Language

Arabic is the official language of all Middle Eastern countries except Iran, Israel and Turkey. While English (and to a lesser extent, French – mainly in Lebanon and Syria) is widely spoken in the region, any effort to communicate with the locals in their own language will be well rewarded. No matter how far off the mark your pronunciation or grammar might be, you’ll often get the response (usually with a big smile), ‘Ah, you speak Arabic very well!’ Unlike English, the language is written from right to left, and it’s a very good idea to at least familiarise yourself with the alphabet (see opposite).

Learning the basics for day-to-day travelling doesn’t take long at all, but to master the complexities of Arabic would take years of constant study. Lonely Planet’s Egyptian Arabic Phrasebook will prove very useful in this region – thanks in no small way to the predominance of Egyptian TV programs being broadcast throughout the Middle East. Or, for a guide that includes four varieties of Arabic, try Lonely Planet’s Middle East Phrasebook.

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TRANSLITERATION

It’s worth noting here that transliterating from Arabic script into English is at best an approximate science. The presence of a number of sounds unknown in European languages, and the fact that the script is ‘incomplete’ (most vowel sounds are not written), combine to make it nearly impossible to settle on one method of transliteration. A wide variety of spellings are therefore possible for words when they appear in Roman script.

The matter is further complicated by the wide variety of dialects and the imaginative ideas Arabs themselves often have on appropriate spelling in, say, English. Words spelt one way in Egypt may look very different in Syria, which is heavily influenced by French. Not even the most venerable of Western Arabists have been able to come up with an ideal solution.

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PRONUNCIATION

Pronunciation of Arabic can be tongue-tying for someone unfamiliar with the intonation and combination of sounds. Much of the vocabulary in this language guide would be universally understood throughout the Arab world, although some of it, especially where more than one option is given, reflects regional dialects. For best results, pronounce the transliterated words slowly and clearly.

HOW DO YOU SPELL THAT?!

While we have tried to standardise all spellings in this book there are some instances in which flexibility seemed to be more appropriate than consistency. For example, if two alternative transliterations for the same thing exist in different countries, we may go with both if it’s clear that these are the spellings any visitor to those countries will find on local maps and road signs.

Differences in spelling also arise through the same word having several variants in the different languages of the region – ’square’ in Arabic is traditionally transliterated as midan, but in Turkish it’s written maydan and in Persian meidun (or meidun-é; ’the square of’). Here lies great potential for confusion, as in the case with hamam, which is Turkish for the famed ’bathhouse’, but Arabic for ’pigeon’; if you’re looking for a good steam-cleaning, in Arabic you ask for a hammam, with the two syllables sounded distinctly.

We have also been forced to modify some spellings because of regional differences in Arabic pronunciation. The most obvious example of this occurs with the hard Egyptian sounding of the letter jeem, like the ’g’ in ’gate’, whereas elsewhere in the Arab world it’s a softer ’j’ as in ’jam’ – hence we have used both gadid and jadid (new), and gebel and jebel (mountain).

THE STANDARD ARABIC ALPHABET

Vowels Not all Arabic vowel sounds are represented in the alphabet. For more information on the vowel sounds used in this language guide, see Vowels (Click here).

Emphatic Consonants To simplify the transliteration system used in this book, the emphatic consonants have not been included.

Vowels

Technically, there are three long and three short vowels in Arabic. The reality is a little different, with local dialect and varying consonant combinations affecting their pronunciation. This is the case throughout the Arabic-speaking world. At the very least, five short and three long vowels can be identified:

a	as in ‘had’
e	as in ‘bet’
i	as in ‘hit’
o	as in ‘hot’
u	as in ‘push’
aa	as in ‘father’ or as a long pronunciation of the ‘a’ in ‘had’
ee	as the ‘ea’ in ‘eagle’
00	as the ‘oo’ in ‘food’

Consonants

Pronunciation for all Arabic consonants is covered in the Arabic alphabet table (Click here). Note that when double consonants occur in transliterations, both are pronounced. For example, el-hammaam (toilet, bathhouse), is pronounced ‘el-ham-mam’.

Other Sounds

Arabic has two sounds that are very tricky for non-Arabs to produce, the ’ayn and the glottal stop. The letter ’ayn represents a sound with no English equivalent that comes even close. It is articulated from deep in the throat, as is the glottal stop (which is not actually represented in the alphabet), but the muscles at the back of the throat are gagged more forcefully – it has even been described as the sound of someone being strangled!

