THE UPANISHADS HAVE several different topics and themes, even though their main focus is Brahman. The Brahma Sutra, a Sanskrit text, focuses on their main topic, summarizing the teachings of the Upanishads on this theme. This text, written by Badarayana, and also known as the Vedanta Sutra, has been assigned to various dates from 500 BCE to the first century CE. According to tradition, Badarayana is identified with the rishi Vyasa. However, Badarayana is also said to be the teacher of Jaimini, who composed the Mimamsa Sutras. Among the various scholars, S. Radhakrishnan places its date in the second century BCE as it mentions most other philosophical systems prevailing at the time.1 S. Dasgupta also takes the date to be around the second century BCE. Andrew Nicholson, reviewing the previous estimates, feels the Brahma Sutra was composed by 450–400 BCE2 and that it is the work of not one but several authors. George C. Adams looks at the various estimates and points out that Jacobi is among those who places it at a later date, between CE 200 and 450. He adds that despite the disagreements, all are agreed that it is one of the earliest attempts ‘at systematizing the unsystematic contents of a body of scripture’.3
The Brahma Sutra uses the following Upanishads: Aitareya, Taittiriya, Chhandogya, Brihadaranyaka, Kaushitaki, Katha, Shvetashvatara, Mundaka and Prashna. There are also hints of the Jabala Upanishad being used, but the main text is the Chhandogya.
The Brahma Sutra contains four adhyayas or chapters. Within this are sixteen padas (sections), 223 adhikaranas or topics and a total of 555 sutras (aphorisms). As its name suggests, the text has ‘sutras’ or short, terse aphorisms. These cannot be understood correctly without explanation and therefore have given rise to a number of commentaries and interpretations. Only scholars familiar with the Upanishads and with the various systems of philosophy can understand these sutras. An adhikarana, which can contain several sutras, has five parts: the subject or vishaya; the doubt or samsaya; the opposite view or purvapaksha; the conclusion or siddhanta; and sangati or agreement with other parts of the text. Each adhikarana is in some way connected to the last. As Sri Aurobindo says, ‘the monumental aphorisms of the Vedantasutra are meant rather for the master than the learner.’
The first chapter, ‘Samanvaya’, unifies the different views of Brahman. Brahman, the infinite creator, develops into the world, but remains itself, unchanged and pure. It also describes the atman or individual soul and its relationship with Brahman. The chapter contains four padas and eleven adhikaranas.
The second, ‘Avirodha’, provides a refutation of other philosophies including Samkhya, Vaisheshika, Jainism and Buddhism. The third, ‘Sadhana’, provides methods of sadhana or practice for attaining Brahman. The fourth, ‘Phala’, describes the benefits or fruits of attaining the knowledge of Brahman. Each chapter has four padas or sections, within which are adhikaranas or topics. The first five adhikaranas of the first chapter are the most important. Thus, though the text is the basis for all schools of Vedanta, it has been interpreted differently by each of them.
Badarayana was not the first to attempt to provide a systematic summary of the main principles of the Upanishads, but his is the earliest that is available. Among earlier writers he mentions are Audolomi and Kashakrishna.
Some of the earliest commentaries are no longer available, but among the important ones are those of Shankara, who explains the philosophy of Advaita; Ramanuja, who interprets it in the context of Vishishtadvaita; Madhva, with the philosophy of Dvaita; Nimbaraka, with Dvaitadvaita; Vallabha, with Shuddhadvaita. Other commentators include Bhaskara, Yadavaprakasha, Keshava, Nilakantha, Baladeva Vidyabhushana and Vijnanabhikshu, as well as many more who elucidate the various commentaries and add their own interpretations.
The variant and extensive interpretations of this text can be indicated by just a few comments on the very first sutra, which also forms the first adhikarana. This sutra (1.1) reads ‘Athato brahmajijnasa’. Separating the conjoined words, we get: ‘atha’, which has different meanings, including now, then, or afterwards; atah, meaning ‘therefore’; brahmajijnasa, meaning ‘desire for the knowledge of Brahman’. The sentence is translated as ‘Now, therefore, the inquiry into Brahman’ or ‘Then, therefore, the inquiry into Brahman’. Briefly, it means that this text will now inquire into the nature of Brahman. However, the commentators write reams on each word. For instance, what does ‘atha’, meaning ‘now’ or ‘then’, coupled with ‘therefore’, signify? Most Vedanta commentators agree that ‘atha’ indicates that there are some prerequisites, that is, antecedent conditions, before which this enquiry into the nature of Brahman can begin.
