Notes
Introduction
1 Ulrich Beck,
World Risk Society (Cambridge, MA: Polity, 1998), 119.
2 Robert J. Brulle,
Agency, Democracy, and Nature: The US Environmental Movement from a Critical Theory Perspective (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2000), 48.
3 Lynn White Jr, ‘The Historical Roots of our Ecologic Crisis’, in Cheryll Glotfelty and Harold Fromm (eds.),
The Ecocriticism Reader: Landmarks in Literary Ecology (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1996), 3–14.
4 Brulle,
Agency, Democracy, 48.
5 Murray Bookchin,
The Ecology of Freedom: The Emergence and Dissolution of Hierarchy (1982; Edinburgh: AK Press, 2005), 34.
6 Raymond Williams,
The Country and the City (1973; London: Hogarth, 1993).
8 Sylvia Bowerbank, Speaking for Nature: Women and Ecologies of Early Modern England (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2004);
Alice Jenkins, ‘Alexander von Humboldt's Kosmos and the Beginnings of Ecocriticism’, ISLE 14.2 (summer 2007): 89–105;
Angela Wilde, ‘Challenging the Confines: Haiku from the Prison Camps’, in Annie Merril Ingram et al. (eds.), Coming into Contact: Explorations in Ecocritical Theory and Practice (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 2007), 39–57.
9 Henry D. Thoreau,
Walden and Resistance to Civil Government, ed. William Rossi, Norton Critical Edition, 2nd edn (New York: Norton, 1992), 216.
10 Peter
Brand with Michael
J. Thomas,
Urban Environmentalism: Global Change and the Mediation of Local Conflict (London: Routledge, 2005), 104.
11 Timothy W. Luke,
Ecocritique: Contesting the Politics of Nature, Economy, and Culture (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1997), 195.
12 Raymond Williams,
Keywords (London: Flamingo, 1993), 176.
13 David W. Orr,
Earth in Mind: On Education, Environment, and the Human Prospect (1994; Washington, DC: Island Press, 2004), 56.
14 Bruno Latour,
Politics of Nature: How to Bring the Sciences into Democracy, trans. Catherine Porter (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2004), 28.
16 Henry Williamson,
The Lone Swallows (1933; Gloucester: Alan Sutton, 1984), 51.
18 Roger Deakin,
Wildwood: A Journey Through Trees (London: Hamish Hamilton, 2007), xiii.
19 Kofi Annan, ‘Climate Cost Made Clear’,
New Scientist, 6 June 2009, 6.
20 For a sober overview of likely scenarios see
Mark Lynas,
Six Degrees: Our Future on a Hotter Planet (London: Harper Perennial, 2008).
21 James Lovelock, ‘We’re doomed but it's not all bad’, interview with
James Lovelock,
New Scientist, 24 January 2009, 30–1.
22 Ken
Hiltner,
‘Renaissance
Literature and our Contemporary Attitude toward Global Warming’,
ISLE 16 (2009): 429–41, 436.
Romantic and anti-romantic
1 Jonathan Bate,
Romantic Ecology: Wordsworth and the Environmental Tradition (London: Routledge, 1991), 9.
2 Robert Kirkham, ‘The Problem of Knowledge in Environmental Thought: A Counterchallenge’, in Roger S. Gottlieb (ed.),
The Ecological Community: Environmental Challenges for Philosophy, Politics and Morality (London: Routledge, 1997), 193–207, 194.
3 Timothy Morton, ‘Environmentalism’, in Nicholas Roe (ed.),
Romanticism: An Oxford Guide (Oxford University Press, 2004), 696–707.
1 Old world romanticism
1 See also
Karl Kroeber,
Ecological Literary Criticism: Romantic Imagining and the Biology of Mind (New York: Columbia University Press, 1994); Jonathan Bate (ed.),
Green Romanticism, special issue of
Studies in Romanticism 35.3 (1996).
2 Bate's Wordsworthianism is, however, only one major strand of ecocritical readings of the Romantics. See Further Reading for
this chapter.
Greg Garrard argues that it is an attention to the very instability of the nature–culture distinction that marked
romanticism as proto-ecological, ‘Radical Pastoral’,
Studies in Romanticism 35.3 (1996): 33–58.
3 From Appendix, Jonathan Wordsworth,
William Wordsworth: The Borders of Vision (Oxford: Clarendon, 1982), 390–415, 401.
4 Bate,
Romantic Ecology, 51.
5 John Ruskin,
On Art and Life (1853; Harmondsworth: Penguin, 2004), 32.
6 Lewis Mumford, ‘Let Man Take Command’,
Saturday Review of Literature, 2 October 1948, 35.
7 William Morris, ‘The Society of the Future’ (1887), quoted in Fiona McCarthy,
William Morris: A Life for Our Time (London: Faber & Faber, 2003), 546.
‘Nature’, wrote
Georg Lukacs, means ‘the true essence of man liberated from the false,
mechanizing forms of society: man as perfected whole’ (
History and Class Consciousness [Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1971], 136). The Frankfurt School Marxist
Herbert Marcuse also appeals to an implicit norm of human
‘wholeness’, drawing upon psychoanalysis in his call for non-repressive forms of
work and the transformation of society that would ensue from a non-instrumental and even erotic relation to the natural world.
Such a change would be a ‘synthesis, reassembling the bits and fragments of a distorted humanity and distorted nature’,
Counterrevolution and Revolt (Boston, MA: Beacon, 1972), 70.
8 Morris, ‘Society of the Future’, quoted McCarthy,
William Morris, 546.
9 Derek Ratcliffe,
Lakeland (London: HarperCollins, 2002), 31.
10 See John Simons,
Animal Rights and the Politics of Literary Representation (Basingstoke: Palgrave, 2002), 87–96; Chen Hong, ‘To Set the Wild Free: Changing Images of
Animals in English Poetry of the Pre-Romantic and Romantic Periods’,
ISLE 13.2 (summer 2006): 129–49.
11 Jim Cheney, ‘Universal Consideration: An Epistemological Map of the Terrain’,
Environmental Ethics 20 (1998): 265–77.
12 David Kidner, ‘Culture and the Unconscious in Environmental Theory’,
Environmental Ethics 20 (1998): 61–80, 79.
13 Jonathan Bate,
The Song of the Earth (London: Picador, 2000), 64.
14 See J. Scott Bryson (ed.),
Ecopoetry: A Critical Introduction (Salt Lake City: University of Utah Press, 2002), 77–87.
15 Geoffrey Summerfield (ed.),
Selected Poems (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1990), 172–8, 173, 175.
16 Timothy Morton, ‘John Clare's Dark Ecology’,
Studies in Romanticism 47 (2008): 179–93, 191.
17 Crucial essays by
Naess and others are collected in George Sessions (ed.),
Deep Ecology for the 21st Century: Readings on the Philosophy and Practice of the New Environmentalism (Boston and London: Shambhala, 1995), 64–84, 80.
18 See Knut A. Jacobsen, ‘Bhagavadgita, Ecosophy T, and Deep Ecology’, and
Deane Curtin, ‘A State of Mind like Water: Ecosophy T and the Buddhist Traditions’, in Eric Katz, Andrew Light and David Rothenberg
(eds.),
Beneath the Surface: Critical Essays in the Philosophy of Deep Ecology (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2000), 231–52, 253–68.
19 Sessions (ed.),
Deep Ecology for the 21st Century, 49–53.
20 The Complete Works of P. B. Shelley, ed. Roger Ingpen and Walter Edwin Peck, 10 vols. (London: Ernest Benn, 1926–60), VI, 299–306, 303.
21 Luke,
Ecocritique, 24.
2 New world romanticism
1 Gretel Ehrlich,
The Solace of Open Spaces (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1986), 2.
2 Eric Kaufmann, ‘“Naturalizing the nation”: The Rise of Naturalistic Nationalism in the United States and Canada’,
Comparative Studies in Society and History 40 (1998): 666–95, 668.
3 Adrian Franklin,
Animal Nation: The True Story of Animals and Australia (Sydney: University of New South Wales Press, 2006), 131.
4 Michael L. Johnson,
Hunger for the Wild: America's Obsession with the Untamed West (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 2007), 144.
5 See
Daniel J. Philippon,
Conserving Words: How American Nature Writers Shaped the Environmental Movement (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 2004).
6 Edward Abbey,
Down the River (1982; New York: Penguin, 1991), 88.
7 Randall Roorda,
Dramas of Solitude: Narratives of Retreat in American Nature Writing (Albany: SUNY Press, 1998), xiii.
8 Lawrence Buell,
The Environmental Imagination: Thoreau, Nature Writing, and the Formation of American Culture (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1995).
9 Vincent Serventy,
Dryandra: The Story of an Australian Forest (Sydney: A. H. and A. W. Reed, 1970).
10 Cited in
Martin Mulligan and
Stuart Hill,
Ecological Pioneers: A Social History of Australian Ecological Thought and Action (Cambridge University Press, 2001), 129. See also
Nick Drayson, ‘Early Perceptions of the Natural History of Australia in Popular Literature’, in Patrick D. Murphy (ed.),
Literature of Nature: An International Sourcebook (Chicago: Fitzroy Dearborn, 1998), 264–9.