In many transliteration systems ’ayn is represented by an opening quotation mark, and the glottal stop by a closing quotation mark. To make the transliterations in this language guide (and throughout the rest of the book) easier to use, we have not distinguished between the glottal stop and the ’ayn, using the closing quotation mark to represent both sounds. You should find that Arabic speakers will still understand you through the context of your topic of conversation.

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CONVERSATION & ESSENTIALS

Arabs place great importance on civility, and it’s rare to see any interaction between people that doesn’t begin with profuse greetings, inquiries into the other’s health and other niceties.

Arabic greetings are more formal than greetings in English, and there is a reciprocal response to each. These sometimes vary slightly, depending on whether you’re addressing a man or a woman. A simple encounter can become a drawn-out affair, with neither side wanting to be the one to put a halt to the stream of greetings and well-wishing. As an ajnabi (foreigner), you’re not expected to know all the ins and outs, but if you come up with the right expression at the appropriate moment, they’ll love it.

The most common greeting is salaam ’alaykum (peace be upon you), to which the correct reply is wa alaykum as-salaam (and upon you be peace). If you get invited to a birthday celebration or are around for any of the big holidays, the common greeting is kul sana wa intum bi-kher (I wish you well for the coming year).

After having a bath or a haircut, you will often hear people say to you na’iman, which roughly means ‘heavenly’ and boils down to an observation along the lines of ‘nice and clean now!’.

Arrival in one piece is always something to be grateful for. Passengers will often be greeted with al-hamdu lillah ’al as-salaama, meaning ‘thank God for your safe arrival’.

Questions like ‘Is the bus coming?’ or ‘Will the bank be open later?’ generally elicit the inevitable response in sha’ Allah (God willing), an expression you’ll hear over and over again. Another less common one is ma sha’ Allah (God’s will be done), sometimes a useful answer to probing questions about why you’re not married yet!

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HEALTH

EMERGENCIES - ARABIC

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ACCOMMODATION & SERVICES

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TIME & DAYS

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MONTHS

The Muslim Hejira calendar year has 12 lunar months and is 11 days shorter than the Western (Gregorian) calendar year, so important Muslim dates will fall 11 days earlier each (Western) year.

There are two Gregorian calendars used in the Arab world. In Egypt and the Gulf States, the months have virtually the same names as in English (eg January is yanaayir, October is octobir), but in Lebanon, Jordan and Syria, the names are quite different. Talking about, say, June as ‘month six’ is the easiest solution, but for the sake of completeness, the months from January are:

The Hejira months also have their own names:

SIGNS – ARABIC

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NUMBERS

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TRANSPORT

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HEBREW

Written from right to left, Hebrew has a basic 22-character alphabet – but from there it starts to get very complicated. Like English, not all these characters have fixed phonetic values and their sound can vary from word to word. You just have to know that, for instance, Yair is pronounced ‘Ya-ear’ and doesn’t rhyme with ‘hare’ or ‘fire’.

As with Arabic, transliteration of Hebrew script into English is at best an approximate science. The presence of sounds not found in English, and the fact that the script is ‘incomplete’ (most vowels are not written) combine to make it nearly impossible to settle on one consistent method of transliteration. Numerous spellings are therefore possible for words when they appear in Roman script, and that goes for place and people’s names as well.

If you’d like a more comprehensive guide to Hebrew, get a copy of Lonely Planet’s Hebrew Phrasebook.

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CONVERSATION & ESSENTIALS

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ACCOMMODATION & SERVICES

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TIME & NUMBERS

Hebrew uses standard Western numerals for written numbers.

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TRANSPORT

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TURKISH

Ottoman Turkish was written in Arabic script, but this was phased out when Atatürk decreed the introduction of Latin script in 1928. In big cities and tourist areas, many locals know at least some English and/or German. In the southeastern towns, Arabic or Kurdish is the first language.

For a more in-depth look at the language, including a list of useful words and phrases, get a copy of Lonely Planet’s Turkish Phrasebook.

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PRONUNCIATION

The letters of the new Turkish alphabet have a consistent pronunciation; they’re reasonably easy to master, once you’ve learned a few basic rules. All letters except ğ (which is silent) are pronounced, and there are no diphthongs.