The game of chess is played between two players on a board of sixty-four squares (8 × 8) alternately coloured light and dark (usually referred to as black and white).
Each player has at his command a force of sixteen pieces: one king, one queen, two rooks, two bishops, two knights and eight pawns. The opposing forces are of light and dark colours, and are referred to as White and Black.
Players move in turn, and the object of the game is to trap (checkmate) the opposing king.
Each chess piece is governed by its own rules of movement and is now examined separately.
The king moves one square in any direction (diagram 1) but, since he takes seven moves to cross the board, he is a comparatively weak piece. However, the importance of the king is evident from the second to last paragraph – his loss entails the loss of the game.
The king may not, therefore, be moved onto a square attacked by an opposing piece. If the king is attacked (i.e. if he is threatened with capture on the next move), he is said to be “in check”, and the opponent may, but is not obliged to, say “check” when making the move that attacks the king.
The player whose king is threatened must immediately move out of check. There are three ways of doing this:
1. By moving the king onto a square not attacked by an enemy piece.
2. By capturing the checking piece, either with the king or with another piece.
3. By interposing a piece between the king and the checking piece.
Not all these resources may be available. If none is playable – that is, if the king has no square to which to move out of check, the attacking piece may not be captured and no piece can block the check – then the king is said to be “checkmated”, or, simply “mated”, and the game is over. Note that the king is the only piece that can never actually be captured – the game is concluded when capture is inevitable.
A king may capture an opposing piece by moving onto the square on which it stands, simultaneously removing it from the board. Since it is illegal for the king to move into check, only an undefended piece may be so captured. Capturing in chess is not compulsory (as in draughts), and there is no “huffing” or jumping over the captured piece. The two kings must not stand on adjacent squares, since both would then be in check from each other.
The queen moves in any direction across any number of vacant squares (diagram 1). Her move is an extension of the king’s move, limited only by the confines of the board. She is the most powerful piece on the board.
The queen captures in the same manner as the king but, since she is not liable to check, she may capture a piece that is defended, although such movement is unusual, as, being the most powerful piece, the queen is rarely surrendered voluntarily for a piece other than the opposing queen. It will be seen that the queen, if centrally placed, controls twenty-seven squares on an empty board.
The rook, sometimes referred to as the castle, may move in a vertical or horizontal direction only, over any number of vacant squares (diagram 2). It captures in the same manner as the queen, occupying the square on which the hostile piece stands, whilst removing it from the board. Note that wherever a rook stands on an empty board, it commands fourteen squares.
The bishop moves diagonally only, over any number of vacant squares, capturing in the same manner as the preceding pieces (diagram 2). Note that a bishop is restricted to squares of one colour, and that the nearer it stands to the edge of the board, the fewer the squares it controls.
From the foregoing it will be clear that the queen combines the moves of rook and bishop. If the queen is moved vertically or horizontally over an odd number of squares, she will then command diagonals of the opposite colour, a property with which the bishop is not endowed.
The move of the knight causes some beginners difficulty. The move is best defined as from one corner of a 3 × 2 rectangle to the opposite corner. Diagram 3 should make this clear.
Pieces standing on intervening squares do not affect the knight’s move. For this reason, some players talk of a knight jumping over other pieces.
The knight captures in occupying, as is the case with the other pieces. It is strongest on a crowded board, when it can pursue its designs unimpeded, and is very much weaker on an open board when the mobility of the other pieces is proportionately increased.
It will be noted, also, that the knight, like the king, queen and bishop, controls fewer squares when stationed on or near the edge of the board. Also, that if on a white square it controls only black squares and vice versa.
Until the knight becomes familiar, it is not easy to anticipate its movements and in consequence there is a tendency amongst beginners to over-estimate its powers.
The pawn, unlike the others, moves in a forward direction only, one square a time.
Each pawn has, however, the option of moving two squares forward on its first move, and this right is retained throughout the game.
The pawn, alone of all the pieces, captures in a different way from which it moves. Whereas it moves one square straight forward, it captures one square diagonally forward. A pawn may not move diagonally forward unless, in so doing, it captures an opposing piece; nor may it move straight forward, either one or two squares, unless such squares are vacant.
The initial double move of the pawn was introduced to stimulate what would otherwise be a slow game. However, in order that a pawn should not take advantage of the double move to evade a hostile pawn, a rule, known as the en passant (French: “in passing”) rule was introduced.