11 See
Harold Alderman, ‘Abbey as Anarchist’, in Peter Quigley (ed.),
Coyote in the Maze: Tracking Edward Abbey in a World of Words (Salt Lake City: University of Utah Press, 1998), 137–49.
12 Edward Abbey,
Desert Solitaire: A Season in the Wilderness (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1968), 191.
13 The Journey Home (New York: Dutton, 1977), 88.
14 Mulligan and Hill,
Ecological Pioneers, 72–111.
15 Kathryn Morse, ‘Putting History at the Core: History and Literature in Environmental Studies’, History Teacher 37 (2003): 67–72, 69. An anti-romantic gesture informs Morse's alternative recommended reading list. Some titles she cites (69) may speak for
themselves:
Alfred Crosby,
Environmental Imperialism,
Elinor Melville,
A Plague of Sheep,
Charles Rosenberg,
The Cholera Years,
Donald Worster,
Dust Bowl. For a recent critique of the
romanticism of some American nature writing, and its denigration of the value of work in the land, such as farming, see
William Major, ‘The Agrarian Vision and Ecocriticism’,
ISLE 14.2 (summer 2007): 51–70.
16 Jane Bennett,
Thoreau's Nature: Ethics, Politics, and the Wild (Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield, 2002), 81.
18 Philip Abbot, ‘Henry David Thoreau, “The State of Nature, and the Redemption of Liberalism”’,
Journal of Politics 47.1 (1985): 182–208, 184.
19 Jane
Bennett observes: ‘Thoreau's vision of an inward life denies, at least rhetorically, that the conceptual content of “conscience”
and “genius” is itself a social or cultural production’ (‘On Being a Native: Thoreau's Hermeneutics of Self’,
Polity 22.4 [summer 1990]: 559–80, 561).
20 Robert Sattelmeyer, ‘The Remaking of
Walden’, in Rossi (ed.),
Walden, Norton Critical Edition, 428–44, 436.
21 Bennett,
Thoreau's Nature, xxviii.
22 Henry D. Thoreau, ‘Walking’, in
Collected Essays and Poems (New York: Literary Classics of the United States, 2001), 225–55, 239.
23 Linck C. Johnson, ‘
A Week on the Concord and Merrimack Rivers’, in Joel Myron (ed.),
The Cambridge Companion to Henry David Thoreau (Cambridge University Press, 1995), 40–56, 47.
24 Lawrence Buell, ‘Thoreau and the Natural Environment’, ibid., 171–93, 192.
25 Sharon Cameron,
Writing Nature: Henry Thoreau’s Journal (University of Chicago Press, 1985), 78.
26 Henry D. Thoreau,
Journal, vol. III, 1848–51, ed. Robert Sattelmeyer, Mark R. Patterson and William Rossi (Princeton University Press, 1990), 151.
27 Leonard N. Neufeldt, ‘Thoreau in his Journal’, in Myron (ed.),
Cambridge Companion to Thoreau, 107–23, 120.
28 Cameron,
Writing Nature, 23.
29 David
Rothenberg (ed.),
Wild Ideas (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1995); Gary Snyder,
The Practice of the Wild (Washington, DC: Shoemaker Hoard, 1990); Richard Mabey,
Landlocked: In Pursuit of the Wild (London: Sinclair-Stevenson, 1994).
30 Richard Mabey,
Nature Cure (London: Chatto & Windus, 2005), 219.
31 Thoreau, ‘Walking’, 244.
32 Henry D. Thoreau,
A Week on the Concord and Merrimack Rivers, ed. Carl F. Howe et al. (Princeton University Press, 1980),
304.
3 Genre and the question of non-fiction
1 Robert Root, ‘Naming Nonfiction: A Polyptych’,
College English 65 (2003): 242–56, 245. For Root's own definition of non-fiction, see 255.
2 Barry Lopez,
Of Wolves and Men (1978; New York: Scribner, 2004).
3 Terry Tempest Williams,
Desert Quartet: An Erotic Landscape (New York: Pantheon, 1995).
4 Philip
Garard, quoted in Lynn Z. Bloom, ‘Living to Tell the Tale: The Complicated Ethics of Creative Nonfiction’,
College English 65.3 (2003): 276–89, 278.
5 For an overview of what writers have said about the essay as a form, see Carl
H. Claus, ‘Essayists on the Essay’, in Chris Anderson (ed.),
Literary Nonfiction: Theory, Criticism, Pedagogy (Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press, 1989), 155–75.
6 Quoted ibid., 163. See
Adorno's ‘The Essay as Form’ in vol. I of his
Notes to Literature, trans. Sherry Weber Nicholson (New York: Columbia University Press, 1991).
7 Heather Dubrow,
Genre, Critical Idiom Series (London: Methuen, 1982), 2.
8 See the clumsy historical overview that ‘The Middle Ages were years of very deep frustration for human beings, caught in the
twilight between the Dark Ages and the Renaissance. It was the time of the
wolf. And anger that men felt over their circumstances, they heaped on wolves’ (
Of Wolves and Men, 228).
9 Ishimure Michiko,
Paradise in the Sea of Sorrow: Our Minamata Disaster, trans. Livia Monnet (Tokyo: Yamaguchi, 1990).
10 Bloom, ‘Living to Tell the Tale’, 278.
11 For
Dillard's inaccuracies and derivativeness see
Donald Mitchell, ‘Dancing with Nature’, in Robert Pack and Jay Parini (eds.),
The Bread Loaf Anthology of Contemporary American Essays (Hanover and London: University Press of New England, 1989).
12 Quoted in Roorda,
Dramas of Solitude, 197.
13 Patrick D. Murphy,
Further Afield in the Study of Nature-Oriented Literature (Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press, 2000), 10.
14 Timothy Morton,
Ecology without Nature: Rethinking Environmental Aesthetics (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2008), 111.
15 Dana Phillips,
The Truth of Ecology: Nature, Culture, and Literature in America (Oxford University Press, 2003), 185ff.
16 John Burroughs, quoted in
Frank Stewart,
A Natural History of Nature Writing (Washington, DC: Island Press, 1995), 87.
17 From Lopez, ‘Annotated Book List’, in Daniel Halpern (ed.),
Antaeus: On Nature (London: Collins Harvill, 1989), 295–7, 297.
18 Eileen Crist,
Images of Animals: Anthropomorphism and Animal Mind (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1999).
19 E. M. Forster,
Aspects of the Novel (1927; New York: Harcourt Brace World, 1955), 86.
20 Crist has chosen the very kind of
wasp that had already led
Douglas R. Hofstadter to coin the adjective ‘sphexish’ to describe apparently purposive behaviour that is revealed on investigation
to be actually rigid and mechanical – for to deliberately interrupt the wasp's routine, no matter how many times, always makes
it revert to an earlier stage and start again, however unnecessarily. See Hofstadter,
Metamagical Themas: Questing for the Essence of Mind and Pattern (Harmondsworth: Penguin, Viking, 1985), 529.
21 Roorda,
Dramas of Solitude, 14–15.
22 Mark Cocker,
A Tiger in the Sand: Selected Writings on Nature (London: Jonathan Cape, 2006),
117.
4 Language beyond the human?
1 As an instance of such caricaturing see
Leonard M. Scigaj, ‘Contemporary Ecological and Environmental Poetry:
Différance or
Référance?’,
ISLE 3.2 (1996): 1–25. In fact,
Derrida anticipated a crucial challenge in environmental criticism: ‘Every week I receive critical commentaries and studies
on
deconstruction which operate on the assumption that what they call
“poststructuralism” amounts to saying that there is nothing beyond language, that we are submerged in words – and other stupidities
of that sort’ (‘Deconstruction and the Other’, in Richard Kearney [ed.],
Dialogues with Contemporary Continental Thinkers [Manchester University Press, 1984], 123). It is rather a matter of the challenge to language of ‘The other, which is beyond
language and which summons language’ (ibid.).
2 Michael E. Soulé and Gary Lease,
Reinventing Nature: Responses to Postmodern Deconstruction (Washington, DC: Island Press, 1995), xiii, xv.
3 See
Claire Lawrence, ‘“Getting the desert into a book”: Nature Writing and the Problem of Representation in a Postmodern World’,
in Quigley (ed.),
Coyote in the Maze, 150–67.
4 Kate
Soper,
What is Nature? (Oxford: Blackwell, 1995), 151.
5 Buell,
Environmental Imagination, 107.
6 Edouard Glissant,
Caribbean Discourse: Selected Essays, trans. J. Michael Dash (Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press, 1992), 145, see also 74, 105, 242.
7 Leslie Marmon Silko, ‘Landscape, History and the Pueblo Imagination’, in Halpern (ed.),
Antaeus: On Nature, 83–94, 85.
8 Phillips,
Truth of Ecology, 18.
