.18. The potential
Any Japanese verb can be made into a potential verb with the meaning ‘is able to be done.’ For vowel verbs, the potential is always exactly the same as the passive. Tabe-rare-ru means either ‘someone gets something eaten on them,’ ‘someone suffers someone else’s eating something’ or ‘something can get eaten = someone can eat something.’ Ko-rare-ru means ‘someone has someone else come (to their disadvantage)’ or ‘someone can come.’
私は弟にケーキを食べられた。
Watashi wa otōto ni kēki o taberareta.
My cake was eaten by my brother (and I was upset).
手術の後で食べられないときに、病室で母に弁当を食べられた。
Shujutsu no ato de taberarenai toki ni, byōshitsu de haha ni bentō o taberareta.
When I was not allowed to eat after the surgery, my mother ate her boxed lunch in my hospital room (and I was annoyed by it).
大根の葉は食べられる。
Daikon no ha wa taberareru.
The leaves of daikon are edible.
セールスマンにまたうちに来られた。
Sērusuman ni mata uchi ni korareta.
The salesperson came to my house again (and I was not happy).
あしたは７時までに来られますか。
Ashita wa shichi-ji made ni koraremasu ka.
Can you come here by seven tomorrow?
However, for consonant verbs, the potential form is made by adding -e-ru to the stem: yob-e-ru ‘can be called,’ yom-e-ru ‘can be read,’ aruk-e-ru ‘can walk,’ etc. That is, for consonant verbs, their polite forms of the potential differ from their polite forms of the ordinary version only by having the vowel e instead of i before the endings -masu, -mashita, et cetera, thus it is very important to pronounce these vowels clearly and distinctly so that kaemasu ‘can buy’ will not sound like kaimasu ‘will buy,’ for example. The meaning of the potential verbs is ‘something can be done,’ and the something itself takes the particle ga:
英語が話せます。
Eigo ga hanasemasu.
English can be spoken. = (He) can speak English.
この病院の中では携帯が使えません。
Kono byōin no naka de wa keitai ga tsukaemasen.
Cell phones cannot be used in this hospital.
You’re already familiar with this process: Neko ga suki desu ‘Cats are liked = I like cats.’ The person who can do something is marked by either wa or ga depending on the emphasis; sometimes, the person can be explicitly marked by ni:
私(に)は読めません。
Watashi (ni) wa yomemasen.
I cannot read it.
For the potential of suru ‘does,’ the verb dekiru ‘is possible’ is used:
勉強できますか。
Benkyō dekimasu ka.
Can you study?
今朝はログインできませんでした。
Kesa wa roguin dekimasen deshita.
I could not log in this morning.
雨が降ったから散歩できませんでした。
Ame ga futta kara sanpo dekimasen deshita.
It rained, so we couldn’t take our walk.
The meaning of any potential is about the same as the meaning of the ordinary verb imperfect + koto ga dekiru: Nihongo ga yomemasu ka = Nihongo o yomu koto ga dekimasu ka ‘Can you read Japanese?’ Here are additional example sentences:
心配でご飯も食べられません。
Shinpai de go-han mo taberaremasen.
I’m worried about it so much that I cannot even eat meals.
忙しくてメールもチェックできませんでした。
Isogashikute mēru mo chekku dekimasen deshita.
I was so busy I couldn’t even check emails.
一人で来られますか。
Hitori de koraremasu ka.
Can you come by yourself?
Instead of kikeru and mirareru for kiku ‘hears’ and miru ‘sees,’ you often hear the derived verbs kikoeru ‘is heard, can be heard,’ and mieru ‘is seen, can be seen, appears.’
You will recall that the negative of the potential of iku ‘goes,’ ikemasen, is also used with the special meaning ‘it’s no good, it won’t do,’ for example, Nete wa ikemasen ‘You mustn’t sleep.’ Sometimes it means ‘that’s too bad,’ for example, when someone has told you some ill that has befallen him, you may sympathize with Sore wa ikemasen deshita ne ‘That was too bad, wasn’t it?’