This lays down that if a pawn, moving two squares forward from its initial position, could have been captured by an opposing pawn if it had only moved one square, then such capture may be made as if the pawn had only moved one square. The pawn making the initial double move is removed from the board and the capturing pawn occupies the square that the captured pawn would have occupied had it only moved one. The right to make a capture en passant is forfeited if not exercised immediately. Note that a pawn can only be captured en passant by another pawn.
A pawn on reaching the end of the board (the last rank of eight squares) is promoted to any piece (other than a king) that the player chooses. A queen is the natural selection, in view of her being the strongest piece, but occasionally the peculiarity of the position demands promotion to knight, or even to bishop or rook.
No restriction is placed on the number of pawn promotions but, although eight such promotions are possible, it is very rare that more than one or two occur in a game.
Examine diagram 4. In this, as in all other diagrams in the book (and commonly in all chess literature) White is assumed to be playing UP the board, Black DOWN the board. For purposes of economy, four positions are given in one diagram, but in each case the whole of the board is assumed to be included.
In (a) none of the four pawns can move. In (b) the white pawn can capture either the rook or the bishop, or it can move straight ahead onto the white square. In each of these cases it has reached the eighth rank, or end of the board, and must be simultaneously promoted to a piece which is placed on the square to which the pawn moves. If a queen is desired, and the white queen is still on the board, an inverted rook or a coin will serve the purpose.
In (c) the white pawns stand in their initial positions, as will be clear from diagram 5. Hence the two outside pawns can both be advanced one or two squares. Both can also capture the black pawn. The black pawn can capture either of these two pawns, whilst the middle white pawn is unable to move.
In (d) the white pawn has just made the initial double move, and Black can consequently capture en passant as shown.
In contrast to knights, pawns tend to be underestimated by beginners. Do not shed pawns lightly: every one is a potential queen. Between strong players, an extra pawn on one side is often enough to force victory.
Having seen how the pieces move, let us now set them up in their initial positions, before the start of a game (diagram 5).
Note that the board is positioned so that there is a black square in the left-hand corner of each player.
In the four corners of the board are the rooks, next to them the knights, then the bishops and finally the royal couples – the queens on the squares of their own colour (black queen on black square, white queen on white square).
Notice carefully the asymmetrical arrangement of the kings and queens – each piece opposite its rival counterpart. The pawns are placed in front of the other pieces.
In chess, White always moves first (choice of colour is decided by lot: it is common for one player to conceal two pawns, one white and one black in clenched fists, the opponent then choosing “which hand” to determine colours). Before we can start playing an actual game, however, there are one or two more important rules to be learned; after which it will be necessary to become familiar with a few basic ideas. Chess, to be learnt properly, must be studied step by step, each point being thoroughly assimilated before passing on to the next one, too rapid advancement leading only to confusion and eventual frustration.
Castling is a privilege to which both sides are entitled once in a game. The manoeuvre, which is a joint move of king and one rook, counts as a single move. It may be played only if all the following conditions are fulfilled:
1. Neither the king nor the rook has moved.
2. The king is not in check.
3. There are no pieces, either hostile or friendly, between the king and the rook, nor does an enemy piece attack a square over which, or onto which, the king must move.
There is a misconception that you may not castle once the king has been in check. This is incorrect: provided that, in getting out of check the king was not moved (thereby contravening (1) above), castling is permitted.
In castling, the king is first moved two squares in the direction of the rook, which then jumps over the king to the next square. The move is then complete.
Castling may take place on either side of the board, and is referred to as king-side castling and queen-side castling. Once castling is complete, the pieces reassume their normal functions and the manoeuvre cannot be retracted.
The object of the move is two-fold: to bring a rook into play in the centre of the board and to give greater security to the king. The manoeuvre is commonly used by both players during a game.
Examine diagram 6. White may castle on either side (the movements of the pieces are indicated by arrows), whereas Black may not castle at all, since the rook on the queen-side has been moved, and to castle king-side the black king would have to pass over a square controlled by an enemy piece (the white bishop).
We have seen that if a king is attacked (in check) and cannot be moved out of check, and the attacking piece cannot be captured or a friendly piece interposed, the king is assumed to be captured (checkmated, or mated) and the game is over.