Serpil Opperman criticizes those ecocritics whose stress on realist conceptions of
language leads them to caricature so-called ‘postmodernists’ as reducing all issues to questions of textuality, supposedly
asserting that
‘nature’ is only a cultural signifier. He argues that environmental criticism can be enriched by such critics’ anti-dogmatic
sensitivity to the multiple ways in which nature is culturally framed and plural possibilities of interpretation (‘Theorizing
Ecocriticism: Toward a Postmodern Ecocritical Practice’,
ISLE 13.2 [summer 2006]: 103–28).
9 Rebecca Raglon and Marian Sholtmejer, ‘“Animals are not believers in ecology”: Mapping Critical Differences Between Environmental
and Animal Advocacy Literatures’,
ISLE 14.2 (2007): 121–40, 135.
10 David Abram,
The Spell of the Sensuous: Perception and Language in a more-than-human World (New York: Vintage, 1997), 40.
11 Carol
H. Cantrell uses
Merleau-Ponty to similar effect in ‘“The locus of compossibility”:
Virginia Woolf, Modernism and Place’,
ISLE 5.2 (1998): 25–40. Arguably,
Abram romanticises the proto-language of bodily perception shared by all creatures, projecting a mainly benign and even celebratory
life spirit, and not, as it must be for so many, a realm including anger, puzzlement, trickery, deception and terror.
12 ‘[W]riters who wrote in service to the more-than-human earth – from
Rilke to
Rachel Carson, from
John Muir to Jean Giono, from
Wendell Berry to
Barbara Kingsover and
Rick Bass’, David Abram, ‘Between the Body and the Breathing Earth: A Reply to Ted Toadvine’,
Environmental Ethics 27 (2005): 171–90, 179.
13 David Brin,
Earth: A Novel (London: Futura, 1990), 1.
14 See Snyder,
Practice of the Wild.
15 Jacques Derrida, ‘Eating Well: An Interview’, in Eduardo Cadava et al. (eds.),
Who Comes After the Subject? (London: Routledge, 1991), 96–119, 116.
16 Cary Wolfe, ‘In the Shadow of Wittgenstein’s Lion’, in Cary Wolfe (ed.),
Zoontologies (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2003), 1–57, 35.
17 Snyder,
Practice of the Wild, 121.
18 See also
Val Plumwood's different defence of the rationality of ascribing purpose and intention even to non-sentient things,
Feminism and the Mastery of Nature (London: Routledge, 1993), 131–40.
19 Snyder,
Practice of the Wild, 100.
5 The inherent violence of western thought?
1 William McNeill (ed.),
Pathmarks (1967; Cambridge University Press, 1998), 147.
2 Michael Zimmerman,
Heidegger's Confrontation with Modernity: Technology, Politics, Art (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1990), 157.
3 McNeill (ed.),
Pathmarks, 240.
4 Martin Heidegger,
Being and Time, trans. John Macquarrie and Edward Robinson (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1980), 89.
5 Martin Heidegger,
Gesammtausgabe 75 (Frankfurt-on-Main: Vittorio Klostermann, 2000), 260–1.
6 See especially ‘On the Essence and Concept of
Physis in Aristotle's Physics B, I’, in McNeill (ed.),
Pathmarks, 183–230.
7 ‘A subject…understands the presencing of a thing from itself with regard to the representedness [
Vorgestelltheit]. Presence is understood as representedness. Thereby, presence is no longer taken as what is given by itself but only as
how it is an object for me as the thinking subject, that is, how it is made an object over and against me’ (Martin Heidegger,
Zollikon Seminars: Protocols, Conversations, Letters, ed. Medard Boss, trans. Franz Mayr and Richard Askay [Evanston, IL: Northwestern University Press, 2001], 99).
8 Martin Heidegger,
Off the Beaten Track, ed. and trans. Julian Young and Kenneth Haynes (Cambridge University Press, 2002), 1–56, 24–5.
9 Martin Heidegger,
Gesammtausgabe 13 (Frankfurt-on-Main: Vittorio Klostermann, 1983), 75–86; translated as ‘The Thinker as Poet’ in Martin Heidegger,
Poetry, Language, Thought, trans. Albert Hofstadter (New York: Harper & Row, 1971), 3–14. For a reading see my ‘Can a Place Think?: On Adam Sharr's
Heidegger's Hut’,
Cultural Politics 4.1 (March 2008): 100–21.
10 Martin Heidegger,
Hölderlin's Hymn ‘The Ister’, trans. William McNeill and Julia Davis (Indianapolis: Indiana University Press, 1993), 28.
11 Martin Heidegger,
Elucidations of Hölderlin's Poetry, trans. Keith Hoeller (New York: Humanity Books, 2000).
12 Bate,
Song of the Earth, 262.
14 Martin Heidegger,
Vorträge und Aufsätze, 3rd edn (Pfullingen: Neske, 1967), 99.
15 Quoted in Heidegger,
Elucidations, 167.
16 Robert Pogue Harrison,
Forests: The Shadow of Civilization (University of Chicago Press, 1992).
17 Harrison seems especially indebted to Heidegger's ‘On the Essence and Concept of
Physis in Aristotle's Physics’.
18 For both
Harrison and Heidegger there would remain pressing questions as to whether the kind of access to the world they see as unique
to human consciousness and language is not, in fact, experienced by other creatures in their ways. For a critique of
Heidegger’s exclusive privileging of the human, see Matthew
Calarco,
Zoographies: The Question of the Animal from Heidegger to Derrida (New York: Columbia University Press, 2008).
6 Post-humanism and the ‘end of nature’?
1 Jacques Derrida, ‘The Aforementioned so-called Human Genome’, in
Negotiations: Interventions and Interviews 1971–2001, trans. Elizabeth Rottenberg (Stanford University Press, 2002), 199–214, 204.
2 Ibid., 208. While defending a
liberal humanist conception of human identity that many would certainly challenge,
Francis Fukuyama expresses a similar anxiety. His concern is the possibility of a world in which notions of
rights based on a shared and universally recognized human nature will have been lost: ‘the
posthuman world could be one that is far more hierarchical and competitive than the one that currently exists, and full of
social conflict as a result. It could be one in which any notion of “shared humanity” is lost, because we have mixed human
genes with those of so many other species that we no longer have a clear idea of what a human being is’ (
Our Posthuman Future: Consequences of the Biotechnology Revolution [New York: Farrar, Straus & Giroux, 2002], 218).
3 Slavoj Žižek,
In Defense of Lost Causes (London: Verso, 2008), 435.
4 Catherine Waldby,
The Visible Human Project: Informatic Bodies and Posthuman Medicine (London: Routledge, 2000), 43.
5 Teresa Heffernan, ‘Bovine Anxieties, Virgin Births, and the Secret of Life’,
Cultural Critique 53 (winter 2003): 116–33, 128.
6 G. Bateson,
Steps to an Ecology of Mind: Collected Essays in Anthropology, Psychiatry, Evolution and Epistemology (St Albans: Granada, 1973), 453.
7 Bernard Stiegler,
Technics and Time I: The Fault of Epimetheus, trans. Richard Beardsworth (Stanford University Press, 1998).
8 John Lechte, ‘The
Who and the
What of Writing in the Electronic Age’,
Oxford Literary Review 21 (1999): 135–60, 35.
9 Donna Haraway, ‘A Manifesto for Cyborgs: Science, Technology, and Socialist Feminism in the 1980s’, in
The Haraway Reader (New York: Routledge, 2004), 7–45.
10 See
Jon Turney,
Frankenstein's Footsteps: Science, Genetics and Popular Culture (New Haven, CN: Yale University Press, 1998).
11 Morton,
Ecology without Nature, 194.
12 Mary Shelley,
Frankenstein: or, The Modern Prometheus, the 1818 text, ed. Marilyn Butler (Oxford University Press, 1994), 36.
13 Heffernan, ‘Bovine Anxieties, Virgin Births’, 131.
14 Cynthia Deitering, ‘Toxic Consciousness in Fiction of the 1980s’, in Glotfelty and Fromm (eds.),
Ecocriticism Reader, 196–203, 197.
15 See
Ursula K. Heise,
Sense of Place and Sense of Planet (Oxford University Press, 2008), 178–203.
Frederick Buell argues that the crisis of nature has become itself our habituated contemporary environment. In dystopian fiction
and
‘cyberpunk’ such as
William Gibson's
Neuromancer (1984) or
Bruce Sterling's
Schismatic (1985) environmental apocalypse appears ‘not as the end of everything but as a milieu people dwelt in as they moved out beyond
the limits of nature’ (
From Apocalypse to Way of Life: Environmental Crisis in the American Century [New York: Routledge, 2004], 248).
16 Bill McKibben,
The End of Nature: Humanity, Climate Change and the Natural World (1989; London: Bloomsbury, 2003).
17 Žižek,
In Defense of Lost Causes, 442.
18 Franklin,
Animal Nation, 236.
The boundaries of the political
1 Bob Pepperman Taylor, ‘Environmental Ethics and Political Theory’,
Polity 23 (1991): 567–83, 567–70.
7 Thinking like a mountain?
1 J. Baird Callicott, ‘The Land Aesthetic’, in J. Baird Callicott (ed.),
A Companion to A Sand County Almanac
: Interpretive and Critical Essays (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1987), 157–71, 157.