10.19. かもしれない ka mo shirenai
The form shirenai (shiremasen) is the negative of the potential of shiru ‘knows,’ and means ‘cannot be known.’ Ka mo shirenai means something like ‘it can’t be known even whether,’ and is added after a predicate in the plain imperfect or perfect or after a noun (with the plain copula da dropping before ka as usual) with the meaning ‘maybe, perhaps, it may be that.’ Here are some examples of ka mo shirenai:
あの人は日本人かもしれません。
Ano hito wa Nihon-jin ka mo shiremasen.
He may be Japanese.
雨が降るかもしれないから傘を持って行きましょう。
Ame ga furu ka mo shirenai kara kasa o motte ikimashō.
It may rain, so let’s take an umbrella.
明日は寒いかもしれませんね。
Ashita wa samui ka mo shiremasen ne.
It may be cold tomorrow.
車より地下鉄の方が便利かもしれませんよ。
Kuruma yori chikatetsu no hō ga benri ka mo shiremasen yo.
Subways may be more convenient than cars.
大阪に行ったら松本さんに会えるかもしれません。
Ōsaka e ittara Matsumoto-san ni aeru ka mo shiremasen.
I may be able to see Mr. Matsumoto if I go to Osaka.
陽子さんはあまり嬉しくなかったかもしれません。
Yōko-san wa amari ureshiku nakatta ka mo shiremasen.
Yoko may not have been happy.
10.20. かしら ka shira
The expression ka shira is added to predicates in the same sort of way as ka mo shirenai, but the meaning is a little different: ‘I wonder if.’ This is very similar to the meaning of ka ne at the end of a sentence. The difference is that you are really talking to yourself with ka shira, whereas with ka ne, you’re halfway talking to someone else. Note that ka shira is used almost exclusively by women.
今晩雨がふるかしら。
Konban ame ga furu ka shira.
I wonder if it’s going to rain tonight.
窓をしめたかしら。
Mado o shimeta ka shira.
I wonder if I closed the windows.
美味しいかしら。
Oishii ka shira.
I wonder if it is delicious.
そんなにお金がほしいかしら。
Sonna ni o-kane ga hoshii ka shira.
I wonder if they want money that much.
10.21. Desiderative verbs …たがる …tagaru
You have learned that each verb can underlie a desiderative adjective with the meaning ‘wants to’: taberu ‘eats,’ tabetai ‘wants to eat’; iku ‘goes,’ ikitai ‘wants to go.’ There is also, for each verb, a DESIDERATIVE VERB made by adding -ta-gar-u to the infinitive. So, alongside the adjective tabetai ‘wants to eat,’ we have the verb tabetagaru ‘is eager to eat, desires to eat.’ Alongside the adjective ikitai ‘wants to go,’ we have the verb ikitagaru ‘is eager to go, desires to go.’ (The -ta-element is the same in the forms with -ta-i and the forms with -ta-gar-u.) The desiderative verb is used for third person, and you seldom use them of yourself or for the second person. Notice that the desiderative verbs take direct objects with the particle o, although the desiderative adjectives take either direct objects with o or emphatic subjects with ga.
Here are some examples:
近頃の若者は変な言葉を使いたがります。
Chikagoro no wakamono wa hen na kotoba o tsukaitagarimasu.
Young people nowadays want to use strange words.
陽子さんは英語を習いたがっています。
Yoko-san wa Eigo o naraitagatte imasu.
Yoko is eager to learn English.
うちの犬はアイスクリームを食べたがります。
Uchi no inu wa aisukurīmu o tabetagarimasu.
Our dog wants to eat ice cream.
10.22. …ものです …mono desu
You have learned that the noun mono means ‘a thing that you can touch or feel,’ as contrasted with koto, an abstract thing you talk about. It also sometimes means ‘guy, fellow,’ a slightly less polite term than hito ‘person.’ There is a special use of mono desu in which the noun does not have a concrete meaning but means something like ‘in the nature of things…,’ ‘it’s characteristic that…,’ ‘it happens that…,’ ‘such is life.’ Often the adverb tokaku ‘likely, naturally’ (do not confuse with tonikaku ‘anyway, nevertheless’) is added somewhere in the sentence.