Shankara puts forward four preliminary spiritual qualifications for the person wishing to enquire into the nature of Brahman. These are: (1) The ability to discriminate between the real and the unreal; (2) An indifference to all pleasures, whether on earth or in heaven, and also an indifference to the fruits of one’s actions; (3) Firmly established in the six virtues (shatsampat), which are shama: equanimity, control of the mind; dama: control of the senses; uparati: not thinking of sense objects and discontinuing religious ceremonies; titiksha: enduring the opposites of pleasure and pain, heat and cold; shraddha: faith in the guru and the Upanishads; samadhana: deep concentration; (4) A desire for liberation. Thus, several qualities are required before a person can begin to study Brahman. But, according to Shankara, the performance of Vedic rituals (karmakanda), or even a knowledge of them, is not required.
However, Bhaskara, Ramanuja and Nimbarka believe that ‘now’ means that a knowledge and study of the Vedas is an essential prerequisite. It indicates that only when an individual has practised and seen the limited results arising from Vedic knowledge does it lead him to study Brahman. It is a combination of work and knowledge of the Purva Mimamsa that makes a person fit to study Brahman.
Madhva begins by classifying people into three types: the ordinary, middling and the highest or best. The best is fit to enquire into Brahman. Such a person has studied the Vedas but has renounced all work and achieved a dispassionate state of mind. Prescribed actions are helpful in the attainment of knowledge but once one has knowledge no action is required.
To Vallabha, ‘now’ introduces a new topic; hence there are no prerequisites. But quoting the Brihadaranyaka (4.4.5–6), he feels that work without a desire for results, knowledge and devotion is required if anyone wishes for liberation. But for those who follow Pushti-marga, nothing is required as god’s grace provides everything.
Next, we come to the word ‘therefore’. Shankara says this indicates a reason. It means that because the results obtained by works (sacrifices) do not last, whereas the knowledge of Brahman leads to the eternal, therefore, Brahman should be enquired into. Bhaskara and Ramanuja say that results obtained only by works (not by works and knowledge combined) do not last; therefore, Brahman should be inquired into. Madhva says that ‘therefore’ indicates the reason for inquiring into Brahman. Without Brahman, the grace of the Lord cannot be attained.
Finally, we come to the interpretations of the word Brahman. Every commentator quotes extensively from the Upanishads to support his viewpoint. Shankara affirms that Brahman is eternal, unborn and without any attributes. It is infinite bliss, existence and knowledge and the origin of the world. It is formless and the only reality that can be experienced only in deep meditation (samadhi). The world, therefore, is unreal (maya). Bhaskara, however, believes that though Brahman is the eternal, unchanging cause of the world, the world is real. Ramanuja says that Brahman is not without attributes. Existence, knowledge and bliss or infinity are its qualities or attributes.
There are several other interpretations of this single sutra, but only a brief summary is provided here. Ramanuja’s bhashya (commentary) on this single sutra runs into eighty pages.
Without going into extensive commentaries, three more sutras are given below to indicate their complexity and the knowledge required to interpret them. Each commentator quotes the relevant Upanishad passages in their explanation and also refutes the theories of contrary philosophies. Without these passages, the concise sutras, which merely hint at the topic, cannot be understood.
Adhikarana 2 contains the second sutra, which reads ‘Janmadhyasya yatah’. This is explained as Brahman being that from which everything originates and to which everything returns (1.1.2).
Adhikarana 3 consists of the third sutra, ‘Shastra-yonitvat’, that is, the scriptures are the source of right knowledge.
Adhikarana 4 has the fourth sutra, ‘Tat-tu-samanvayat’ (But that is the main purpose). ‘That’ here refers to the scriptures or sacred texts. Their main purpose is to reveal Brahman.
Chapter 1 continues with further sutras and adhikaranas.
Pada 1: Sutras 5–31
Adhikarana 5 contains sutras 5–11. It states that Brahman is the only cause of the world. Vedantic commentators refute the Samkhya theories that Pradhana is the first principle. Pradhana consists of the three gunas. These sutras show that shruti, that is, revealed texts, show that Brahman, the intelligent principle, is the cause of the world, and not Pradhana. Pradhana is not an intelligent principle.
