THE KATHA UPANISHAD, a verse Upanishad, can be dated between 600 and 400 BCE. It is also known as the Kathaka Upanishad. Scholars differ about whether it is pre or post the development of early Buddhism. Deussen believes it is of around the same date as the Kena, while Winternitz and Phillips see it as pre-Buddhist. Richard King,1 however, places it after the composition of the early Buddhist Pali Canon. The Katha Upanishad is usually associated with the Taittiriya shakha of the Yajur Veda. The Taittiriya Brahmana, attached to the Taittiriya Samhita (Yajur Veda), has a similar story about Nachiketa as is contained in this Upanishad. However, the text is sometimes said to belong to the Sama Veda or even to the Atharva Veda. The text has two chapters or parts, each with three sections, and numerous commentaries, including that of Shankara, representing Advaita. Ramanuja has not commented on the entire text but on parts of it in his work Shribhashya. Madhva too has a commentary on it.
This is one of the most popular Upanishads as it presents its philosophy through a coherent story. As usual, the main theme is Brahman. The explanation here is easier to access because it is presented through the story of Nachiketa, a pious boy. The text also describes the atman, Purusha, which can be identified with Brahman, the nadis or channels of inner energy, and prana, the vital breath.
Chapter 1: Nachiketa’s father, the rishi Vajashravasa, performs a sacrificial ritual which involves giving away his wealth. Seeing his father offering old and barren cows to brahmanas, Nachiketa feels this sacrifice has not been performed in the right spirit. He knows he is dear to his father, and so he questions him, saying, ‘To whom then will you give me?’ He asks again and again till the angry father says, ‘I will give you to death (Mrityu)’. The boy dutifully goes to the house of Yama, the god of death, who happens to be away. He waits for him for three days, and when he returns, Yama, in apology for his absence, grants him three boons. For the first boon, Nachiketa asks that his father be pacified. For the second, Nachiketa asks for knowledge of the fire (Agni) that leads to heaven and immortality, and Yama teaches him the fire sacrifice, which is then named after him. For the third boon, Nachiketa says, ‘There is that doubt when a man is dead—some say he is, some say he is not—this I should like to know.’ Then Yama teaches him the truth about life and death, and about the atman, knowing which all is known and neither grief nor fear remain. In this text, the god of death is referred to as both Mrityu and Yama.
The most important part of the Katha is Yama’s explanation in response to Nachiketa’s question about whether or not a person exists after death (1.1.21). At first, Yama refuses to answer this. Choose another boon, he says, as even the gods used to have doubts about this. He suggests that Nachiketa choose elephants, horses, cattle or gold, or a long life, or rule over the earth. He offers him beautiful women with their chariots and musical instruments that mortals cannot otherwise obtain. But Nachiketa rejects all these offers, saying that these are all temporary. Once again he asks for knowledge ‘of the great hereafter about which a man has his doubts’ (1.1.29, trans. Swami Nikhilananda).
Yama is pleased. He explains the difference between the good and the pleasant (1.2.1). The calm soul, he says, always chooses the good, but fools choose the pleasant out of greed. They do not even think of the hereafter and there are many who have not heard of the atman. There are others who have heard of it but do not understand it. The one who can explain it is wonderful, and the one who hears and understands it is rare. The atman must be taught by one who has become one with it; it cannot be known by reasoning or argument (1.2.8–9). (Shankara, though, in certain passages says Brahman can be known through reason and discrimination.) Posing the same question in a different way, Nachiketa says: ‘That which you see as different from righteousness and unrighteousness, different from cause and effect, different from what has been and what is to be—Tell me That’ (1.2.14).
Yama then explains that the syllable Om is the same as Brahman. This is the goal of the Vedas and that desired by those who follow brahmacharya (1.2.16–17).
Three verses follow (1.2.18–20) which are similar to those in the Bhagavad Gita. They state that the atman is not born and does not die. It has not come from anything and nothing arises from it. It is without birth, eternal, ancient, and does not die when the body dies. It cannot be killed and it does not kill. The atman, which is smaller than the smallest and bigger than the biggest, is hidden in the hearts of all living beings. One who has controlled the senses and is free of desires sees it and becomes free from sorrow (The term used is dhatuprasadat, which Shankara explains as ‘the vision obtained through the tranquility of the senses and the mind’. However, dualists explain it as ‘through the grace of the creator’.) The text continues with the description of the atman. Even when sitting it goes far, and lying it goes everywhere, indicating that the atman is everywhere even without moving. At the same time the atman is within the living being, and only one’s own self can know the atman, which both rejoices and does not rejoice (1.2.21). The wise man who has realized the atman does not grieve (1.2.22).
The text goes on to explain who can attain the atman. It cannot be attained by one who studies the Vedas, nor by intelligence, nor by listening to sacred texts. The atman is attained by the one who chooses it above all else. The person seeking the atman should be ethical and tranquil.
Further explanations of the atman follow. The body is like a chariot, the buddhi (intellect) the charioteer, the mind the reins, the horses the senses and various objects the road. The role of each is described, but it is the atman who is the master of the chariot (1.3.3–4).