いけないと言うと子どもは，とかくやりたがるものです。
Ikenai to iu to kodomo wa, tokaku yaritagaru mono desu.
If you say they mustn’t (do something), children always want to do it.
年寄りはそんなものを食べたがるものです。
Toshiyori wa sonna mono o tabetagaru mono desu.
It’s natural for old folks to be eager to eat that sort of thing.
When the expression mono desu is preceded by the perfect, the meaning is something like ‘used to’ (that is, it used to be characteristic for someone to do something).
東京に住んでいた時には，よく銀座へ遊びに行ったものです。
Tōkyō ni sunde ita toki ni wa, yoku Ginza e asobi ni itta mono desu.
When I was living in Tokyo, I often used to go to the Ginza (for amusement).
お金がなくて困っていた時には，よく姉のうちへご飯を食べに行ったものです。
O-kane ga nakute komatte ita toki ni wa, yoku ane no uchi e go-han o tabe ni itta mono desu.
When I was in a fix without any money, I used to often go to my sister’s house to eat.
子どもの頃はよく父に遊んでもらったものです。
Kodomo no koro wa yoku chichi ni asonde moratta mono desu.
I used to play with my father when I was a child.
10.23. The plain imperative
There is a plain imperative form, but you seldom use it except when showing extreme impatience, or when quoting rather impersonal commands. For vowel verbs, -ro is added to the stem. For consonant verbs, -e is added to the stem. Kuru and suru are irregular, and their imperative forms are koi and shiro, respectively.
行け！ Ike!
Go!
気をつけろ！ Ki o tsukero!
Be careful!
早く来い！ Hayaku koi!
Come here soon!
勉強しろ！ Benkyō shiro!
Study!
The plain NEGATIVE imperative is made by adding the particle na ‘do not!’ to the plain imperfect.
来るな！ Kuru na!
Don’t come!
待つな！ Matsu na!
Don’t wait!
開けるな！ Akeru na!
Don’t open it!
負けるな！ Makeru na!
Don’t lose!
諦めるな！ Akirameru na!
Don’t give up!
Avoid confusing this with another type of plain command (rather condescending), which consists of the INFINITIVE + na, a shortening of nasai ‘please do,’ and often followed by the particle yo:
来な（よ）。 Ki na (yo).
Come.
待ちな（よ）。 Machi na (yo).
Wait.
開けな（よ）。 Ake na (yo).
Open it.
しな（よ）。 Shi na (yo).
Do it.
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[cue 10-3] |
Conversation
Mrs. Yamamoto (Y) is talking with Mrs. Haraguchi (H) in front of her house.
Y: 原口さんの息子さんは高校の音楽の先生になられたそうですね。
Haraguchi-san no musuko-san wa kōkō no ongaku no sensei ni narareta sō desu ne.
Mrs. Haraguchi, I heard that your son became a music teacher at a high school.
H: ええ。バイオリニストになりたがっていたんですが, 教師になりました。
Ē. Baiorinisuto ni naritagatte ita n desu ga, kyōshi ni narimashita.
Yes. He wanted to be a violinist, but he became a teacher.
Y:でも，教師の方が楽しいかもしれませんよ。
Demo, kyōshi no hō ga tanoshii ka mo shiremasen yo.
But it may be more fun to be a teacher.
H: そうですね。バイオリニストになっていたら，大変でしょうからね。
Sō desu ne. Baiorinisuto ni natte itara, taihen deshō kara ne.
Right. It would be very tough if he had become a violinist.
Y: そうですね。どこの高校で働いているんですか。
Sō desu ne. Doko no kōkō de hataraite iru n desu ka.
Right. Where does he teach?
H: 高木高校で働いています。お宅の息子さんは？
Takagi kōkō de hataraite imasu. Otaku no musuko-san wa?