Adhikarana 6, sutras 12–19, looks at the nature of Anandamaya, described in the Taittiriya Upanishad. Is this an individual self or is this the Supreme Brahman? The conclusion is that Anandamaya is the same as Brahman.
Adhikarana 7, sutras 20–21, show that the golden person seen in the sun and the person seen within the eye (Chhandogya 1.6) are again the same as the Supreme Brahman.
Adhikarana 8, sutra 22, shows that akasha, from which everything originates (Chhandogya 1.9), is not the physical akasha or ether but is to be understood as Brahman.
Adhikaranas 9–11 (sutras 23–31) show that both prana and light, mentioned in the Chhandogya (1.2.15 and 3.13.7) and in the Kaushitaki (3.2), are nothing but Brahman.
This pada thus shows that even those passages in the Upanishads that contain other terms, such as Anandamaya and prana, actually refer to Brahman.
Pada 2
The second pada continues with adhikaranas or topics on Brahman, explained by commentators through the relevant quotes from the Upanishads. This pada looks at those aspects and passages in the Upanishads that are connected with Brahman even though they may not seem to be. The topics are:
Further, topics 3–7, with sutras 11–32, identify the Antaryamin, the atman, the Vaishvanara and ‘the person in the eye’ as Brahman.
Pada 3
The third Pada looks at the nirguna aspect of Brahman which pervades everything and is immortal.
Pada 4
The Upanishads use terms that are also used in Samkhya philosophy. This pada explains that though some of the same terms are used, the meanings in them are different in the Upanishads. Thus, terms such as mahat, avyakta and pradhana mean something different in Samkhya philosophy. The twenty-five tattvas of Samkhya are referred to, to see whether they form part of shruti, but this is refuted. The text conclusively shows that pradhana cannot be a cause of the world and that Brahman is the sole cause.
This chapter refutes different philosophies.
Pada 1
In Pada 1, the first adhikarana takes up the question of whether Smritis (remembered texts) that are not based on shruti (revelation) can be rejected. Should Kapila’s text on Samkhya be taken to support Vedantic texts? But the conclusion is that Brahman being the source of all cannot be rejected to accommodate the Samkhya Smriti. Shankara’s commentary also explains that 5.2 in the Shvetashvatara, which mentions Kapila, is not referring to the Kapila who composed the Samkhya Sutras but here it means ‘golden-coloured’ and is another name for Hiranyagarbha or Brahma. Samkhya can be rejected mainly because of its theory that pradhana is the cause of the world but also because other aspects do not agree with the shrutis. It does not accept a Supreme Self, affirms that individual souls are pure consciousness and that bondage and freedom are part of prakriti. As for other Smritis, such as the Manu Smriti, Ramanuja says their total rejection is not necessary as they deal with ritualistic worship, and such worship can be used to propitiate Brahman.
The second adhikarana refutes the Yoga philosophy of Patanjali. Though it is partly authoritative, it too recognizes pradhana as the first cause of the world. The Shvetashvatara mentions some aspects of Yoga, but Patanjali’s Sutra does not acknowledge Brahman as Supreme. The Shvetashvatara 6.13 praises Samkhya and Yoga, yet in 3.8 it says that only the one who knows Brahman crosses over death. Both systems of philosophy promote duality, but some of their aspects are correct, for instance, in Samkhya it says the soul has no qualities, while Yoga prescribes withdrawal from the world for the wandering sannyasi, which is supported by the Jabala Upanishad.
Topic 3, sutras 4–11, says that Brahman can be a cause of the world even though its nature is different from the world. The objections to this are refuted at length. Final emancipation comes from perfect knowledge, which is always the same. Yet, the Samkhyas say pradhana is the cause of the universe and the Nyayikas say it is paramanus or atoms. Who should one believe? Reasoning cannot lead to the truth without the support of shruti. Brahman is the cause and substratum of the universe, both on the basis of shruti and reasoning subordinate to shruti.
Topic 4 refutes other theories that don’t fit with the Vedas, that is, those of Kanada and Gautama, referred to here as shishta-aparigraha. Shishta refers to remaining systems, and in this context aparigraha means those that do not accept the Vedas. Just as Samkhya cannot be accepted, so also Kanada, Gautama, Akshapada and Buddhist theories cannot be accepted.