1.3.9 mentions the supreme place of Vishnu, reached by one who uses his intelligence (vijnana) as the charioteer and the mind as the reins. Here, as the commentary explains, it is not Vishnu’s heaven Vaikuntha that is meant, but Vishnu in his aspect as the Paramatman or Supreme soul.
Succeeding verses explain that the great Self, the mahan atman, is beyond the intellect or buddhi. Beyond the great Self, also termed mahat, is the unmanifested (avyakta), beyond that is the Purusha, and beyond the Purusha is nothing. The atman is hidden in all beings but can only be seen by those with a subtle intellect. The atman is eternal. It is without sound, touch, taste or smell; it does not decay. Realizing it, one has transcended death.
Here the term Purusha is used in the same sense as Brahman.
Chapter 2: In the second chapter, Yama explains that the self-created (svayambhu) Supreme lord created the senses with outgoing tendencies, but wise souls do not look outwards. Everything is known and experienced only through the atman, and the one who knows the atman grieves no more. It also states that the one who knows Brahman also knows Aditi, the soul of all devatas (deities), who was born as Prana. (Aditi has been translated as ‘the enjoyer or experiencer of all objects’ by Shankara; it also means ‘the one who is not bound’; and Prana is said to represent Hiranyagarbha. In the Rig Veda, Aditi is the mother of the gods.)
Further verses state that Brahman can be realized only by the mind. The Purusha, which is the size of the thumb, is like a flame without smoke. It is always the same, and is the lord of the past, present and future (2.2.13). Those who see Brahman as different from its attributes focus on those and not on the source.
There is more on the atman in Section 2, where, it is said there is a city with eleven gates (the body with eleven apertures), and within is the atman. The one who meditates on it attains liberation. It is the sun in the bright heavens, the air in the mid regions, and fire on earth. Prana and apana cannot alone sustain the body, they depend on the eternal Brahman. The Purusha is also identified with the pure Brahman. It remains awake while the sense organs sleep and all worlds are within it. When the one, eternal reality is realized, there is an indescribable supreme joy. There the sun does not shine, nor the moon or stars, nor lightning, nor fire. Everything is lighted by his shining light (2.2.15).
The third section refers to the eternal Ashvattha tree, with its roots above and its branches below, and how everything comes from Brahman, that is seen everywhere. The senses have their own origin and they are not the same as the atman, and when the individual realizes this, there is no more grief. Beyond the senses is the mind, beyond the mind is the intellect, beyond the intellect is the great atman, higher than the great atman is the unmanifest (2.3.6–7). Beyond the unmanifest is the Purusha, all pervading and imperceptible.
The text also refers to the 101 nadis of the heart, one of which pierces the crown. If the prana rises upward through it at the time of death, a person attains immortality. It refers to the Purusha, no larger than a thumb, which is the inner Self in the hearts of people. That Self is bright and immortal.
Nachiketa understood all that had been taught by Mrityu and attained Brahman. Anyone who understands this and gains a knowledge of the inner Self will also attain Brahman.
The Isha Upanishad forms the fortieth chapter and the last of the Vajasaneyi Samhita of the Shukla Yajur Veda. The Isha in this sense is different from other Upanishads, as it forms part of a Samhita, not a Brahmana or Aranyaka. This is the reason for some scholars assigning it a very early date. This verse Upanishad is often dated between about 600 and 300 BCE. Radhakrishnan, however, feels it is one of the earliest, belonging to the eighth to seventh century BCE, and that it is pre-Buddhist in nature. Phillips, too, assigns it an early date. However, even though it is placed within a Samhita, as a verse Upanishad it is likely to be later. This short Upanishad of eighteen verses contains the essence of Upanishadic philosophy. The text has passages that are difficult to interpret and have been variously explained by different schools of philosophy. Shankara’s introduction to this states that the atman is not connected to actions, it is not something to be attained through action. But actions are prescribed for people according to their level. Those who want or seek the results of actions in this world or even those who want to enjoy heaven can perform actions. Only those who want to destroy ignorance, remove sorrow and attain supreme bliss are in the right state to read this Upanishad.
Shankarananda, too, among others, has commented on this Upanishad.
Among more recent scholars, Sri Aurobindo has an extensive commentary on this text.2
‘Ishavasyam’, the first word in the text, can be translated as ‘covered by Isha’ (god). The first verse states that as everything in the world is covered by god, one should not cling to or covet anything. The second verse says that those who wish to act in the world and live for the full lifespan of a 100 years should perform actions according to the scriptures. No work is attached to the person who does this. As the third verse states, those who are ignorant of this have killed their souls. The following verses, 4–8, describe Brahman and the atman. The Supreme, though it stands still and is unmoving, is always ahead, faster than the fastest. It moves and yet it does not move. It is near and yet it is far. It is inside and also outside. And the one who can see all living beings in his own Self, and his own self in all, becomes free from all care and disturbance. He (the supreme spirit) who is radiant, pure, self-existent, all pervading, has no body, yet is in every living being.