2 While Leopold's stance is generally read as straightforwardly biocentric, the issues are in fact more complicated. See Ben
A. Minteer,
The Landscape of Reform: Civic Pragmatism and Environmental Thought in America (Boston, MA: MIT Press, 2006), 115–52.
3 See
McKay Jenkins, ‘“Thinking like a mountain”: Death and Deep Ecology in the Work of Peter Matthiessen’, in John Tallmadge and
Henry Harrington (eds.),
Reading Under the Sign of Nature: New Essays in Ecocriticism (Salt Lake City: University of Utah Press, 2000), 265–79.
4 See
Dennis Ribben, ‘The Making of
A Sand County Almanac’, in Callicott (ed.),
Companion, 91–109, 104.
5 Buell,
Environmental Imagination, 172.
6 Letter to Robert Marshall, 1 February 1935, quoted in Daniel J. Philippon,
Conserving Words: How American Nature Writers Shaped the Environmental Movement (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 2005), 192.
7 Letter of 1936 to the editor of the
Journal of Forestry, quoted in Philippon,
Conserving Words, 198.
8 Callicott, ‘Land Aesthetic’, 160.
9 Walter J. Ong, ‘Romantic Difference and the Poetics of Technology’, in
Rhetoric, Romance and Technology: Studies in the Interaction of Expression and Culture (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1971), 255–83, 264.
10 Gernot Böhme,
Für eine ökologische Naturästhetik (Frankfurt-on-Main: Suhrkamp, 1989);
Atmosphäre (Frankfurt-on-Main: Suhrkamp, 1995).
11 See
Edwin P. Pister, ‘A Pilgrim's Progress from Group A to Group B’, in Callicott (ed.),
Companion, 221–32, 229.
12 Wallace Stegner, ‘The Legacy of Aldo Leopold’, in Callicott (ed.),
Companion, 233–45, 237.
14 Yaakov Garb, ‘Change and Continuity in Environmental World-View: The Politics of Nature in Rachel Carson's
Silent Spring’, in David McCauley (ed.),
Minding Nature: The Philosophers of Ecology (New York: Guildford Press, 1996), 229–56, 241. The page numbers from Carson are from the original edition (New York: Ballantine,
1962).
15 In Leopold's case, the gap between the radical nature of the land ethic and the fragility of the actual politics is covered
by some arguably dubious speculations on the ethic as a possible future development of ‘social evolution’ (225), that a greater
sense of duty to the non-human is bound to merge as society changes. Leopold lets the term
evolution slide into phrases like ‘social evolution’ (225) to imply, falsely, a kind of simple continuity between evolution in the
strict sense of slight physiological and behavioural alterations arising over time through natural selection and the way in
which societies change. This is a striking piece of conceptual sleight of hand, especially considering that
Leopold was a professional naturalist and would have known that Darwinian evolution could not be applied to cultural change
in any simple way. See Kirkham, ‘The Problem of Knowledge in Environmental Thought: A Counterchallenge’.
16 Andrew Dobson,
Green Political Thought, 4th edn (London: Routledge, 2007), 16–17.
17 See Yang Ming-tu, ‘Ecological Consciousness in the Contemporary Literature of Taiwan’, in Murphy (ed.),
Literature of Nature, 304–14.
18 Quoted from Brulle,
Agency, Democracy, and Nature, 198.
8 Environmental justice and the move ‘beyond nature writing’
2 Beck,
World Risk Society, 39.
3 Cinder Hypki, ‘Sustaining the “Urban Forest” and Creating Landscapes of Hope: An Interview with Cinder Hypki and Bryant “Spoon”
Smith’, in Joni Adamson, Mei Mei Evans and Rachel Stein (eds.),
The Environmental Justice Reader: Politics, Poetics and Pedagogy (Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 2002), 284–307, 292.
4 Karla
Armbruster and
Kathleen R. Wallace, editors’ introduction to
Beyond Nature Writing, 3.
5 Adamson et al. (eds.),
Environmental Justice Reader, 4.
6 Armbruster and Wallace (eds.),
Beyond Nature Writing, 8.
7 Garrard,
Ecocriticism, 128. Yet to open the index of
The Environmental Justice Reader is to discover no entry for ‘social ecology’ or for the
work of
Murray Bookchin.
9 See
Jozef Keulatz,
The Struggle for Nature: A Critique of Radical Ecology, trans. Rob Kuitenbrouwer (London: Routledge, 1998), 91–8. See also Alan
Rudy and
Andrew Light, ‘Social Ecology and Social Labor: A Consideration and Critique of Murray Bookchin’, in McCanley,
Minding Nature, 318–42.
10 Michael Bennett, ‘Anti-Pastoralism, Frederick Douglass, and the Nature of Slavery’, in Armbruster and Wallace (eds.),
Beyond Nature Writing, 195–210, 200.
11 Norman Maclean,
A River Runs Through it and Other Stories (University of Chicago Press, 1976), 104.
12 See Johnson,
Hunger for the Wild, 250–1.
13 Also, ‘I and the three Scottish women publicly declared our love for each other, given the restrictions Scots put on such
public declarations’ (78).
14 Maclean writes of the high rapids of Big Blackfoot River: ‘It is a tough place for a trout to live – the river roars and the
water is too fast to let algae grow on the rocks for feed, so there is no fat on the fish, which must hold most trout records
for high jumping’ (13). In fact, trout are exclusively carnivorous, feeding on various species of invertebrates.
16 Franklin,
Animal Nation, 106.
18 Terry Gifford,
Pastoral (London: Routledge, 1999), 170.
9 Two readings: European ecojustice
1 Berbeli Wanning, ‘Wenn Hechte ans Stubenfenster klopfen – Beschädigte Idylle in Wilhelm Raabes
Pfisters Mühle’ [‘When Witches Knock at the Tavern Window: Damaged Idylls in Wilhelm Raabe's
Pfister’s Mill’], in Catrin Gersdorf and Sylvia Mayer (eds.),
Natur-Kultur-Text: Beiträge zu Ökologie und Literaturwissenschaft (Heidelberg: Universitätsverlag, 2005),193–205, 196.
4 See Adamson et al. (eds.),
Environmental Justice Reader, 22. Hindu pilgrims who seek to purify themselves through bathing in the Ganges are now risking their health (see
Frank Kürschner-Pelkmann,
Das Wasser-buch: Kultur, Religion, Gesellschaft, Wirtschaft [Frankfurt-on-Main: Lembeck, 2005], 154–8).
5 Wanning, ‘Wenn Hechte’, 203.
6 Wilhelm Raabe,
Pfisters Mühle: Ein Sommerferienheft (Stuttgart: Reclam, 1980), 159.
7 Wanning, ‘Wenn Hechte’, 204.
8 Bate,
Song of the Earth, 64.
9 Thomas Hardy,
The Woodlanders (1887; London: Macmillan, 1975), 340–1.
10 See
Fiona J. Stafford,
The Sublime Savage: A Study of James Macpherson and The Poems of Ossian (Edinburgh University Press, 1988); Howard Gaskill,
The Reception of Ossian in Europe (London: Athlone, 2002).
11 See, however,
Timothy Oakes on
Raymond Williams’s view that the literary tradition of regional pastoralism in Wales is part of such a syndrome, ‘Place and
the Paradox of Modernity’,
Annals of the Association of American Geographers 87 (1997): 509–31, 517–19, 528.
12 Thomas Hardy,
The Return of the Native (1878; London: Macmillan, 1975), 262.
14 Linda M. Shires, ‘The Radical Aesthetic of
Tess of the d’Urbervilles’, in Dale Kramer (ed.),
The Cambridge Companion to Thomas Hardy (Cambridge University Press, 1999), 145–63, 147.
15 Madeleine Bunting, ‘Home is where the Heart is’,
Countryside Voice (Campaign to Protect Rural England, autumn 2007): 39.
16 Morton,
Ecology without Nature, 109–23.
10 Liberalism and green moralism
1 Richard Kerridge and Neil Sammells, ‘Introduction’, in
Writing the Environment: Ecocriticism and Literature (London: Zed Books, 1998), 6.
2 B. P. Taylor, ‘Environmental Ethics and Political Theory’,
Polity 23 (1991): 567–83, 581.
3 Roderick Nash,
The Rights of Nature (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1989), 160.
4 Taylor, ‘Environmental Ethics’, 574.
5 Wilson C. McWilliams,
The Idea of Fraternity in America (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1973).
6 John Locke,
Second Treatise of Civil Government and
A Letter Concerning Toleration, ed. J. W. Gough (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1946), [paragraph 26] 15. See also
Val Plumwood,
Environmental Culture: The Ecological Crisis of Reason (London: Routledge, 2002), 82, 153.
7 Michael E. Zimmerman,
Contesting Earth's Future: Radical Ecology and Postmodernity (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1994), 241.
8 Catherine Albanese, ‘Having Nature all Ways: Liberal and Transcendental Perspectives on American Environmentalism’,
Journal of Religion 77.1 (1997): 20–43, 24.