These groups have different views on the nature of the atom. Kanada and Gautama see the atom as permanent, while Vaibhashika Buddhists, Madhyamikas and Yogacharas see it as unreal. Jains see it as both real and unreal.
Topic 5 indicates that distinctions between the enjoyer and the enjoyed can exist in the world (sutra 13), though at the same time they are not different from Brahman, while Topic 6 (14–20) shows that cause and effect are not really different, and Topic 7 (21–23) explains that Brahman cannot create evil. Topic 8 (24–25) shows that Brahman, who has no materials or agents, is nevertheless the cause of the world. Topic 9 (26–29) explains that Brahman is the material cause of the universe even though it has no parts and Topic 10 (30–31) says that Brahman has all powers. Brahman is perfect and has no desires, says Topic 11 (32–33), and therefore does not create the world out of any motive. Emotions such as partiality and cruelty cannot be ascribed to Brahman (Topic 12, 34–36), because pleasure and pain are based on the person’s karma. Brahman is like rain through which seeds grow depending on their nature and can be compared with Parjanya. The conclusion in Topic 13 (37) is that only Brahman is the cause of the universe, and it undergoes no change at any time.
Pada 2
This Pada further refutes contrary philosophies. Topic 1 (Sutras 1–10) again is directed against Samkhya beliefs, particularly on how pradhana, which is inert matter, can start creating through Purusha, who is also inactive. Samkhyas say that pradhana has the three gunas of sattva, rajas and tamas, and when the equilibrium of these is stirred creation starts on its own. But who brings about this imbalance? It can’t be Purusha, which is passive and inactive. Topics 2 and 3 (11–17) refute the Vaisheshika theory of creation from indivisible and minute atoms. Atoms, according to them, join together due to a principle known as adrishta, which exists in the soul, but the text shows that the soul cannot cause the atoms to move or combine. Though Manu and other authorities accept some aspects of Samkhya, they do not accept the atomic theory and, therefore, it should be discarded. The theories related to the six padarthas of Vaisheshika can also be rejected. Topics 4 and 5 (18–32) refute the schools of Buddhist philosophy, beginning with the ideas of the Vaibhashikas or realists. The commentary identifies them with Sarvastivadins, though they are only one of their branches. Vaibhashikas, says the commentary, hold that both the outer and inner worlds are real. The external world consists of four types of atoms and the internal and external worlds also consist of five skandhas or groups. Vedantists say this is untenable as there is no intelligent principle or controller. Other Buddhist theories of the Vijnanavadins, Yogacharas and Madhyamikas or Shunyavadins are also refuted, while Topic 6 (33–36) refutes Jaina doctrines. Next, Topics 7 and 8 (37–45) refute the doctrines of the Pashupatas (Shaivites) and Bhagavatas or Pancharatras (Vaishnavites).
Pada 3
Having refuted the doctrines of other schools of philosophy, Pada 3 deals with apparent contradictions in Vedantic thought. Topics 1–9 (sutras 1–15) look at the five elements: akasha, air, fire, water and earth. Beginning with akasha, each apparently originate from the other, but the text and commentary show how all the elements actually emanate from Brahman and are reabsorbed into Brahman. Brahman itself has no origin. Topics 10–17 (sutras 16–50) look at the individual soul and its relationship with Brahman. These topics affirm that there is neither birth nor death, but that the individual soul is permanent and eternal. The jiva is actually identical with Brahman, but is limited by the mind, body and senses. Intelligence is its very nature. Is it anu that is minute, or is it all-pervading? It is actually both but remains anu or tiny when it is connected with samsara, the affairs of the world. Another question arises as to whether the soul is an agent or not and once again the conclusion is that it is both. It is an agent when connected with the instruments of action such as buddhi or the intelligent mind, but at other times it is not. The individual soul can be understood as an amsha or part of Brahman because of its limitations, even though Brahman is actually indivisible and has no parts. When the soul remains in a body, it must follow the ethics and rules prescribed in the sacred texts. The individual soul, says Sutra 50, is a reflection of the supreme soul.