Verses 9–11 condemn both ignorance and knowledge. Both avidya or ignorance and vidya or worldly knowledge are inadequate. Transcending both, one reaches immortality. The next two (Verses 12–14) refute both becoming and non-becoming. It is only by transcending both that the supreme can be reached.
The Upanishad also deals with the unity of god and the world, and with the paths of action and contemplation that should be united in one’s life. The last few verses contain a prayer that is used even today in funeral rites. It states:
The face of truth is covered with a golden disc. Unveil it, O Pushan, so that I who love the truth may see it.
O Pushan, the sole seer, O Controller, O Sun (Surya), offspring of Prajapati, spread forth your rays and gather up your radiant light that I may behold you of loveliest form. Whosoever is that person (yonder) that also am I.
May this life enter into the immortal breath; then may this body end in ashes. O Intelligence (kratu), remember, remember what has been done. Remember, O Intelligence what has been done, Remember.
O Agni, lead us, along the auspicious path to prosperity, O god, who knowest all our deeds. Take away from us deceitful sins. We shall offer many prayers to thee (Verses 15–18, trans. S. Radhakrishnan).
The Shvestashvatara Upanishad is dated between the sixth and fourth centuries BCE. This Upanishad is of the Taittiriya school of the Krishna Yajur Veda.
Swami Veda Bharati dates it to somewhere around the time of the Katha Upanishad.
References by Shankara and others indicate that this Upanishad was actually composed by an individual. The Upanishad is named after Shvetashvatara, the rishi who taught it. The name literally means, ‘He who owns a white mule.’ Paul Deussen feels that though it has individual characteristics, it was added to by others. He dates the Upanishad after the Katha, which this often refers to, and provides a comparison of these. In addition, the Shvetashvatara provides a definite form to some Vedantic ideas which were incompletely developed earlier. The explanation of the world as maya also occurs for the first time in this text (4.9–10, 1.10). But at the same time the text quotes from the Vedas and identifies Brahman with Ishana, Isha or Rudra. The identification of Rudra with Shiva does not take place in early texts and is not clear in this one either, though Shiva is mentioned seven times as an adjective. The relationship of the Upanishad with Samkhya is another aspect. The Katha also has many pre-Samkhya passages. The Shvetashvatara has a number of concepts and terms used in Samkhya: Purusha, pradhana, avyaktam, vyaktam, the three gunas, lingam (6.9), five-fold bhavas (1.4.5). The words Kapila and Samkhya are used in the text (5.2 and 6.13). But the theism of this Upanishad is in contrast to Samkhya. For instance, pradhana is part of devatma shakti, the power of the divine soul. Did this mean that the Shvetashvatara already knew the Samkhya system of Kapila? Deussen thinks not,3 but that the Samkhya system arose out of the thinking of the times, reflected in this Upanishad. This Upanishad is thus an important source for the Samkhya system.
The text has a commentary by Shankara, though there are some doubts about whether this was really his, though the style is similar. Swami Veda Bharati points out that though the Muktika Upanishad implies that the Shanti Mantra is ‘sah navavatu . . .’, Shankara gives it as ‘purnam-adah’. But most traditions agree that it belongs to the Krishna Yajur Veda. Like the Katha, Maitrayani and Bhagavad Gita, the Shvetashvatara is syncretic. It can be interpreted to support Samkhya or Vedanta or to see the two schools as part of one. Commenting on this Upanishad, Shankara elaborates on Samkhya philosophy in 1.4.
The language is pre-classical; it is between Vedic and classical. Many of the verses in this are found in the Vedas, Bhagavad Gita and other Upanishads.
The text has six chapters, with 113 verses. It states that Brahman has a three-fold nature, as Ishvara or god, the atma or individual soul, and prakriti or nature. Ishvara is identified with Rudra (later Shiva), who is the creator of the world, as well as its protector and guide. Rudra is described as a dweller in the mountains, with an auspicious (shiva) body. The Supreme person (Ishvara) has the colour of the sun. He is all-pervading, dwells in the heart of all beings, and is Bhagavan (god). He is the whole world, the lord of immortality, and all that was and will be. This could be called a composite Upanishad reconciling different views.
Adhyaya 1 has sixteen verses. The first verse begins with a statement about the questions people ask when discussing Brahman, such as what is the cause? Is it Brahman? From where are we born? Who presides over our pleasures and pains?
The text goes on to ask whether nature, fate, chance, the elements, the womb or the cosmic person (Purusha) could be the cause of existence. This, or their combination, does not seem likely. Nor could it be the individual atma or soul, which is subject to joy and sorrow. But it is through meditation that the non-dual creator, with its luminous creative power that is hidden in its own gunas, the self-power of the divine (devatma-shakti) can be realized. (According to Veda Bharati in the oral tradition, devatma-shakti is the Kundalini, and the related power that can be conveyed through shakti-pata [xiii].)