9 Robyn Eckersley,
The Green State: Rethinking Democracy and Sovereignty (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2004), 112.
10 Andrew Vincent, ‘Liberalism and the Environment’,
Environmental Values 7 (1998): 443–59, 453.
11 Robert Frodeman, ‘Radical Environmentalism and the Political Roots of Difference’,
Environmental Ethics 14 (1992): 262.
12 Wendy Brown,
States of Injury: Power and Freedom in Late Modernity (Princeton University Press, 1995), 59.
13 See
E. O. Wilson,
The Future of Life (London: Little Brown, 2002), 23.
14 Beck,
World Risk Society, 65–6.
15 Richard Kerridge, ‘Ecothrillers: Environmental Cliffhangers’, in L. Coupe (ed.),
The Green Studies Reader: From Romanticism to Ecocriticism (London: Routledge, 2000), 242–9.
16 McKibben,
End of Nature, 41.
18 Turning to issues of
aesthetic form, the comparison again seems to work in
Dorothy's favour. Her prose ‘moves fluidly between various images, emotions, and metaphors, while
William's verse uses punctuation, syntax and stanza breaks to frame the scene and separate observer and landscape’ (8–9).
19 For instance, it is hard not find a moralistic personalising element in
Hess's contrast of an egocentric ‘male’ William and a sensitive ecofeminist Dorothy. Also, as Hess acknowledges, the differences
between these texts are also a matter of
genre, of first-person lyric as opposed to prose journal: what if William had written a journal and Dorothy a poem?
20 See also
Robert Harrison's reading of a non-liberal notion of freedom in
Clare and
Thoreau,
Forests, 219–35.
21 Anthony Giddens,
The Politics of Climate Change (Cambridge, MA: Polity, 2009), 117.
22 Kristian Ekeli, ‘Green Constitutionalism: The Constitutional Protection of Future Generations’,
Ratio Juris 20 (2007): 378–401, 391.
23 Alan Carter, ‘In Defence of Radical Disobedience’,
Journal of the Society of Applied Philosophy 15.1 (1998): 29–47, 43.
24 I have made some tentative steps in this direction in ‘Towards a Deconstructive Environmental Criticism’,
Oxford Literary Review 30.1 (July 2008): 45–68.
11 Ecofeminism
1 Quoted in
Noël Sturgeon, ‘The Nature of Race: Discourses of Racial Difference in Ecofeminism’, in Karen J. Warren (ed.),
Ecofeminism: Women, Culture, Nature (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1997), 260–78, 260.
2 For an ecofeminist critique of deep ecology see
Ariel Salleh, ‘Class, Race, and Gender Discourse in the Ecofeminism/Deep Ecology Debate’, in Max Oelschalager (ed.),
Postmodern Environmental Ethics (Albany: SUNY Press, 1995).
3 Glynis Carr, ‘Introduction’, in
New Essays in Ecofeminist Literary Criticism (Lewisburg, PA: Bucknell University Press, 2000), 15–25, 18.
4 Donna Haraway, ‘A Manifesto for Cyborgs’,
Haraway Reader, 35.
5 Rachel Stein, ‘“To make the visible world your conscience”: Adrienne Rich as Revolutionary Nature Writer’, in Tallmadge and
Harrington,
Reading Under the Sign of Nature, 198–207, 203.
8 Ehrlich,
Future of Ice, 23. Ehrlich's work has been celebrated as a kind of ‘postmodern pastoral’
(Gretchen Legler, ‘Towards a Postmodern Pastoral: The Erotic Landscape in the Work of Gretel Ehrlich’, in Michael P. Branch
and Scott Slovic [eds.],
The ISLE Reader: Ecocriticism, 1993–2003 [Athens: University of Georgia Press, 2003], 22–32).
9 Gretel Ehrlich,
Islands, the Universe, Home (New York: Viking, 1991), 60.
10 Neil Everden, ‘Beyond Ecology: Self, Place and the Pathetic Fallacy’, in Glotfelty and Fromm (eds.),
Ecocriticism Reader, 92–104, 95.
11 In Carr (ed.),
New Essays in Ecofeminist Literary Criticism, 137–56.
12 Quoted in Waller, ‘Woolf and an Ecology’, 147.
14 Waller refers to
Patrick D. Murphy's extension beyond an exclusively human reference of
Mikhail Bakhtin's notion of the polyvocal and dialogical nature of
language. See Murphy,
Further Afield, 96–8.
15 L. Elizabeth Waller, ‘Ecofeminism and Nonhumans: Continuity, Difference, Dualism, and Domination’,
Hypatia 13.1 (1998): 158–97, 173–4.
16 Zimmerman,
Contesting Earth's Future, 270.
17 Catriona Sandilands,
The Good-Natured Feminist: Ecofeminism and the Quest for Democracy (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1999), 68. See
Haraway on such
‘feminist paganism’ as making sense only as an oppositional part of late
capitalism,
Haraway Reader, 32.
18 Louise Westling, ‘Literature, the Environment, and the Question of the Post Human’, in Gersdorf (ed.),
Nature in Literary and Cultural Studies, 25–47, 43, 44.
19 Dominic Head, ‘Ecocriticism and the Novel’, in Coupe (ed.),
Green Studies Reader, 235–41.
20 Lealle Ruhl, ‘Natural Governance and the Governance of Nature: The Hazards of Natural Law Feminism’,
Feminist Review 66 (autumn 2000): 4–24, 21.
21 Sandilands,
Good-Natured Feminist, xiii.
22 Ariel Kay Salleh, quoted in Zimmerman,
Contesting Earth's Future, 239.
23 Janet Biehl, quoted in Dobson,
Green Political Thought, 201.
24 Ruhl, ‘Natural Governance’, 5.
26 Barbara Charlesworth Gelpi and Albert Gelpi (eds.),
Adrienne Rich's Poetry and Prose (New York: Norton, 1975), 114.
12 ‘Post-colonial’ ecojustice
1 William Slaymaker, ‘Echoing the Other(s): The Call of Global Green and Black African Responses’,
PMLA 116.1 (2001): 129–44, 132.
2 Mark Dowie, ‘Conservation Refugees’, in Brian Greene (ed.),
The Best American Science and Nature Writing 2006 (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 2006), 67–81, 68. In parts of Mesoamerica advocates and defenders of national parks have become
known derogatively as
parquistas (Thomas T. Ankersen, ‘Addressing the Conservation Conundrum in Mesoamerica: A Bioregional Case Study’, in Michael Vincent
McGinnis (ed.),
Bioregionalism [London: Routledge, 1999], 171–87, 173).
3 Dowie, ‘Conservation Refugees’, 70.
4 Quoted in Beth A. Conklin and Laura R. Graham, ‘The Shifting Middle Ground: Amazonian Indians and Eco-Politics’,
American Anthropologist n.s. 97.4 (1995): 695–710, 699.
5 Richard White,
The Middle Ground: Indians, Empires, and Republics in the Great Lakes Region, 1650–1815 (Cambridge University Press, 1991), x. I am indebted to Conklin and Graham for this reference.
6 See Shepard Krech III,
The Ecological Indian: Myth and History (New York: Norton, 1999).
7 J.
Scott Bryson, ‘Finding the Way Back: Place and Space in the Ecological Poetry of Joy Harjo’,
MELUS 27.3 (autumn 2002): 169–96.
8 Graham
Huggan, ‘“Greening” Postcolonialism: Ecocritical Perspectives’,
Modern Fiction Studies 50 (2004): 701–33, 720.
9 Murphy,
Further Afield, 146–89.
10 Quoted in Graham Huggan and Helen Tiffin, editorial ‘Green Postcolonialism’,
Interventions 9.1 (2007): 4.
11 John McLeod,
Beginning Postcolonialism (Manchester University Press, 2000), 59.
12 This point even applies to so sophisticated a reading as
Lisa Perfetti's ‘The Postcolonial Land that Needs to be Loved: Caribbean Nature and the Garden in Simone Schwartz-Bart's
Pluie et Vent sur Télumée Miracle’, and its argument about how ‘looking closely at how nature and the land are represented in fictional works can help us understand
how peoples resist colonial and neo-colonial ideologies’ (
ISLE 14.1 [summer 2007]: 89–105, 89).
13 Eric Katz, ‘Imperialism and Environmentalism’, in Roger S. Gottlieb (ed.),
The Ecological Community: Environmental Challenges for Philosophy, Politics and Morality (London: Routledge, 1996), 163–74, 171.
14 Kiana Davenport,
Shark Dialogues (New York: Penguin, 1995), 317.
15 Mayumi Toyosato, ‘Land and Hawaiian Identity, Literary Activism in Kiana Davenport's
Shark Dialogues’, in Carr (ed.),
New Essays in Ecofeminist Literary Criticism, 71–81, 75.
17 Such an identification of interests is often vaguely asserted rather than defended in detail. In
Paul Lindoldt, ‘Literary Activism and the Bioregional’, for instance, the conflicting interests of human inhabitants and wildlife
are addressed by only a conveniently catch-all
‘social ecological’ statement:
‘The bioregional agenda does not insist that environmental activism is more worthy in itself than activism for human rights,
say, but it does insist that the subjugation of nature always involves domination of people, and the subjugation of peoples
involves the domination of nature’ (Branch and Slovic [eds.],
ISLE Reader, 243–57, 252).