Pada 4
Pada 4 examines the connection between Brahman, the individual and the various pranas and senses. Topic 1 (Sutras 1–4) is on the pranas originating in Brahman. While the first sutra merely states ‘tatah pranah’ (thus, or likewise, the pranas), the commentary goes on to explain this as the two types of pranas and their origin in Brahman. The primary pranas, that is, types of breath, are prana, apana, vyana, samana and udana, while the secondary pranas are the eleven senses. The opposite or purvapaksha view is that these were eternal, but this is refuted here. Topic 2 (Sutras 5–6) concludes that there are eleven pranas or senses, five organs of knowledge, five of action and the mind as the eleventh, while Topic 3 shows that the senses are minute in size. Topics 4–6 are on the pranas as breath. The main prana is different from the others and this too is minute in size. Topic 7 (Sutras 14–16) explains that though the senses are presided over by deities, their enjoyer is the individual soul. Topic 8 points out the difference between the pranas as breath and as indriyas or senses. They are separate yet have similar functions, in that both groups support life and nourish the body. Finally, Topic 9 concludes that it is the Supreme Lord or Brahman that creates all names and forms.
Pada 1
The first pada in this chapter looks at theories of reincarnation. In Topics 1–2 (Sutras 1–11), it is explained that after the body is dissolved the soul that has not merged with Brahman travels to another world. Accompanying the jiva or individual soul are subtle material elements (bhuta sukshma), the pranas and the indriyas (senses). Thus, Brihadaranyaka 4.4.2 says, When the soul departs, the prana follows. When the prana departs, the other senses follow. The good soul goes to Chandra Loka, the heavenly world of the moon, enjoys the fruits of its good deeds and returns to earth to fulfil the rest of its karma. The commentary quotes both shruti and smriti in support of this, which brings up the question of caste, as it states that the good are born in the three higher castes and the evil as a dog or pig. Smriti texts have quoted the Upanishads (Chhandogya 5.10.7), which say that those who follow the path prescribed for them by their caste enjoy the fruits of their work in heaven and are then reborn in distinguished castes and families with beauty, knowledge, longevity, comfort and property.
What is this residue of karma that brings the soul back to earth? The commentary explains that it is not about good and bad karma but that some actions come to fruition in one type of world and some in another. The Purvapaksha says that death exhausts all karmas but this is not the case. They also say that those who have good conduct get a good birth. To refute this, in Verse 9, the views of the sage Karshnajini are mentioned, and in Verse 11 those of Badari. Karshnajini says that conduct (charana) stands for good karmas remaining after enjoyment in the other world. Badari says that charana or conduct refers to both good and evil works, which can be distinguished as ramaniya-charana and kapuya-charana respectively. Topic 3 (Sutras 12–21) refer to those who are not entitled to go to Chandra Loka. Verse 12 says that those who do not perform sacrifices also go to Chandra Loka, but this is the Purvapaksha view which is refuted.
The text affirms that sinners actually go to Yama Loka, the world of the god Yama, and return to earth after they have suffered for their evil deeds. The Smritis (Manu Smriti) are used to support this, and seven hells found there are mentioned in Sutra 15, which are named in the commentary. Five are temporary and two are permanent, and the god Yama supervises all, along with his assistants Chitragupta and others. The shruti, particularly the Chhandogya, also describes two paths to two different heavens, those of knowledge and of work. The path of knowledge or vidya leads to Brahma Loka via devayana, or the way of the gods, while the path of work or karma leads to Chandra Loka via pitriyana or the way of the fathers (ancestors). Now, it is said, the sinners go to the third place, like worms and flies that are constantly dying and being reborn.
The fifth oblation is not necessary for those who go to the third place, nor for those born in a different way, such as Sita, Draupadi, Drona and Drishtadyumna. Four classes of beings are also mentioned that are born in different ways: from an egg, a living being and those that germinate from earth or water. Topics 4–6 (Sutras 22–27) explain how the soul descends from Chandra Loka and is finally reborn. This (somewhat fanciful) explanation says that souls cling to rice or other grains and edible plants. The passages also state that killing animals in sacrifices is not wrong as it is sanctioned by the scriptures, though in other cases non-injury to animals should be observed, again as said in the texts. The soul attached to the plant retains its separate self, and when it is eaten it is connected to the person who eats it and enters the womb when that person engages in sex. Finally, the last sutra repeats that it is one’s conduct and the remnants of one’s karma that lead to birth in a particular family. The commentary quotes Chhandogya 5.10.7 that a good birth is in the family of a brahmana, kshatriya or vaishya, bad conduct leads one to be born as a dog or a chandala.