The next few verses describe the Self in various ways, comparing its different elements with a spoked wheel and a river. The great wheel of Brahman gives life to everything. The ninth verse has been extensively commented upon by Shankara. It states that the knower and the one who does not know, god and non-god, are both eternal. Does this imply dualism? Shankara explains it is not so, but others interpret it as dualistic. Verse 10 says that Pradhana (matter) is perishable but Hara (Shiva) is immortal. Uniting with him, the illusion of the world disappears.
Verses 13–16 describe a meditation with a simile of using Om as the fuel stick, with the body as the lower stick, which then reveals the true Self, just as fire emerges from the fuel sticks. This analogy is found in other Upanishads too.
Adhyaya 2 has seventeen verses. The first five verses begin with a prayer to the god Savitr (Savita). (Also in Vajasaneyi Samhita 11.1-5, Taittiriya Samhita 4.1.1.) The prayer is an offering that helps to focus the mind and reason on god. Prayer is a force that helps to arouse Shakti or divine power.
Verses 6–7 deal with ritual, stating that when Agni arises from the fuel sticks, Vayu and Soma too make their appearance. Through this, the mind becomes focused. Verses 8–15 deal with aspects of asanas and pranayama that form part of yoga, while the last two verses (16 and 17) describe the all-pervading deva (god). As Shankara makes it clear in his commentary, prayer, ritual, asana and pranayama are only preliminary practices to enable the person to then focus on Brahman.
Adhyaya 3 has twenty-one verses. Verses 1–6 state that Rudra or Isha is the atman residing in all beings. At the same time, he rules the whole world with his sovereign power. Rudra is described in similar terms to Rig 10.181.3. He has eyes, faces, arms and feet on all sides. It is said that all the gods arise from him, and he even created Hiranyagarbha. He is the dweller in the mountains and their protector. He carries an arrow in his hand and the request is that the arrow may not hurt man or beast.
Succeeding verses (7–21) continue with a description of Brahman. Brahman is the highest and greatest, within each being and yet containing the whole universe. Brahman is also identified with Purusha. There are verses here which occur in the Nilarudra Upanishad (8.5), the Maha-Narayana, the Rig Veda, and which have similarities with the Katha. In several verses, the text describes the Purusha, that illuminates everything like the sun and is higher than the world. It is without form and without sorrow. It dwells in the heart of all living beings. The twenty-first and last verse is a personal one, beginning, ‘I know him, that ancient ageless one.’
The fourth adhyaya with twenty-one verses describes Brahman in different ways. He is equated with Rudra, is the lord of all, unborn and eternal. The last verse again appeals to Rudra not to harm them, their children, cattle and horses. Again there are passages similar or identical to other texts, including the Chhandogya, Katha and Maha-Narayana Upanishads.
The fifth adhyaya with fourteen verses shows how one reaches Brahman by moving from ignorance to knowledge. It describes Brahman as the one who presides over everything and also as the individual soul or atman. The secret of Brahman is hidden in the Veda and Upanishad (5.6). It appears in the heart, the size of a thumb, shining like the sun (5.8).
The sixth adhyaya with twenty-three verses again describes Brahman. It ends with three personal verses, saying that after practising austerities, favoured by Veda or by deva, Shvetashvatara found Brahman and taught it to the group of rishis who had transcended the ashramas (the four stages of life). This highest secret was transmitted in the Vedanta in the ancient past. It should not be taught to one who is not calm, or who is not a son or a pupil.
This Upanishad can be dated between the sixth and third centuries BCE and belongs to the Atharva Veda. Patrick Olivelle feels it is post-early Buddhism. It has three chapters or sections and is related to the Prashna Upanishad. Its commentaries include those of Shankara and Madhva.
The Mundaka is also known for the term ‘satyameva jayate’ (3.1.6) meaning ‘truth will prevail’. This forms India’s motto and is part of the national emblem.
Chapter 1: This has two parts. The first section with nine verses begins by stating that Brahma, the first of the gods, taught the knowledge of Brahman to his eldest son, Atharvan, who conveyed it to Angir. Angir taught it to Satyavaha of the Bharadvaja clan, who conveyed it to Angiras. Then Shaunaka approaches Angiras. He asks what is that by the knowing of which all things become known. Angiras describes two kinds of knowledge, the lower and the higher, the former of the world and the latter of Brahman. He states that the knowledge of Brahman is greater than the path of the Vedas, which advocates rituals and sacrifices. Brahman is imperishable (aksharam), luminous, subtler than the subtle. It is speech, life and mind, immortality and truth. (Those who worship Brahman go beyond life and death, but those who have desires are reborn.)
The second section with thirteen verses discusses the sacrificial rituals described in the Vedas and how they should be practised to achieve the desired results. The seven flames, Kali, Karali, Manojava, Sulohita, Sudhumravarna, Sphulingini and the luminous Vishvaruchi are mentioned. The good deeds of performing rituals lead to the heaven of Brahma. But even these sacrifices conducted by eighteen persons (sixteen priests, the sacrificer and his wife) can be destroyed, and consist of inferior works. Those who practise these rituals along with humanitarian works get their reward in heaven but then they are reborn.