Here are four examples in each of which the black king is mated. In diagram 7(a) the black king is attacked by the white queen, which also controls all the neighbouring squares. Since the white queen is protected by the white king, she may not be captured, and Black has consequently lost the game. In (b) the black king is attacked by the advanced white pawn, which is defended by the second white pawn. The knight controls the two remaining squares adjacent to the king (“the king’s field”), who is therefore checkmated.
In (c) the black king is again attacked, this time by the white bishop, which also indirectly guards the rook, as if the black king captured the rook he would still be in check, and, as we have seen, this would constitute an illegal move. The white rook controls no fewer than four of the squares in the king’s field, the only two remaining escape squares being occupied by black pieces. The pawn is unable to move (remember, White is playing UP the board, Black is playing DOWN), and the black bishop, only capable of moving on white squares, is unable to intervene. Both the black pieces are restricting the movements of the black king.
In (d) the position is more complex and should be examined carefully. The black king is attacked by the white rook, which is also indirectly defending the knight. The white king controls two escape squares, the bishop one and the knight one. Neither the black rook nor the black knight can capture the attacking piece, nor can either interpose between it and the black king. Black is checkmated. Note that if the black rook and knight were interchanged, either of them would be able to move onto the black square between the black king and the hostile rook. If, in the position given, the black knight was not on the board, the black king would still be checkmated, since the white knight attacks the vacated square.
If the black rook was off the board, however, the black king would be able to move out of check into the corner. All the white pieces are indispensable to the mate.
Occasionally a position arises (usually when there are only a few pieces left on the board) when one side, whose turn it is to move, is unable to do so. If the king were in check, the position would be checkmate. If, however, the king is not in check, the game is declared a draw by stalemate.
In diagram 8(a) the white queen controls the three squares in the king’s field, but she is not attacking the king. If Black has no other pieces on the board, the position would be stalemate with Black to move. In (b), similarly, the bishops control the king’s escape squares. Neither the pawn nor the king can move, and if it is Black’s turn to play, White is said to have stalemated Black and the game is a draw.
In (c), the black king’s only square is next to the white king – to occupy which would be an illegal move. A move by the black bishop would expose the king to an attack from the white rook – again illegal. The black rook is in the same dilemma, any move exposing the king to check from the white bishop. These two black pieces are said to be “pinned”. As neither can move, with Black’s turn to play, the game is drawn. If it were White’s turn to play, however, the bishop could capture the rook delivering checkmate.
In (d) it will be seen that none of the black pieces can move – the pawns obstructing the pieces. Black, to play, is stalemated. The possibility of such a position as this occurring in an actual game is remote.
Stalemates are not common in chess, although the threat of stalemate (or, rather, self-stalemate) by the player with the weaker force is often encountered.
Apart from checkmate and stalemate, there are several other ways by which a game may be concluded.
If neither side has sufficient force left to checkmate the opposing king, the game is drawn. What constitutes insufficient force will be explained in the next chapter.
If the same position occurs three times in a game, with the same player to move in each case, either side may claim a draw. If this happens as the result of one side submitting the enemy king to a perpetual series of checks, it is usually referred to as “perpetual check”. Clearly it will not be to the advantage of the stronger side to resort to a “perpetual” (as perpetual check is more commonly called).
If each side has played 50 consecutive moves without making a capture or pawn move, either player may, on turn, claim a draw. This rule is designed to limit aimless play.
A draw may be agreed between the players at any stage of the game. Positions are often reached where neither player can lay claim to a winning advantage, and both players are reluctant to embark on doubtful ventures. In such positions, a draw is commonly agreed. A high percentage of master games finish in this way.
A player who sees the position is hopeless, and that checkmate is inevitable sooner or later, will “resign” (concede) the game. More than half of all chess games conclude in this manner.
In point of fact, it is advisable for the beginner not to resign, as more can be learnt from being checkmated a few dozen times. Later, however, resignation in hopeless positions is desirable. A few novices consider that holding out to the bitter end constitutes courage. On the contrary, chess etiquette requires that a player who is clearly beaten should resign in good grace. A player who continues the struggle can only be prolonging the game in the hope that his opponent will make a mistake – a discourteous imputation of an adversary’s ability. But, to repeat, every game should be played to a finish in the initial stages of instruction.