Most important is to avoid rebirth by uniting with Brahman, says the last sutra. This pada, while describing rebirth, also emphasizes this point.
Pada 2
This pada deals with the different states of waking, dreaming and sleeping that are explained in many of the Upanishads. Understanding these is essential in Vedanta.
Topic 1 (Sutras 1–6) looks at the soul in the dreaming state, here referred to as sandhya or the intermediate state. While dreaming, one seems to have creative powers, but are these real? The conclusion is that dreams are created by the jiva and not by Brahman or the Lord. However, dreams can at times provide a message; for instance, the god Shiva taught the mantra Ramaraksha to Vishvamitra in a dream. True reality is concealed from the jiva because of ignorance. As vasanas or impressions of the waking state lead to dreams, both waking and dreaming are unreal.
Topic 2 (Sutras 7–8) looks at the soul in dreamless sleep. Shruti, that is, various Upanishads, says that it rests in the nadis or in the heart or in Brahman while in deep sleep. The conclusion is that it goes through the nadis into the centre of the heart and rests there in Brahman. Topic 3 (Sutra 9) shows that when the soul or atman wakes, it is the same as that which went to sleep, while Topic 4 (Sutra 10) explains the nature of fainting, that is, half death and half deep sleep. If a remnant of karma remains, he returns to consciousness, otherwise he dies. Topic 5 (Sutras 11–21) continues with the nature of Brahman in which the soul is merged in deep sleep. Texts describe Brahman in two ways, as both with and without attributes. The reality is that Brahman has no attributes and no form. Brahman is everything and all are identical with it. However, for purposes of worship or meditation, it can be described with attributes or form. Topic 6 (Sutras 22–-30) explains how the term ‘neti, neti’ (not this, not this) in Brihadaranyaka 2.3.6 is not a denial of Brahman itself but of its forms. In fact, it denies everything except Brahman. Brahman, it adds, has no distinguishing attributes.
Brahman is also described as ‘satyasya satyam’, the ‘Truth of Truth’, indicating it is the highest. This topic also examines and refutes the views of the Bhedabhedavadas, which affirm both difference and non-difference of the individual soul and Brahman as shruti denies any differences. Both terms ‘tat tvam asi’ and ‘Aham Brahmasmi’ in shruti texts show that there are no differences between Brahman and the atman or individual soul. When one attains identification with Brahman, one becomes the infinite Brahman. The ignorance that creates the jiva is then destroyed. Topic 7 (Sutras 31–37) affirms that Brahman is ‘one without a second’. It takes up many statements that might seem to imply that either there is something higher than Brahman or that Brahman has a form and shows their true import, which is that Brahman has no equal and no form. Brahman can be compared to light within a room, and light outside, both being the same light. (Anyone who wants to look at the different statements on Brahman should go through these sutras.) Topic 8 (Sutras 38-41) refutes the views of Jaimini on the results of actions. It states that results do not appear automatically, but all takes place through the all-pervading Lord.
Pada 3
Pada 3 looks at the vidyas or meditations by which the jiva or atman can merge with Brahman. Topics 1 and 2 (Sutras 1–5) try to understand why there are different vidyas or upasanas (methods of worship) for the one Brahman and whether similar vidyas, mentioned in different shakhas, are the same or different. Commentaries say that in essence all vidyas are the same as they lead to the same end, that is, Brahman. Some shrutis describe Brahman as Vaishvanara, others as Prana, but there is only one Brahman. Beyond this basic premise, it also says that similar vidyas from different shakhas can be combined in one meditation. Topic 3 (Sutras 6–8) holds that sometimes meditation topics that seem to be the same have subtle differences. For instance, both the Chhandogya (1.1.3) and the Brihadaranyaka (1.3.1) suggest meditation on the Udgitha, and identify the Udgitha with Prana. But while the Chhandogya focuses only on Om of the Udgitha, the Brihadaranyaka refers to the entire Udgitha. Topic 4 affirms that Om is mentioned in all Shrutis, but the Udgitha is a special aspect of Om. Topic 5 (Sutra 10) says that the prana vidya explained in the Chhandogya, Brihadadranyaka and Kaushitaki are aspects of the same and prana-vidyas together form one meditation. Topic 6 (Sutras 11–13) says that knowledge and bliss, the essential attributes of Brahman, should always be kept in mind, whereas other aspects are for special meditations. Topic 7 looks at Katha Upanishad (3.10–11) which says that the Self or atman is the highest, that is, the same as Brahman, and therefore this should be meditated upon, while Topic 8 (Sutras 16–17) affirms that the Self referred to in the Aitareya Upanishad (1.1) is the Supreme Self, and not some other self such as Hiranyagarbha. Topic 9 (Sutra 18) takes up a minor point in prana meditation, while Topic 10 (Sutra 19) again speaks of combining similar vidyas. But Topic 11 (Sutras 20–22), states that when we come to two abodes of Brahman in the Brihadaranyaka (5.5), in the sun and in the right eye, specified by the terms ‘ahar’ and ‘aham’, these should not be combined for meditation. Even though Satya Brahman is one, the secret names and abodes of these two are distinct. Topics 12 and 13 (Sutras 23 and 24) also refer to vidyas that should not be combined, when Brahman is ostensibly located in different places, as in the sky, the cavity of the heart, or the eye, or when two Purusha Vidyas, though they have the same name, are actually different as in the Chhandogya and Taittiriya. Topic 14 (Sutra 25) says that rituals such as the Mahavrata mentioned in certain Upanishads are not part of Brahmavidya as these are sacrifices.