Other wise men live in the forest and focus on deities such as Hiranyagarbha. They depart by the path of the sun, to the place where the imperishable person dwells (Saguna Brahman). After looking at all these worlds gained by works, a brahmana should focus on freedom from desires. For nothing eternal can be attained by something that is not eternal. Then he should approach a guru, with fuel in hand, who knows the Vedas and has a knowledge of Brahman, and learn from him.
Chapter 2: This chapter also has two sections. The first section, which has ten verses, begins by stating that the truth is that everything comes from Brahman and returns to it again. Brahman is that self-luminous and formless Purusha, uncreated, existing within and without. It has neither prana nor mind and is pure, higher than Saguna Brahman.
It again reiterates that everything comes from Brahman, including the Vedas, the kratus, the worlds, devas, sadhyas, men, cattle, birds, prana and apana, rice, grain, penance, faith, truth, continence and law, as well as the oceans, mountains and rivers, the plants and everything else.
The Purusha alone is the universe, supreme and immortal, hidden in the cave of the heart.
The second section, with twelve verses, continues with the description of Brahman, radiant and seated in the cave of the heart, the supporter of everything. Everything shines by its light and it pervades everything.
Chapter 3: Section 1 begins with the analogy, also found in other texts, of two birds living on the same tree. One eats the sweet fruit, but the other watches. The first is the jiva, bewildered by its own helplessness, but when it sees the other, the Supreme Self, it becomes free from grief (3.1).
This section has some beautiful passages on Brahman. It refers to the atman, resplendent and pure, whom the sinless sannyasis behold residing within the body, which is attained by unceasing practice of truthfulness, austerity, right knowledge and continence (3.1.5). It is seen here dwelling in the cave of the heart of conscious beings (3.1.7).
Section 2 also continues with descriptions of the atman and Brahman. It states that the atman cannot be attained through the study of the Vedas, nor through intelligence, nor through much learning. He who chooses the atman, by him alone is the atman attained (3.2.3). The atman, in addition, cannot be attained by one who is without strength or earnestness or who is without knowledge accompanied by renunciation. But if a wise man strives by means of these aids, his soul enters the abode of Brahman (3.2.4). The last verse states that Angiras declared this truth in olden times.
The Prashna Upanishad belongs to the Atharva Veda and is connected with the Mundaka Upanishad. The text has six chapters, classified as six prashnas or questions. Brahman, Prana and the nadis are among the topics discussed.
Prashna 1 with sixteen verses begins with a group of rishis devoted to Brahman seeking answers from the rishi Pippalada. (This Brahman is obviously the lower, Saguna Brahman.) The group consists of Sukesha, the son of Bharadvaja; Satyakama, the son of Shibi; Sauryayani, of the family of Garga; Kausalya, the son of Ashvala; Vaidarbhi of the family of Bhrigu; Kabandhi, the son of Katya.
Pippalada asks them to remain with him one year, practising austerities, chastity and faith, and then to question him.
After a year Kabandhi asks the first question, From where are creatures born? Pippalada explains that Prajapati created rayi and prana, that is, matter and life. The sun is identified with prana or life and the moon with rayi or matter. Rayi is also translated as food. This section also describes pitriyana and devayana, the two paths to the other world.
In Prashna 2, Vaidarbhi puts forth the question: How many gods support the body of the created being? How many display their power through it? And which is the highest? He replied that akasha (space) is that deva or god. The others are Vayu, Agni, Ap, Prithivi (wind, fire, water, earth), as well as speech, mind, eye and ear. Then prana shows that with its five divisions it is the main support of the body as nothing can exist without it.
Prana is then described and praised. As spokes in a wheel, all are fixed in prana, including the Rig Veda, Yajur Veda, Sama Veda, kshatriyas and brahmanas (2.6). Prana moves in the womb as Prajapati, and offerings are made to it. It represents the true activities of the rishis and of the Atharva-Angiras. Prana is Indra, Rudra and the Protector. The text says, ‘You are the vratya, O Prana, and the Ekarshi fire that consumes the butter. You are the Supreme Lord of all, We are the givers of the butter that you consume, O Matarishva. You are our father (2.11).’ Continuing with the same theme it states that everything that exists here and in heaven is under the control of prana.
In Prashna 3, Kausalya asks Pippalada, from where is prana born? How does it come into the body? How does it stay there after it has divided itself? How does it support the external and the internal?
Pippalada begins his reply by saying that Kausalya is asking difficult questions, as he must be extremely devoted to Brahman. He continued by saying that prana is born of atman. It comes into the body through the activity of the mind and employs other pranas in their various places. Apana is involved in excretion and generation; it moves through the mouth and nose and resides in the eye and ear (that is, the two eyes, two ears, two nostrils and the organ of speech). Samana is in the middle and equally distributes what has been offered as food. From this prana fire arise the seven flames.