18 See
Juliana Makuchi Nfah-Abbenyi, ‘Ecological Postcolonialism in African Women's Literature’, in Murphy (ed.),
Literature of Nature, 344–9.
19 Some recent criticisms of
Silko's novel argue that its depiction of Navaho culture is not as far removed from dominant romantic plots of ‘the
West’ as might be supposed, with a familiar idealisation of native culture as a general ‘antidote to modern or postmodern
problems’. See
Krista Corner, ‘Sidestepping Environmental Justice: “Natural” Landscapes and the Wilderness Plot’,
Frontiers: A Journal of Women Studies 18.2 (1997): 73–101, 83.
20 See Murphy,
Further Afield, 33.
21 The secular ethic of
multiculturalism may also have some of the evasiveness of a pre-mature
‘middle ground’, with its language of according ‘respect’ to cultural difference also functioning to evade facing deep differences
of belief. Hence, in
Australia, for instance,
Aboriginal traditions are accorded a certain legal respect under the liberal aegis of ‘multiculturalism’ while yet being embedded
in governmental frameworks whose concepts of personhood,
work, subjectivity,
property and land all effectively negate those traditions. See
Elizabeth A. Povinelli, ‘Do Rocks Listen? The Cultural Politics of Apprehending Australian Aboriginal Labor’,
American Anthropologist n.s. 97 (1995),
505–18.
22 Huggan and Tiffin, editorial ‘Green Postcolonialism’, 9.
23 Rajender Kaur, ‘“Home is where the Oracella are”: Toward a New Paradigm of Transcultural Ecocritical Engagement in Amitav
Ghosh's
The Hungry Tide’,
ISLE 14.1 (winter 2007): 125–41.
24 Amitav Ghosh,
The Hungry Tide (London: HarperCollins, 2004), 397.
25 Huggan and Tiffin, editorial ‘Green Postcolonialism’, 5.
26 Kaur, ‘“Home is where the Oracella are”’, 139.
27 In Gottlieb (ed.),
Ecological Community, 208–25, 224.
28 Mark A. Michael, ‘International Justice and Wilderness Preservation’, in Gottlieb (ed.),
Ecological Community, 311–32, 322.
29 Paul R. Ehrlich,
The Population Bomb (Cutchogue, NY: Buccaneer, 1971).
30 D. Meadows, J. Randers and W. Behrens III,
Limits to Growth (New York: Universe Books, 1972).
31 J. G. Ballard,
The Complete Short Stories (London: Flamingo, 2001), 267–78.
32 Penti
Linkola, a deep ecologist of unrepresentative extremism, advocates drastic authoritarian measures to reduce the human
population. ‘It is obvious to me that human morality during the population explosion is wholly unlike that adopted when in
the beginning man was a sparse and noble species’ (
Can Life Prevail?: A Radical Approach to the Environmental Crisis, trans. Eeuto Rautio [London: Integral Tradition Publishing, 2009],
139).
33 Joseph
Schneider,
Donna Haraway: Live Theory (New York: Continuum, 2005), 153.
34 Dale Jamieson, ‘Public Policy and Global Warming’,
Science, Technology, and human Values 17 (1992): 139–53, 148.
13 Questions of scale: the local, the national and the global
1 For studies of colonialism as an
environmental history see
Richard H. Grove's
Green Imperialism: Colonial Expansion, Tropical Island Edens, and the Origins of Environmentalism, 1600–1860 (Cambridge University Press, 1995) and
Alfred W. Crosby's
Ecological Imperialism: The Biological Expansion of Europe, 900–1900 (Cambridge University Press, 1986).
2 Elizabeth
DeLoughrey, ‘Quantum Landscapes’, in ‘Green Postcolonialism’,
Interventions 9.1 (2007): 62–83, 64.
3 Kirkpatrick Sale,
Dwellers in the Land: The Bioregional Vision (Philadelphia: New Vision, 1991), 43.
4 Peter Berg,
Reinhabiting a Separate Country: A Bioregional Anthology of Northern California (San Francisco: Planet Drum Foundation, 1978), 218.
5 Jim
Cheney, ‘Nature/Theory/Difference’, in Karen J. Warren (ed.),
Ecological Feminism (London: Routledge, 1994), 158–78, 174–5.
6 Mike Carr,
Bioregionalism and Civil Society: Democratic Challenges to Corporate Culture (Vancouver: University of British Columbia Press, 2004), 49.
7 Priyamvada Gupal, ‘Reading Subaltern History’, in Neil Lazarus (ed.),
The Cambridge Companion to Postcolonial Studies (Cambridge University Press, 2004), 139–61, 160.
8 Ulrich Beck,
What is Globalization? (Cambridge, MA: Polity, 2000), 21.
9 Ulrich Beck,
The Cosmopolitan Vision (Cambridge, MA: Polity Press, 2006), 21.
10 Beck,
What is Globalization?, 11.
11 Sale,
Dwellers in the Land, 43. For further points on the political limitations of bioregionalism see Plumwood,
Environmental Culture, 74–80.
12 Daniel Berthold-Bond, ‘The Ethics of “Place”: Reflections on Bioregionalism’,
Environmental Ethics 22 (2000): 5–24, 13.
13 See
Sara Blair, ‘Geography and the Place of the Literary’,
American Literary History 10 (1998): 544–67.
Roberto Maria Dainotto has criticised some celebrations of the regional in literary criticism as idealising it in terms of
‘the utopian possibility of a community considered as an undivided whole’ (‘All the Regions do Smilingly
Revolt’,
Critical Inquiry 22 [1996]: 486–505). At a time when nations can no longer present themselves in terms of some supposedly desirable cultural
and ethnic wholeness, such ideals are nevertheless still projected upon the regional. Dainotto criticises elements of
Jonathan Bate's reading of
Wordsworth as a poet of place (discussed in
Chapter 1) for enacting such a would-be ‘purification of literature from history and politics, and, at the same time, the recuperation
of an organic identity for literature – what Bate calls the “roots”’ (504).
14 Derek Walcott, ‘“The argument of the outboard motor”: An Interview with Derek Walcott’, in Elizabeth M. DeLoughrey, Renée
K. Gosson and George B. Handley (eds.),
Caribbean Literature and the Environment: Between Nature and Culture (Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press, 2005), 127–39, 139.
15 P. Berg and R. F. Dasmann, ‘Reinhabiting California’,
Ecologist 7.10 (1977): 399–401, 399.
16 Lindoldt, ‘Literary Activism and the Bioregional’, 243–57.
17 Walcott, ‘“The argument of the outboard motor”’, 131.
18 Edouard Glissant,
Poetics of Relation, trans. Betsy Wing (Ann Arbor: University of Minnesota Press, 1997), 146–7.
19 Holger
Henke, ‘Ariel's Ethos: On the Moral Economy of Caribbean Experience’,
Cultural Critique 56 (winter 2004): 33–63, 37.
20 Walcott, ‘“The argument of the outboard motor”’, 138.
21 See
Eric Prieto, ‘The Use of Landscape: Ecocriticism and Martinican Cultural Theory’, in DeLoughrey et al. (eds.),
Caribbean Literature and the Environment, 236–46, 244–5.
22 Isabel
Hoving, ‘Moving the Caribbean Landscape:
Cereus Blooms at Night as a Re-imagination of the Caribbean Environment’, in DeLoughrey et al. (eds.),
Caribbean Literature and the Environment, 154–68, 160.
23 Edouard Glissant,
Caribbean Discourse: Selected Essays, trans J. Michael Dash (1981; Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press, 1992), 89.
26 Richard
D. E. Burton, ‘Comment Peut-on être martiniquais?: The Recent Work of Édouard Glissant’,
MLR 79 (1984): 301–12, 307.
27 See Prieto, ‘Use of Landscape’, 244–5.
28 See Celia M. Britton,
Édouard Glissant and Postcolonial Theory: Strategies of Language and Resistance (Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia, 1999), 83–118.
30 Édouard Glissant,
Malemort (Paris: Éditions du Seuil, 1975), 213–14.
31 Giddens,
Politics of Climate Change, 4. See also
David Shearman and Joseph
Wayne Smith,
The Climate Change Challenge and the Failure of Democracy (Westport, CT: Praeger, 2007). For an attempt to confront the imponderable questions of scale and scale effects in engaging
climate change, see my ‘Derangements of Scale’ in Tom Cohen (ed.)
Telemorphosis: Essays in ‘Critical’ Climate Change (Open Humanities Press, 2011), and open access book at openhumanities.org
32 Heise,
Sense of Place and Sense of Planet, 21.
34 In Gary Snyder,
Mountains and Rivers Without End (New York: Counterpoint, 1996), 62–4.
35 Snyder,
Practice of the Wild, 29.
36 J. Scott Bryson,
Ecopoetry: A Critical Introduction (Salt Lake City: University of Utah Press, 2002).
