Interpreting Our World: 100 Discoveries That Revolutionized Geography

Geographers have always been keen observers of our changing planet. From the time of the ancient Greek, Persian, and Chinese geographers to today, geographers have meticulously recorded what they have observed on, under, and over the surface of the Earth, as well as in the oceans, on ice, in caves, in space, and everywhere else that they could walk, climb, or crawl into. Yet for all of these observations, geographic measurement was always limited to where the geographers themselves could reach. If they were not physically present, then the phenomena were not recorded. This situation led to a keen interest in the establishment of permanent observatories where observations could be carried out all year long, with instruments and staff able to carry out these measurements.

An observatory is an established location or facility used for observing events on or under the ground, or in the sky. Disciplines for which observatories have been constructed include astronomy, meteorology, climatology, biology, geology, oceanography, volcanology, and geography. Historically, observatories were constructed aligned with certain phenomena such as the equinoxes and solstices, so that those phenomena could be observed more readily, such as at Stonehenge in England and Zorats Karer in Armenia, though much debate exists as to whether these were really constructed as observatories. Later, observatories contained a few instruments, such as the sextant (see Cross-Staffs, Astrolabes, and Other Devices) for measuring the distance between stars.

When thinking about observatories as being places set aside for scientific research, the oldest ones are al-Shammisiyyah observatory in Baghdad, Iraq (825 CE); the Mahodayapuram Observatory in Kerala, India (869 CE); and the Maragheh observatory in Azerbaijan, Iran (1259 CE). During the 1500s and 1600s, many were constructed, in Denmark (Uraniborg and Stjerneborg), Italy (Panzano), Netherlands (Leiden), France (Paris Observatory), and England (Royal Greenwich Observatory). The first in the United States were the Yale University Observatory (1830) and the U.S. Naval Observatory (1842).

The development of observatories went hand in hand with that of research centers. Immediately following the scientific revolution, the 17th-century scientific academy was born: in London, the Royal Society was founded in 1660; the Académie Royale des Sciences in France was founded by Louis XIV in 1666. In his newly created capital, St. Petersburg, Peter the Great established an educational research institute in 1724. This became the first institution of its kind in Europe for the purpose of conducting scientific research within a university setting. The idea eventually caught on. Research institutes emerged at the beginning of the 1900s, in part because they had distance from government supervision; these included the Rockefeller Institute, Bell Labs, the Scripps Research Institute, and the Carnegie Institution of Washington. Thomas Edison is attributed with creating the first industrial research laboratory. Universities followed suit as mass education produced a plethora of specialized scientific communities of practice.

Observatories were revolutionary to geographers, providing a permanent, authoritative, steady source of data. Over time, observation networks have expanded, extending to everyday devices touched by ordinary citizens. Here, an “observatory” of sorts for the general public atop the Eiffel Tower in Paris. (Joseph Kerski)

Today, observatories can be thought of in terms of being space-based, airborne, underground, and ground-based. Space-based observatories include the Hubble Space Telescope, but the hundreds of Earth-observing satellites orbiting the Earth can be thought of as observatories as well. These are used for weather and environmental monitoring, mapping, and remote sensing (see Remote Sensing). Airborne observatories are housed in airplanes or balloons, while underground ones are either beneath the surface or measuring something beneath the surface. Of these, probably the most widely used by geographers is the global seismic network, which provides real-time information on earthquakes. Many of the global observations are fed to the U.S. Geological Survey’s earthquake center in Golden, Colorado. Ground-based observatories are still the most common. Many ground-based observatories include sensors for observing the radio and visible light portions of the electromagnetic spectrum. Most optical telescopes are kept within domed structures, which helps protect the instruments. They are usually located high in elevation and in clear climates, to maximize dark and clear skies. Mauna Kea, Hawaii, for example, at 13,796 feet (4,205 m), is home to several large optical telescopes, as is Cerro Toco in the Atacama Desert, Chile (at 18,500 feet or 5,640 m).

Radio observatories are typically situated away from urban centers, in order to prevent electromagnetic interference from radio, TV, radar, and other devices. However, unlike optical observatories, they can also be located in valleys, which help to shield interference. These include Socorro, New Mexico, in the United States; Jodrell Bank in the United Kingdom; Arecibo, Puerto Rico; Parkes, New South Wales, Australia; and Chajnantor in Chile. The ground-based observatories most used by geographers are typically the volcano observatories, along with a variety of ocean-floating buoys. One array of buoys is named Argo and consists of 3,000 floats that measure the temperature and salinity of the upper 2,000 meters of the ocean. The Deep-ocean Assessment and Reporting of Tsunamis (DART) systems each consist of a surface buoy and a bottom-pressure recording package on the seafloor and transmit information via satellite.

Another famous geographical observatory is the Amundsen–Scott station at the South Pole, located at 9,301 feet (2,835 m) above sea level. The original Amundsen–Scott station was built by the United States government during 1956 as a part of the International Polar Year (see International Geophysical Year). It was rebuilt in 1975 as a geodesic dome, which gradually sunk deeper and deeper into the ice before being replaced in 2003 with a new building.