The atman is in the heart where there are 101 nadis. Each of these has 100 branches and each of these in turn has 72,000. Vyana moves in these. Udana ascends upwards through one of the nadis and takes the departing soul to the other world. The sun (Aditya) is the external prana, for it rises favouring the prana in the eye. The earth deity controls the apana. Akasha is samana; fire is udana. Whatever one is thinking at the time of death, with that one enters into prana. Prana, fire and the soul lead to the next world, fashioned by thought.
In Prashna 4, Sauryayani then asks: what sleeps in a person and what remains awake? What deity sees dreams? In whom is the happiness of deep sleep? And in whom are all these together? Pippalada explains that all these are gathered together in the mind. The prana fires remain awake. Apana is the garhaptya fire, vyana the anvaharyapachana fire, and prana the ahavaniya fire. Samana is the priest and udana the fruit of the sacrifice.
In dreams, the mind sees glory but when the jiva is overcome by light, no dreams are seen, and there is happiness. In fact, Pippalada goes on to explain, all this rests in the Supreme Atman. This includes the elements, the sense organs, the manas, buddhi, ahamkara, chitta and tejas. Behind all this is the Purusha, established in the imperishable atman. The one who knows that being, bright, without shadow or body, without colour, attains the Supreme, the Purusha. The one who knows the atman enters into all.
In Prashna 5, The next question is put forward by Satyakama. He asks that if someone meditates on Om all his life till he dies, which world would he go to? Pippalada explains that Om is the same as Brahman. Even meditating on a single letter of it has great benefits and meditating on all its four syllables together leads to the highest reality.
In Prashna 6, the last question is posed by Sukesha. He says that Hiranyanabha, a prince of Koshala, once asked him if he knew that person with sixteen parts, and he had to reply that he didn’t. Who is that person? Pippalada replies it is the Purusha from whom the sixteen parts arise, like the spokes of a wheel, and knowing him a person becomes free of parts and immortal.
Pippalada ends by saying, ‘Thus far I know the Supreme Brahman, there is nothing higher than this.’ (Trans. Swami Nikhilananda.)
The Mandukya is one of the most important Upanishads. Though extremely short, with only twelve verses, its importance lies in its lengthy commentary by Gaudapada, which laid the basis for the philosophy of Advaita. As stated earlier, Gaudapada was the teacher of Govinda, who was the teacher of Shankara. This Upanishad gets its name from the rishi Manduka. It is attached to the Atharva Veda. The text has been variously dated from around the fifth century BCE to the first century CE. Those such as Mahony, dating it in the fifth to fourth centuries BCE, place it along with the Shvetashvatara, Prashna, and Maitri. To Patrick Olivelle, this and the Prashna belong to the first century CE.
It elaborates on the nature of Brahman or the Absolute and the sacred word Om, which represents Brahman. Shankara also comments on the text and on Gaudapada’s Karika or commentary and further elucidates the basic Advaitic principles.
The text: The Upanishad begins by stating that everything, past, present and future, is Om, and that Om is the same as Brahman. Everything is Brahman, including the atman or Self. It goes on to say that the Self has four parts. The Vaishvanara Self consists of the jagrita or waking state. In this waking state, consciousness relates to external things, which has seven limbs and nineteen mouths, and enjoys gross objects. The second part or quarter is Taijasa, the dream state, where consciousness is internal, enjoyment is of subtle objects, and there are again seven limbs and nineteen mouths. Deep sleep is where the person sees and knows nothing and does not dream. This third quarter is Prajna, which is a blissful state. This one (prajna) is the source of all, the antaryamin (inner controller), the place where all beings have their origin and dissolution. The fourth quarter is that which is conscious of neither the internal nor the external world. It is not consciousness, nor unconsciousness. It is unseen and cannot be thought of or described. It is unchanging, non-dual and auspicious, and is the Self, that which should be known. That Self is Om, which has three letters: a, u, m. Vaishvanara is represented by the letter ‘a’, because it is the first, and the one who knows this attains all desirable things and becomes the foremost. Taijasa is represented by the second letter, ‘u’, as it is intermediate, and the intermediate is similar to excellence. The knowledge of those who know this is heightened and the person becomes equal to all. Everyone born in this line is a knower of Brahman. Prajna is represented by ‘m’, because of ‘measuring or because of absorption’. He who knows this measures all this (the universe) and becomes the place of absorption (that is, the Self). Om, without any parts, represents Turiya, the state beyond all, which is non-dual and auspicious. Om is thus the Self, the atma. The one who knows this enters the (universal) Self through his own self.
This is the brief summary of the twelve verses. Why did Gaudapada choose this to write his Karika or commentary consisting of 253 verses? By commenting on and explaining it, Gaudapada delineates his own philosophy, that of Advaita.
The Karika: Gaudapada’s commentary has four parts. The first is the Agama with twenty-nine verses which explains the Mandukya Upanishad and provides an extensive commentary on the four states of consciousness that are also known and described in other Upanishads.