He is working at Takagi High School. How about your son?
Y:去年大学を卒業して, 今, 銀行に勤めています。
Kyonen daigaku o sotsugyō shite, ima, ginkō ni tsutomete imasu.
He graduated from college last year, and he is working for a bank now.
H:ああ, いいですね。
Ā, ii desu ne.
Oh, that’s great.
Y: ええ。でも，毎日お金の計算ばかりさせられて，つまらないって言っていました。転職するかもしれません。
Ē. Demo, mainichi o-kane no keisan bakari saserarete, tsumaranaitte itte imashita. Tenshoku suru ka mo shiremasen.
Right. But he has to do calculations all day long every day, and was saying that he is bored. He might change his job.
Exercises
I. Make each of the following sentences mean ‘I hear that…” or ‘They say that…’ by changing the predicate (underlined) to the appropriate plain form and adding sō desu. Then make each one mean ‘It seems that’ by adding rashii desu.
1. 真弓さんのご主人はイタリア人です。
Mayumi-san no go-shujin wa Itaria-jin desu.
2. 昨日東京で地震がありました。
Kinō Tōkyō de jishin ga arimashita.
3. 川村さんは大きい家に住んでいます。
Kawamura-san wa ōkii ie ni sunde imasu.
4. 川村さんは子どもがありません。
Kawamura-san wa kodomo ga arimasen.
5. 来月ここにレストランができます。
Raigetsu koko ni resutoran ga dekimasu.
II. Look at the illustrations and complete the sentences.
1. 猫は魚を ——————————————— います。
Neko wa sakana o ——————————————— imasu.
2. 女の子は人形を ——————————————— います。
Onna no ko wa ningyō o ——————————————— imasu.
3. 父はゴルフを ——————————————— います。
Chichi wa gorufu o ——————————————— imasu.
III. Fill in the blanks appropriately, but creatively.
1. 私は ——————————————— ながら勉強します。
Watashi wa ——————————————— nagara benkyō shimasu.
2. 昨日は食べたり， ——————————————— しました。
Kinō wa tabetari, ———————————————— shimashita.
3. 来年 ——————————————— ことにしました。
Rainen ——————————————— koto ni shimashita.
4. #x4ECA;日から ——————————————— ことになりました。
Kyō kara ——————————————— kotoni narimashita.
5. 先生のパソコンを ——————————————— しまいました。
Sensei no pasokon o ——————————————— shimaimashita.
6. ビールを ——————————————— おきますね。
Bīru o ——————————————— okimasu ne.
7. 雨が ——————————————— かもしれません。
Ame ga ——————————————— ka mo shiremasen.
8. 小さい時はよく川で ——————————————— ものです。
Chīsai toki wa yoku kawa de ———————————————mono desu.
9. カフェテリアのメニューは日によって ——————————————— ます。
Kafeteria no menyū wa hi ni yotte —————————————— masu.
10. スミスさんは日本語が ——————————————— ません。
Sumisu-san wa Nihongo ga ——————————————— masen.
IV. Pick the most appropriate item in the parentheses.
1. 弟は先生に（a. しかりました, b. しかられました, c. ほめました）。
Otōto wa sensei ni (a. shikarimashita, b. shikararemashita, c. homemashita).
2. 忙しいときに友達に（a. 来ました, b. 行きました, c. 来られました）。
Isogashii toki ni tomodachi ni (a. kimashita, b. ikimashita, c. koraremashita).
3. 母は私に野菜を（a. 食べられました, b. 食べました, c. 食べさせました）。
Haha wa watashi ni yasai o (a. taberaremashita, b. tabemashita, c. tabesasemashita).
4. 妹は母に部屋を掃除（a. しました, b. させました, c. させられました）。
Imōto wa haha ni heya o sōji (a. shimashita, b. sasemashita, c. saseraremashita).
5. 私は弟に先に卒業（a. しました, b. されました, c. させられました）。
Watashi wa otōto ni saki ni sotsugyō (a. shimashita, b. saremashita, c. sasararemashita).