What happens to the good and evil deeds of a person who dies after attaining true knowledge? Topic 15 (Sutra 26) agrees with passages in the Upanishads that say these go to the friends and enemies of the person, and this, says Topic 16 (Sutras 27–28), takes place at the time of death, and not, as the Kaushitaki Upanishad states, on the way to Brahma Loka or Brahman. Topic 15 also affirms that when shrutis provide incomplete information, they can be combined with other verses. This has also been mentioned by Jaimini. By what path does the soul reach god? Topic 17 (Sutras 29–30) says that the soul of the person who knows Saguna Brahman travels by devayana or the path of the gods, but the one who knows Nirguna Brahman has no path; he becomes one with Brahman without going anywhere. The practice of any vidyas of Saguna Brahman lead to the same path (Topic 18, Sutra 31). A perfected soul, though, can yet be reborn if there is some divine mission to fulfil (Topic 19, Sutra 32). Examples given here include those of Vyasa and Vasishtha. Further, Topic 20, Sutra 33 points out that the negative terms for Brahman, such as it not being gross, can be combined in one vidya. Topic 21 (Sutra 34) refers to passages in Katha 3.1 and Mundaka 3.1 as the same vidya as they refer to the highest Brahman, and Topic 22 (Sutras 35–36) say that Brihadaranyaka 3.4 and 3.5 are one vidya, as in both these Brahman is seen as the inner self. Topics 23–25 (Sutras 37-39) similarly deal with various meditations. Succeeding topics look at the Pranagnihotra, other vidyas, the connection between sacrifices and meditations and similar topics. There are thirty-six topics and sixty-six sutras in this pada.
Pada 4
Is the knowledge of Brahman related to ritual acts, or is this path of knowledge entirely independent? The pada concludes that no such acts are required. Topic 1 (Sutras 1–17) explains that no sacrificial acts are required to gain the knowledge of Brahman. Topic 2 (Sutras 18–20) continues with this theme and states that for sannyasis, only Brahmavidya is required, while Topic 3 (Sutras 21–22) explains that certain parts of vidyas form a meditation in themselves. Topic 4 (Sutras 23–24) state that stories in the Upanishads glorify or expand on the vidyas taught in them. Examples are those about Janashruti, Pratardana and Yajnavalkya and Maitreyi. Once again, Topic 5 (Sutra 25) affirms that sannyasis only need knowledge and not rituals. But as Topic 6 (Sutras 26–27) says, rituals can have a purpose as they indirectly lead to knowledge. On a different tack, Topic 7 (Sutras 28–31) refers to restrictions prescribed in texts regarding food. Only in an emergency can these be ignored. The example of Chakrayana (Ushasti) who ate leftover beans when he was dying of hunger is mentioned here. Though texts assert that the sannyasi can eat any type of food, he should not generally eat what is considered unlawful food. Similarly, Topics 8–9, Sutras 32–39 state that it is important to perform the requisite duties for the four ashramas or stages in life but those who for some reason cannot do so still have a right to knowledge. Further topics deal with the sannyasi, who, once having taken a vow of celibacy should never stray from it, and different types of meditations, that of mauna or silence, balya or attaining a child-like state of innocence, and panditya, the state of scholarly knowledge. But no matter which path one chooses, liberation is of only one type: the realization of Brahman. This pada has seventeen topics and fifty-two sutras.