Gaudapada says that both waking and dreaming states are similar as the objects seen in both are unreal. Only the subject, the constant witness Self, can be real. That which is complete in itself, inborn, and never ceases to be itself, is the only reality, as something subject to change cannot be real. He explains that vishva or the Vaishvanara self enjoys what is gross, Taijasa what is subtle, and Prajna enjoys bliss. When the enjoyer knows these three aspects of enjoyment, he remains beyond them and is not caught in them. While non-perception of duality is common to both Prajna and Turiya, in Turiya there is neither dream not sleep. When the jiva or individual, sleeping under the influence of maya awakes, he realizes Turiya, a state that is non-dual, unborn, beyond sleep or dreams. The three letters of Om lead to Vishva, Taijasa and Prajna, but when one is free from letters, there is nothing to attain. One should concentrate on Om, for Om is Brahman. It is without cause, without inside and outside, without effect. It is beyond measure and infinite. It is Ishvara, seated in the hearts of all. The one who knows Om is the real sage (muni).
The second section, Vaitathya-prakarana, has thirty-eight verses. It explains unreality and the phenomenal nature of the world. Just as dream objects are unreal, the objects in the waking state too are unreal (2.4). Anything that has a beginning and an end is unreal. But if all these objects are unreal, who sees them and who is the creator? (2.11). The response is that the shining atma imagines them through its own maya. This is the definite conclusion of Vedanta (2.12). There are things that exist internally as long as the thought of them lasts, and things that exist externally between two points of time. Both are imaginary (2.14). First the jiva is imagined and then other objects. The commentary goes on to say, depending on what people know, they consider various things real—those who know prana think it is real, the same with those who know the Vedas, etc. Some consider time to be real, some the directions, and others have various theories. Some think the mind is real, some dharma and adharma. Some say twenty-five tattvas (principles) are real, some twenty-six or thirty-one, some an infinite number. (These are references to materialists, Buddhists, Mimamsakas, Samkhya, Patanjali, Pashupatas.) Others too think various things are real. If a teacher shows you something, you think that is real. Just as dream and magic are seen to be real, or a city in the sky, so by Vedanta, the whole universe is known to be unreal (2.31). ‘There is no dissolution, no origination, none in bondage, none striving or aspiring for salvation, and none liberated. This is the highest truth’ (2.32). This verse is found in other Upanishads and is the key to this section as it indicates the total unreality of the world. The next few verses provide methods to realize this. One should continuously fix one’s mind on non-duality. In addition, the mendicant (yati) who has renounced the world should have no relationship with others and should not perform any rituals, but should depend only on reality (tattva).
The third section, the Advaita-prakarana, has forty-eight verses and lays down the main principles of Advaita. It begins by stating that one who practices upasana or various types of worship reaches the conditioned Brahman. The text goes on to describe the unconditioned Brahman, which is beyond any limitation, using the analogy of spaces within a jar. In his commentary on Gaudapada, Shankara refutes the Samkhya and Vaisheshika views, explaining that a space within a jar is not a transformation of space, and nor really a part of space. In the same way an individual is neither a transformation of nor a part of the Supreme Self. Jars have different shapes, thus so does the space within them, but in reality the space in each one is the same. Similarly in the living being, the soul that is contained within the koshas (sheaths or bodies), as explained in the Taittiriya Upanishad, is none other than the Supreme Self (3.11). Further passages explain how all multiplicity is unreal. There is also a reference to the views of dvaitinah, the dualists (3.17). Shankara explains dualist views as those of Kapila, Kanada, Buddha, Arhat (Jain) and others and confirms that Advaita is the highest reality (3.18). Further, the text goes on to reiterate that though the Self may seem different in various individual entities, in reality it is not so.
In addition, it says that just as the immortal cannot become mortal so the mortal cannot become immortal, that is, intrinsic nature does not change (3.21). Though Vedic texts say there is both real creation and creation through maya, in actuality, Brahman is the only reality. Brahman is never born, does not sleep or dream, and has no form or name. It shines with an eternal light, contains everything, and has complete knowledge (3.36). To remove sorrow, misery and fear and to attain self-knowledge and peace, control of the mind is essential (3.40), as the highest bliss is found in one’s Self (3.47). The section ends by stating that the highest truth is that no individual is ever born (3.48).
Section 4, Alatashanti-prakarana with 100 verses, develops these principles further. This section gets its name from the nature of a burning stick circled in the air, which creates the illusion of a circle of fire, alatachakra. The world with its various forms is said to be a similar illusion. It continues with the theme that the immortal never becomes mortal, and what pre-exists is never born. All entities therefore are free from old age and death. In a series of complicated verses, Guadapada explains how the eternal cannot be born. He discusses theories of cause and effect to refute other philosophies. Nothing can be born that exists, does not exist, or both exists and does not exist. Shankara further explains this. The objection raised is ‘is not a jar produced from earth and a son born of a father?’ This is refuted in the commentary that states that these notions are just words. ‘If a thing already exists, then just because it exists, it does not pass into birth like earth or a father. If a thing does not exist, then by the very fact of non-existence, it does not undergo birth like the horn of a hare, etc. If it is both existent and non-existent, then also it does not take birth as it is impossible to have a thing that is self-contradictory. Hence, it is established that nothing whatever takes birth’ (commentary on 4.22). The text ends with the following verse: ‘After realizing that state (of reality) that is inscrutable, profound, birthless, uniform, holy, and non-dual, we make obeisance to it to the best of our ability.’ Shankara adds three verses of salutations to Brahman, which though birthless, appears to be born through its inscrutable power.