In addition to those given above, there are some other ways in which the result of a game may be determined. These, however, have only to do with such matters as the players’ conduct and necessary legal niceties associated with match and tournament games, and they need not concern us here.
It is one of the merits of chess that moves can be recorded. We are thereby not only the fortunate inheritors of the great games of past generations but we also have access to the day-by-day battles of modern masters. In the comfort of your own home you can recreate world championship encounters and, if you wish, keep a record of your own games for future amusement or study.
Systems of recording moves are known as notations. There are two common notations: the Standard (Algebraic), now in general use and alone sanctioned by the International Chess Federation, and the Descriptive (or English) notation, commonly seen in older chess books. The Descriptive notation and the Forsyth notation (used for recording positions) are explained in Chapter 9.
It is convenient, for reference purposes, to divide the chessboard into eight files (vertical lines of eight squares) and eight ranks (horizontal lines of eight squares). In the algebraic notation the files are lettered a to h from left to right and the ranks are numbered from 1 to 8 bottom to top, starting from the near left-hand corner of the board when seen from White’s side (see diagram 9). Thus every square of the chessboard can be described by a unique letter-and-number (in that order) combination. For example, in the starting position (diagram 5) White’s queen stands on d1 and Black’s king on e8. The board is also notionally divided vertically into two halves, the king’s side and the queen’s side. Viewed from White’s side, the king’s side is the right half of the board and the queen’s side the left half. We have already met this distinction in our discussion of castling.
The pieces are identified in algebraic notation by their initial letters: K (king); Q (queen); R (rook); B (bishop); and N (knight to distinguish it from the king); the pawn is not identified (which is itself an identification).
We now have a system for identifying pieces and squares. All that is needed in addition in order to record games is a few symbols to indicate different types of moves. Just to confuse things a little, there are two types of notation, the long and the short. The only difference between them is that in the long version a move is described in full, whereas in the short version the move is abbreviated. The long is now little used as it is cumbersome and takes up more space. However, since it is clearer it will be used until Chapter 3 when a switch will be made to the shortened form.
In the long version, the initial of the piece is given first followed by the square on which it stands. Then a dash (–) to indicate a move to a vacant square, followed by the description of the square moved to. If a piece is captured in the process, the dash is replaced by a cross (x) to indicate this. Notice that no ambiguity can arise because no more than one piece can ever occupy a square.
Other symbols, common to both long and short notations, are:
The en passant capture is abbreviated: e.p.
Now for a few examples. Look at diagram 9. If in this position White advanced the pawn at a2 two squares, the move would be transcribed a2–a4; while if instead this pawn captured the knight, the move would be recorded as a2xb3. If White checks with the bishop (only one bishop can check), the move would be Bf1–b5+. If Black chose to move the queen’s rook next to the king, the description would be Ra8–d8 while, if the advanced black pawn is promoted to queen, this move would be recorded as d2–d1Q. At first, this may seem a bit complicated but fluency will come with a little practice.
If you have read this chapter at a single sitting, you will probably be in a state of near mental exhaustion. You have possibly already forgotten how the knight moves, or what stalemate is; but you should not let this worry you.
You have the consolation of knowing that there are only a few very minor rules still to be learned, the rest of the book being devoted to the right way to play the game.
The chapter should be re-read carefully after a short interval, and before going on you should be thoroughly conversant with the moves of the pieces, pawn promotion, check and checkmate, stalemate, castling and chess notation. A good idea is to place half a dozen pieces haphazardly on the board and move them around, black and white alternately, capturing, checking, and, if possible, securing positions in which checkmate or stalemate may be given. Then try recording moves as you go along.
By way of a test, return to diagram 9 and see how many of the following questions you can answer correctly (the answers appear on page 32).
1. How many pieces in the position given are unable to move?
2. To how many squares can the white bishop on d6 move?
3. How many white pieces are on their original squares?
4. Can White play Kf2–e1?
5. If Black captures the pawn on b6 with the pawn at a7, how should this move be recorded?
6. On the whole board, how many possible (i.e. legal) black moves are there? (Count the pawn promotion as one move.)
1. One. The black pawn at b7.
2. Eight, including the pawn capture.
3. Ten: White Bf1, Pa2, Pg2, Ph2.
Black Ke8, Ra8, Rh8, Pa7, Pb7, Ph7
4. No: because the white king would then be in check from the black pawn.
5. a7xb6
6. Twenty-nine.