One of the most famous observatories is the Royal Observatory in Greenwich, England. It was commissioned in 1675 by King Charles II; it housed clocks and nautical almanacs. Its importance rose when it became the internationally agreed-upon location for the prime meridian in 1884 (see Latitude and Longitude). Greenwich Mean Time was also calculated from celestial observations made here, replaced by Universal Time in 1954 from observations made at other observatories (see Time). Due to light pollution, electric railways, historical events such as World War II, the discovery that the prime meridian marker at the Royal Observatory is slightly east of 0° longitude, and close proximity to London, nearly all of the observatory scientific staff have relocated to other parts of the United Kingdom. Today, the Royal Observatory operates chiefly as a museum. However, the time ball still drops dutifully at 13:00 (1:00 PM) year round, as it has for centuries.

Another example of a geographic observatory is the Lhasa Plateau Ecological Research Station. This station belongs to the Chinese Academy of Sciences and is located in Tibet. The mission of this observatory is to monitor the long-term agricultural ecosystems in the Yarlungzangbo Watershed, to research alpine ecosystems on the Tibetan Plateau, and to support agricultural and pastoral sustainable development based on suitable and appropriate sciences and technologies. It also provides scientists with opportunities to conduct scientific research based on the particular conditions of the alpine environment around the Tibetan Plateau. It is also important to the research station to conduct all of this research with its own personnel.

Observatories were revolutionary to geography—no longer did geographers have to rely on sending explorers or survey teams to locations to collect data. While fieldwork would remain important, they could begin relying on a steady set of authoritative information from a growing network of sensors operating in permanent observatories. In some ways, the construction of observatories marked the beginning of “big data.” Observatories have not only become more numerous, but they have also become smaller; for instance, the National Ecological Observatory Network (NEON) is a National Science Foundation-funded network of dozens of small platforms placed on small towers in 20 distinct regions of vegetation, landforms, climate, and ecosystems; it is designed to measure the impacts of climate change, land-use change, and invasive species on ecology. But sensors are also appearing in small plastic eggs to measure air quality; others are under pavement to measure traffic counts; others can determine how many people are entering a public square as part of a geofencing process. Indeed, the growing array of sensors on, under, and over the planet can be thought of as small observatories (see Internet of Things). Through citizen science, the sensor network can be thought of as including the over 7 billion humans on the Earth who can collect and share data (see Citizen Science).

See also: Citizen Science; Cross-Staffs, Astrolabes, and Other Devices; International Geophysical Year; Internet of Things; Latitude and Longitude; Remote Sensing; Time

OCEAN RESEARCH

The “Other 71 Percent” of the Planet

For centuries, despite the advances detailed in this book about discoveries made about the Earth that gradually filled in the world map and helped explain how major Earth systems interacted, the vast majority of the discoveries had to do with the land surface. The large majority of the planet—the 71 percent occupied by the oceans—was shown on maps either as populated by fictitious serpents or other creatures, or drawn as blank spaces. Recently, advances in ocean research have begun to have a revolutionary impact on geographic thought. Indeed, oceanography and geography have long been inextricably linked.

Several advancements in ocean research were made by Strabo (on tides) and by several geographers and explorers mentioned in this book (see Antarctica; Cook, James; Maury, Matthew; Strabo) who observed ocean currents and marine life. The 1872–1876 global circumnavigation by the U.K. ship Challenger was the world’s first true oceanographic expedition. Yet for all that these explorers and researchers contributed, because of the vastness and three-dimensional nature of the oceans (its average depth is 12,200 feet (3,720 meters), human exploration was always limited in space and time and fraught with danger. Marine research made significant advances after the establishment of ocean buoys, tidal stations, deep-sea submersibles, and satellite sensors. For example, Wegener’s theory on plate tectonics was only confirmed upon the discovery during the 1950s of the creation of new crust along the mid-oceanic ridges resulting in seafloor spreading (see Wegener, Alfred). Seafloor mapping data began through sonar during the early 20th century through the GeoSat and other satellites of the 1990s and beyond. Today, oceans are studied from a geological, chemical, physical, and biological point of view, sometimes by departments of geography (see Geography Departments).

Poor ocean water quality will not only spoil one’s day at the beach—it has global implications for human and marine health. Research on oceans has had and continues to have a revolutionary impact on geography—from plate tectonics, to ocean life, to weather and climate, to human-environment interaction, and beyond. (Joseph Kerski)

Ocean research also has revolutionized geographic thought by illustrating the interaction between humans and the environment. As marine research advanced, it became clear that oceans were fundamental to the very existence of humans. The oceans contain 97 percent of the planet’s water. The top layer of the oceans—approximately 10 feet in depth—can hold as much heat as the whole atmosphere. Ocean plants produce half of the world’s oxygen; ocean waters absorb one-third of human-caused carbon dioxide emissions, regulate the temperature, and form the clouds that bring precipitation. Ocean fish provide a major food source, are fed to livestock, are used in medicines, and may hold the cure for many diseases. In deep-sea hydrothermal vents, a form of life was recently discovered that is based on chemical energy, rather than light energy. The oceans contain the largest animal on the planet (the blue whale) and the largest living structure (the Great Barrier Reef). Ocean current discoveries were made jointly by geographers and oceanographers; ocean currents were found to be affected by tides, the Coriolis effect of the Earth’s rotation, wind, salinity, and air and water temperature. For example, off the Atlantic seaboard of the United States, the Gulf Stream flows at a rate nearly 300 times faster than the typical flow rate of the Amazon. Ocean currents have been inextricably linked to global climate and weather patterns, and thus they are fundamental to agricultural production and life on the planet’s surface.