37 Charles Tomlinson,
The Door in the Wall (Oxford University Press, 1992), 47.
Science and the struggle for intellectual authority
1 Plumwood,
Environmental Culture, 51.
14 Science and the crisis of authority
1 Jane Bennett,
The Enchantment of Modern Life (Princeton University Press, 2001), 7.
2 John Brockman,
The Third Culture (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1996).
3 Ron Curtis, ‘Narrative Form and Normative Force: Baconian Story-Telling in Popular Science’,
Social Studies of Science 24.3 (1994): 419–61, 434.
5 The term
‘naturalistic fallacy’ was actually coined by
G. E. Moore though in practice it is usually applied to an issue associated with the work of the eighteenth-century philosopher
David Hume.
6 Stephen Jay Gould,
The Hedgehog, the Fox, and the Magister's Pox: Mending the Gap between Science and the Humanities (London: Jonathan Cape, 2003), 53.
7 Annie Dillard,
Teaching a Stone to Talk (New York: Harper Perennial, 1982), 108–29.
9 Annie Dillard,
Pilgrim at Tinker Creek (New York: Harper & Row, 1974), 179.
10 See
Gary McIlroy, ‘Pilgrim at Tinker Creek and the Burden of Science’,
American Literature 59 (1987): 71–84.
11 Simon Critchley,
Continental Philosophy: A Very Short Introduction (Oxford University Press, 2001), 9.
Holmes Rolston argues that the very root of the ecological crisis may be something awry with the
fact/value distinction (‘Are Values in Nature Subjective or Objective?’,
Environmental Ethics 4 [1982]: 125–51).
12 George Levine, ‘By Knowledge Possessed: Darwin, Nature, and Victorian Narrative’,
New Literary History 24 (1993): 363–91, 363.
14 Stephen
Yearley, reaffirming the close dependence of environmentalism on science, also reminds us that ‘the green movement is dependent
on extra-scientific, moral considerations’ (‘The Green Ambivalence about Science: Legal-Rational Authority and the Scientific
Legitimation of a Social Movement’,
British Journal of Sociology [1992]: 511–32, 529). In fact, precisely this same point applies to science itself as an institution. As soon as scientists
start to defend what science is ultimately
for, they are no longer talking as pure scientists but appealing to generally shared values and goals, such as the virtues of
knowledge, of ameliorating suffering, improving the quality of life.
15 Latour,
Politics of Nature, 10.
16 Margaret
Van de Pitte, in
Environmental Ethics 20 (spring 1998): 23–39;
Jennifer C. Wheat, ‘Mindless Fools and Leaves that Run: Subjectivity, Politics, and Myth in Scientific Nomenclature’, in Ingram,
Coming into Contact, 209–20.
17 Michael Goldman and Rachael A. Sherman, ‘Closing the “Great Divide”: New Social Theory on Society and Nature’,
Annual Review of Sociology 26 (2000): 563–84, 75.
David Demeritt considers how climate change alters and challenges the social role of scientists in ‘The Construction of Global
Warming and the Politics of Science’,
Annals of the Association of American Geographers 91 (2001): 307–37.
18 Bruno Latour, ‘The Impact of Science Studies on Political Philosophy’,
Science, Technology, and Human Values 16.1 (winter 1991): 3–19, 4.
19 See
Robert Kirkham, ‘Why Ecology Cannot be all Things to all People: The “Adaptive Radiation” of Scientific Concepts’,
Environmental Ethics 18 (1997): 375–90.
20 Ian Marshall,
Story Line: Exploring the Literature of the Appalachian Trail (Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia, 1998), 45.
21 Keith Tester,
Animals and Society (London: Routledge, 1991), 8.
22 J. L. Chapman and M. J. Reiss,
Ecology: Principles and Applications, 2nd edn (Cambridge University Press, 1999).
23 Keulartz,
Struggle for Nature, 18.
25 Quoted in Phillips,
Truth of Ecology, 72.
26 Daniel
B. Botkin,
Discordant Harmonies: A New Ecology for the Twenty-First Century (Oxford University Press, 1990).
27 See also
Zapf’s ‘The State of Ecocriticism and the Function of Literature as Social Ecology’, in Gersdorf and Mayer (eds.),
Nature in Literary and Cultural Studies, 49–70.
28 Anne D. Peiter, ‘Kriegslandschaften: Umwelt und Sprache in Karl Kraus’
Die letzten Tage des Menschheit und in Ernst Jüngers
In Stahlgewittern’, in Gersdorf and Mayer (eds.),
Natur-Kultur-Text, 229–56, 236–7.
29 See
Art Berman,
From the New Critics to Deconstruction (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1988), 7–82.
30 F. R. Leavis, quoted in Michael Bell,
F. R. Leavis (London: Routledge, 1988), 31.
31 Franklin,
Animal Nation, 147.
32 Tim Low,
The New Nature (Ringwood, Victoria: Penguin Australia, 2002).
15 Science studies
1 Ullica Segersträle,
Defenders of the Truth: The Sociobiology Debate (Oxford University Press, 2000).
2 Donna Haraway, ‘Morphing in the Order: Flexible Strategies, Feminist Science Studies, and Primate Revisions’,
Haraway Reader, 200.
3 Edward Wilson,
Sociobiology: The New Synthesis (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1975).
4 Segersträle,
Defenders of the Truth, 408.
Olivia Frey's ‘Beyond Literary Darwinism: Women's Voices and Critical Discourse’ studied all the articles in
PMLA from 1975 to 1988 and found that almost all employ adversarial and even aggressive modes of argument in relation to other
critics in a kind of Darwinian struggle for authority (
College English 52.5: 507–26).
5 Segersträle,
Defenders of the Truth, 299ff.
6 Richard Dawkins,
The Selfish Gene (Oxford University Press, 1976).
7 For such a misreading see
Rod Preece, ‘Selfish Genes, Sociobiology, and Animal Respect’, in Jodey Castricano (ed.),
Animal Subjects: An Ethical Reader in a Posthuman World (Waterloo, Ontario: Wilfrid Laurier University Press, 2008), 39–62.
8 For some examples of this see
Lucy G. Sullivan, ‘Myth, Metaphor and Hypothesis: How Anthropomorphism Defeats Science’,
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London 349 (1995): 215–18. See also N.
Katherine Hayles, ‘Desiring Agency: Limiting Metaphors and Enabling Constraints in Dawkins and Deleuze/Guattari’,
Substance 94/95 (2001): 144–59.
9 Donna Haraway,
Primate Visions: Gender, Race, and Nature in the World of Modern Science (London: Routledge, 1989).
11 Haraway, ‘Morphing in the Order’, 217.
12 Haraway,
Primate Visions, 215–16.
14 Haraway, ‘Morphing in the Order’, 207.
16 Dawkins,
Selfish Gene, 196.
17 Christa Grewe-Volpp, ‘Nature “out there” and as “a social player”: Some Basic Consequences for Literary Ecocritical Analysis’,
in Gersdorf and Mayer (eds.),
Nature in Literary and Cultural Studies, 71–86, 78–9.
18 Donna Haraway: Live Theory, 26.
19 Haraway,
Primate Visions, 377.
20 Latour,
Politics of Nature, 4.
21 Peter Marren, ‘Darwin's War-Horse: Beetle-Collecting in 19th-Century England’,
British Wildlife 19 (2008): 153–9, 157.
22 Eileen Crist, ‘Against the Social Construction of Nature and Wilderness’,
Environmental Ethics 26 (spring 2004): 5–24, 7.
23 Hess, ‘Three Natures’, 7.
24 See
Bruno Latour, ‘The Promises of Constructivism’, in D. Ihde and Evan Selinger (eds.),
Chasing Technoscience: Matrix for Materiality (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2003); also
at
www.bruno-latour.fr/articles/article/087.html
16 Evolutionary theories of literature
1 See, for instance,
Philip Pomper and
David Gary Shaw (eds.),
The Return of Science: Evolution, History and Theory (Lanham, MD: Rowman & Litttlefield, 2002); Joseph Carroll,
Literary Darwinism: Evolution, Human Nature and Literature (New York: Routledge, 2004).
2 Glen A. Love,
Practical Ecocriticism: Literature, Biology, and the Environment (Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press, 2003), 154.
4 Dylan Evans, ‘From Lacan to Darwin’, in Jonathan Gottschall and David Sloan Wilson (eds.),
The Literary Animal: Evolution and the Nature of Narrative (Evanston, IL: Northwestern University Press, 2005), 38–55, 50.
5 Jonathan Gottschall, ‘Quantitative Literary Study: A Modest Manifesto and Testing the Hypotheses of Feminist Fairy Tale Studies’,
in Gottschall and Wilson (eds.),
Literary Animal, 199–224, 220.
6 Evans, ‘From Lacan to Darwin’, 50.
7 Joseph Carroll, ‘Human Nature and Literary Meaning: A Theoretical Model Illustrated with a Crtitique of
Pride and Prejudice’, in Gottschall and Wilson (eds.),
Literary Animal, 76–106, 91.