The Maitrayaniya or Maitri Upanishad is usually considered to be of the Maitrayaniya shakha of the Krishna or Black Yajur Veda, but is sometimes said to belong to the Sama Veda as in the Muktika Upanishad.
The text is found in different versions, varying from one to seven prapathakas, and there seem to be several additions to the text made at a later date. Its commentaries include those of Vidyaranya, the seventeenth-century Ramatirtha, as well as Upanishad Brahmayogin. Because of the different versions, van Buitenen has attempted a critical edition of the text. Maitri is mentioned as a teacher in the text.
It contains elements of Samkhya and Buddhist philosophy and has been variously dated from between the fourth century BCE to the first century CE. It is certainly later than the early Upanishads as it has quotations from many of them, including the Brihadaranyaka, Chhandogya, Katha, Shvetashvatara and Prashna. Among other topics, it describes the atman that is different from the body but identical with Brahman, and differentiates between a great or immortal self, and the individual soul or elemental self. It refers to various types of prana and to meditation on Om.
Prapathaka 1 begins by describing the merits of a sacrifice to Brahman and continues with the story of King Brihadratha, who installs his eldest son on the throne and goes into the forest, where he performs tapas for 1000 days (or years). Then, like a fire without smoke, the sage Shakayanya appears and asks him to choose a boon. Brihadratha requests an explanation of the atman. At first, Shakayanya asks Aikshvaka (the Ikshvaku king Brihadratha) to ask another question as this is difficult to explain. The king, describing the impermanence of life and referring to many other kings and warriors who renounced the world, persuades him to respond.
In Prapathaka 2, Shakayanya explains how to reach the ultimate goal by purifying the mind and turning it towards Brahman, revealing the teaching provided by the revered Maitri. The Valakhilyas had posed a question to Kratu Prajapati (a rishi who had 60,000 children the size of a thumb, who were known as Valakhilyas). They questioned Kratu about the body, which was like a cart when intelligence was absent. What was it that gave it this intelligence? Kratu responded by describing the one who stands alone, pure and clean, eternal, without breath or mind. This invisible, subtle Purusha, was called Vishva by Prajapati. The story of Prajapati follows. In the beginning he was alone but he created many offspring and entered them as the five Pranas. The body is the chariot and the mind the charioteer, and the body revolves in the world like the potter’s wheel.
In Prapathaka 3, a question is raised (by the Valakhilyas to Prajapati Kratu) about the two selves, only one of which performs actions and enters a body. But the body emerges from the darkness of the womb and is full of diseases, one should not identify with it. The body has so many aspects like ignorance, jealousy and stupidity.
In Prapathaka 4, they (the Valakhilyas) continue with their questions. How would the elemental self (bhutatman) unite with the true self (hitvatman)? Kratu begins by saying that whatever has happened cannot be reversed. Passion and illusion lead to false delights but the elemental self is attached to them and does not recall its true higher state. The elemental self should study the Vedas and perform its duty according to the four ashramas or stages of life. Along with this he should practice austerities (tapas) and through this attain sattva (the quality of goodness). From this understanding is reached, and through understanding a knowledge of the atma. The one who knows the atman does not return.
The one who has Brahma-vidya or knowledge of Brahman affirms that Brahman exists. Om is a reflection of Brahman. The one who meditates on Om and practices tapas attains Brahman, going beyond the god Brahma, and then the ruler of the chariot unites with the atman. Even after this, the Valakhilyas ask about the gods. Some meditate on one god, some on another—such as Vayu, Agni, Brahma, Rudra, Vishnu and others; which one is best for them? Kratu replies that all these are forms of Brahman. Worshipping any one of them leads to the world of that deity. Gradually, one moves to higher worlds and finally attains unity with Purusha.
Prapathaka 5 begins with a song of praise by Kutsayana to the One, who is every god, Brahma, Vishnu, Rudra, etc. In the beginning, the world was in darkness (tamas). Then with the power of rajas or passion, it moves on to sattva (the form of goodness). Its essence is Prajapati, called Vishva (implying everyone). The three gunas represent the three gods Rudra, Brahma and Vishnu. That one is threefold, who developed the eightfold, elevenfold, and twelvefold one. (These are interpreted as referring to the different components of the individual.) Then this Self enters all created beings.
Prapathakas 6 and 7 are considered supplementary to the main text. These emphasize that there is only one Supreme Self and provide methods of meditation and worship. S. Radhakrishnan states that these last two sections are ‘comparatively modern’.4 Signe Cohen sees prapathakas 5 and 6 as later than the others.5