More recently, ocean research has focused on acidification, a decrease in ocean pH from human-caused carbon dioxide emissions. Acidification harms the skeletons of marine animals such as oysters, clams, sea urchins, and corals. Another focus of ocean research has been on the rise in sea level in response to climate change. This is largely of concern because 80 percent of the world’s population lives within 60 miles (96.5 km) of the coast. During the latter half of the 20th century, it became apparent that overfishing was occurring in many parts of the world; this was of concern because, according to the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization, fish provided more than 2.9 billion people with 20 percent of their intake of animal protein, and 4.3 billion people with 15 percent of such protein. With increased population comes increased demand, and fisheries and aquaculture production rose from 80 million tonnes annually in the mid-1990s to 158 million tonnes by 2012.

Besides overfishing, another illustration of human–environment interaction has been the increasing research on marine trash. Sailors and fishermen have known for centuries that the oceans are the final resting places for the planet’s waste. Over the past few decades, it has been increasingly noted that marine animals have been discovered helplessly stuck and tangled up in debris, with over 136 species cataloged as entangled thus far (Parker 2014). Beginning in the early 2000s, it was becoming apparent that the pollution in the oceans was not confined to local areas but instead was a widespread concern. Gigantic eddies of trash, in large part composed of plastics (including the “Great Pacific Garbage Patch,” which is often said to be twice the size of Texas), began to be identified and mapped. Even more importantly, work has begun to capture the trash before it reaches the ocean and to examine the source—the processes and practices involved in manufacturing it. Scientific research in marine waste only began in earnest about a decade ago, when it was noted that unlike in the past, when garbage was largely wood, metal pieces, cloth, and ceramics, now it is composed largely of plastic. Most of that plastic is decayed and broken down into small bits, including at the microscopic level, which find their way into marine life and into the food chain.

Thanks in part to ongoing research by the geographic community, the importance of the oceans is beginning to be realized by policymakers and the general public. In the United States alone, it is estimated that one in every six jobs is marine-related, and over one-third of the GNP originates in coastal areas. The ocean—all 140 million square miles of it (362 million square kilometers)—is now recognized as key for human health, world transportation, recreation, trade (over 90 percent of trade is carried by ships; 50 percent of communications use underwater cables), food, climate, and weather; yet even today, the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) estimates that more than 95 percent of the oceans remain unexplored.

Sylvia Earle

Oceanographer, explorer, and author Sylvia Earle (born 1935) is the winner of Time magazine’s first “Hero for the Planet” award and has been National Geographic explorer-in-residence since 1998. One of her most influential books is Sea Change: A Message of the Oceans. In 1985, her team designed and built a research submarine that could operate 3,300 feet below the surface (1,000 meters). She was the first female to serve as chief scientist of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). Like others described in this book, she is committed to educational work, having written over 150 publications as well as children’s books such as Sea Critters and Dive! She has established over 50 marine protected areas, which she calls “hope spots,” around the globe.

On the positive side of human–environment interaction has been the notable cleanup and restoration of ocean beaches, estuaries, and rivers from the Chesapeake Bay to Lake Erie to Ohio’s Cuyahoga River, and internationally, the attempts to restore parts of the Aral Sea. Communities and regions across the globe are beginning to realize that to neglect oceans, rivers, lakes, wetlands, and estuaries is to neglect a fundamental, life-giving part of the planet, at our own peril.

The Integrated Ocean Observing System is bringing together the international research community to track, predict, manage, and adapt to changes in the oceans. It relies on data from ships, citizen scientists, gliders, satellites, autonomous underwater vehicles, sensors on animals such as elephant seals (animal telemetry), ocean buoys that measure currents and hundreds of water quality variables, and other tools in a growing global system, part of the Internet of Things (see Citizen Science; Internet of Things; Unmanned Aerial Vehicles).

Ocean research has had a vast impact on geographic thought. Ocean research contributed to geographic studies, and conversely, understanding of geographic principles and perspectives has aided oceanographers. While geographers of the past have never pretended that oceans have not mattered to physical and cultural geography, a lack of data was a limiting factor in incorporating ocean considerations into land-based research. Today, with the advent of new methods, tools, maps, and data, there is fertile collaboration between the geographic and oceanographic communities. Furthermore, global attention to oceans has raised awareness, among the research community and the general public, of the importance of geography’s “big picture” perspective, particularly since the oceans, taken together, are literally the biggest thing on the planet. That “other 71 percent” really is important.

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OBSERVATORIES

Permanent Monitors of the Earth and Beyond

Further Reading

OCEAN RESEARCH

The “Other 71 Percent” of the Planet

Further Reading