Chapter 4 is known as the Phala-adhyaya as it deals with the phala (fruits) of attaining Brahman.
Pada 1
The first pada has fourteen topics with nineteen sutras, mostly dealing with meditation, for which certain guidelines are provided. Meditation is not something that is to be done only once but is to be repeated till the desired result is attained. Only a very rare soul can attain immediate results. There can be meditation on the atman or on Brahman viewed as identical to the atman. Symbols should not be viewed as identical to Brahman. On the whole, meditation should be practised in a sitting posture at any convenient time and place. Attaining knowledge of Brahman frees one from all past karmas, and neither good nor evil affect one. Rituals, however, can be performed, as they help to promote knowledge. When complete knowledge is obtained, the individual is not reborn.
Pada 2
The second pada with eleven topics and twenty-one sutras explains how the soul leaves the body at the time of death, the process being the same for those without knowledge and for those with the knowledge of Saguna Brahman. First, the functions of various organs such as speech are merged in the mind, and next, the mind is merged in prana and prana with the individual soul or jiva. Chhandogya 6.6.1 says that when a man departs, speech merges in mind, mind in prana, prana in fire and fire in the highest deity. The commentary explains that this statement is not contradictory, as a further sutra says that the prana merges with subtle elements. The subtle body is not destroyed at the time of death. The life of both the ordinary person and the knower of Saguna Brahman enter the nadis, and that of the knower passes through the heart to the Sushumna Nadi and proceeds to devayana, the path of the devas or gods, while that of the ordinary man exits through another nadi. It is also said that the soul of the knower of Saguna Brahman follows the rays of the sun to proceed to Brahma Loka, whether it is night or day, and even reaches Brahma Loka during the Dakshinayana or southern course of the sun. On the other hand, the knower of Nirguna Brahman immediately merges with it at the time of death.
Pada 3
This pada, with six topics and sixteen sutras, describes the journey of the soul. Devayana or the path of the gods is one of light and is the only way to Brahma Loka. Though various Upanishads describe this path differently, the Brahma Sutra affirms that there is only one path and these texts are only describing various aspects or stages on the path. Putting together the information in various Upanishads, Sutras 2 and 3 enumerate the stages on devayana in sequence: first, the soul reaches the deity of fire (Agni) or of archis or rays of light, then the deity of the day, third, the deity of Shukla-paksha or the bright half of the month, fourth the deity of the year, fifth the deity of the world of the gods, sixth the deity of air (Vayu), seventh the sun (Aditya or Surya), eighth the moon, ninth the deity of lightning, tenth the world of Varuna, eleventh the world of Indra, twelfth the world of Prajapati, and finally Brahma Loka. The various deities mentioned guide the soul along this path, leading to Karya Brahma or Hiranyagarbha or Saguna Brahman. The Chhandogya and Brihadaranyaka mention a guide to Brahman as a being who is not a man (Amanava Purusha). This is a reference to Saguna Brahman. In Sutras 12–14, the opposing view of Jaimini is mentioned, that this is the Para Brahman or Supreme Brahman, but Badari denies this interpretation. It is only when Brahma Loka is dissolved that the souls there reach the Supreme Brahman. Finally, it is said that the soul can be guided to Brahma Loka, only if symbols have not been used in meditation on Brahman. The meditation of the upasaka (worshipper) should be fixed on Brahman, not on a symbol.
Pada 4
This pada looks at how the Supreme Brahman is attained, and the nature of the individual soul in identity with it. It has seven topics and twenty-two sutras. The soul does not gain anything new, but its true nature is revealed as it unites with Brahman. Does this nature have some special characteristics? Jaimini refers to Chhandogya 8.7.1 and other passages in the Upanishads to show that characteristics of Brahman described in texts include freedom from sinful actions (apahatapapmatva), true or right determination (satyasankalpatva) and aishvarya (omniscience). Audulomi, however, says the only characteristic is chaitanya or intelligence. Badari points out that these are two different views of the soul, and what Jaimini is referring to is the relative and not the transcendental soul.
If the soul has merged with Saguna Brahman, then every wish of it is fulfilled. A soul in Brahma Loka can take on one or more bodies as it likes and has every power except that of creation.