8 Marcus Nordlund, ‘The Problem of Romantic Love: Shakespeare and Evolutionary Psychology’, in Gottschall and Wilson (eds.),
Literary Animal, 107–25. 107.
9 Love,
Practical Ecocriticism, 50.
10 Carroll, ‘Human Nature and Literary Meaning’, 81.
11 Quoted in Love,
Practical Ecocriticism, 59.
12 Tony Jackson, ‘Questioning Interdisciplinarity: Cognitive Science, Evolutionary Psychology, and Literary Criticism’,
Poetics Today 21 (2000): 319–47, 335.
13 Nordlund, ‘Problem of Romantic Love’, 119.
14 For a survey of evolutionary theories of art see Brain Boyd, ‘Evolutionary Theories of Art’, in Gottschall and Wilson (eds.),
Literary Animal, 147–76.
15 Carroll,
Literary Darwinism, 145. The use of scientific vocabulary may be skin-deep. For instance,
David Sloan Wilson, speculating that literature is part of a hypothetical ‘nongenetic evolutionary process’, is arguably only
rewording a familiar notion of ‘culture’. Superficially Darwinian terms like ‘adaptation’ and ‘evolution’ are appropriated
to a conservative and traditional defence of literature as a source of moral and cognitive stability (‘Evolutionary Social
Constructivism’,
Literary Animal, 20–37, 33).
16 Timothy
Morton, ‘Queer Ecology’,
PMLA 124 (2010), quotations taken from a pre-publication ms copy.
17 Interdisciplinarity and science: two essays
1 Marshall,
Story Line, 6.
2 In Branch and Slovic (eds.),
ISLE Reader, 188–202.
3 In S. J. Gould,
Ever Since Darwin: Reflections in Natural History (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1980), 207–13.
4 Julie Thompson Klein,
Crossing Boundaries: Knowledge, Disciplinarity and Interdisciplinarities (Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia, 1996), 14.
5 For an overview of Gould's work and thought see Michael B. Shermer, ‘This View of Science: Stephen Jay Gould as Historian
of Science and Scientific Historian, Popular Scientist and Scientific Popularizer’,
Social Studies of Science 32.4 (August 2002): 489–524.
6 ‘Posture Maketh the Man’, 208.
7 Ullica
Segersträle nevertheless offers a reading of
Gould's scientific career as simultaneously a quest for social justice – ‘[Gould's] continuous search for theoretical alternatives
to the adaptionist program [in theories of
evolution], starting with punctuated equilibria and continuing with the idea of historical contingency (particularly in
Wonderful Life) can be seen as one long argument for social reform and social justice. If everything is optimally adapted in the best of
all possible worlds, there is no point in trying to effect social change. But if instead of adaptation you emphasize discontinuity,
contingency, and chance, you indicate that in a radically new environment new types of individuals will flourish’ (
Defenders of the Truth, 378).
8 S. J. Gould,
An Urchin in the Storm: Essays about Books and Ideas (New York: Norton, 1988), 154.
10 J. Elder,
Reading the Mountains of Home (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1999); Terry Gifford,
Connecting with John Muir: Essays in Post-Pastoral Practice (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 2006).
11 Slovic, ‘Ecocriticism: Storytelling, Values, Communication, Contact’.
12 See Chris Stringer and Peter Andrews,
The Complete World of Human Evolution (London: Thames & Hudson, 2005), 127.
13 See
Jessica Mordsley, ‘Tracing Origins in Paleoanthropology’, in Neil Badmington (ed.),
Derridanimals,
Oxford Literary Review 29 (2007): 77–101.
14 Charles Bazerman, ‘Intertextual Self-Fashioning: Gould and Lewontin's Representations of the Literature’, in Jack Selzer (ed.),
Understanding Scientific Prose (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1993), 20–41, 38.
15 Gould,
The Hedgehog, the Fox, 107.
The animal mirror
1 James Rachels,
Created from Animals (Oxford University Press, 1991), 129.
2 Peter Singer,
Animal Liberation, 2nd edn (London: Pimlico, 1995); Tom Regan,
The Case for Animal Rights (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1983); Carol Adams,
The Sexual Politics of Meat (New York: Continuum, 1990); Mary Midgley,
Animals and Why They Matter (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1984).
3 J. Baird Callicott, ‘Animal Liberation: A Triangular Affair’,
Environmental Ethics 2 (1980): 311–38.
4 Regan,
Case for Animal Rights, 362. For an overview of the conflicts see
Mark Sagoff, ‘Animal Liberation and Environmental Ethics: Bad Marriage, Quick Divorce’,
Osgood Hall Law Journal 22 (1984): 297–307.
18 Ethics and the non-human animal
1 David Garnett,
A Man in the Zoo [and]
Lady into Fox (London: Vintage, 2000), 23. See also
Randy Malamud,
Reading Zoos: Representations of Animal and Captivity (New York: New York University Press, 1998) and
Diana Starr Cooper’s account of the circus as an institution making an art form out of the human–animal distinction,
Night after Night (Washington, DC: Shearwater Books, 1994).
2 Keith Thomas,
Man and the Natural World: Changing Attitudes in England 1500–1800 (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1983), 36.
3 Soper,
What is Nature?, 83.
4 C. Wolfe,
Animal Rites: American Culture, the Discourse of Species and Posthumanism (University of Chicago Press, 2003), 43.
5 See Cynthia Chris,
Watching Wildlife (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2006).
6 See E. F. Bleiler (ed.),
Best Ghost Stories of Algernon Blackwood (New York: Dover, 1973).
7 Thomas,
Man and the Natural World, 16.
8 Editorial,
New Scientist, 24 May 2008, 3.
9 See
Matthew Calarco,
Zoographies: The Question of the Animal from Heidegger to Derrida (New York: Columbia University Press, 2008), 3–13.
10 Editorial introduction to Wolfe (ed.),
Zoontologies, xi.
11 Jacques Derrida, ‘The Animal that Therefore I am (more to follow)’, in Peter Atterton and Matthew Calarco (eds.),
Animal Philosophy: Ethics and Identity (London: Continuum, 2004), 113–26, 125–6.
12 Anna
Tsing, quoted in Donna Haraway,
When Species Meet (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2008), 218.
13 Rare examples would be the work of
Cary Wolfe;
Jean Hochman’s chapter ‘The Lambs in
The Silence of the Lambs’, in his
Green Cultural Studies: Nature in Film, Novel and Theory (Moscow, ID: University of Idaho Press, 1998);
Chen
Hong, ‘To Set the Wild Free: Changing Images of Animals in English Poetry of the Pre-Romantic and Romantic Periods’,
ISLE 13.2 (summer 2006): 129–49. For more, see the Animal Studies Bibliography referred to in further reading for this chapter.
14 John Simons,
Animal Rights and the Politics of Literary Representation (Basingstoke: Palgrave, 2002), 59.
15 For an overview of such arguments see ibid.
16 Wolfe,
Animal Rites, 1.
19 Luc Ferry,
The New Ecological Order, trans. Carol Volk (University of Chicago Press, 1995), 139.
20 Wolfe,
Animal Rites, 38.
21 David
Wood, ‘
Comment ne pas manger: Deconstruction and Humanism’, in H. Peter Steeves (ed.),
Animal Others: On Ethics, Ontology, and Animal Life (Albany: SUNY Press, 1999), 15–35, 32.
22 A similar argument leads
Rebecca Raglon and
Marian Scholtmeijer, in another essay on animals in Armbruster and Wallace (eds.),
Beyond Nature Writing (‘Heading off the Trail: Language, Literature, and Nature’s Resistance’, 248–62), to write that, ‘while each story can work
on a symbolic, metaphoric, or psychological level…in each story’s deepest level all such meanings fall away, and we are left
to contemplate the unknowable, mysterious aspect of termite, turtle, or chimpanzee’ (261). These are valuable points, but
they may reduce interpretation to an entirely negative gesture – to take us to the edge of
anthropocentric instrumentalism in
language and leave whatever is outside (e.g., all living things) ‘mysterious’, ‘unknown’, ‘other’, ‘challengingly unhuman’,
etc. This might soon become a rather repetitive mode of attention, affirming a merely negative irony, again and again.
23 See
Akira Mizuta Lippit,
Electric Animal: Toward a Rhetoric of Wildlife (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2000), 71.
19 Anthropomorphism
1 Jack London,
The Call of the Wild, White Fang and Other Stories, ed. Earle Labor and Robert C. Leitz III (Oxford University Press, 1998), 19.
2 See Crist,
Images of Animals, 11–50.
3 Stephen Mithen, ‘Anthropomorphism and the Evolution of Cognition’,
Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute 2 (1996): 717–21.
4 Heidegger,
Gesammtausgabe 66 (Frankfurt-on-Main: Klostermann, 1997), 161.
5 J. A. Baker and Robert MacFarlane,
The Peregrine (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1967); Richard Mabey,
The Book of Nightingales (1993; London: Sinclair-Stevenson, 1997); Diane Ackerman,
The Moon by Whale Light: And Other Adventures Among Bats, Penguins, Crocodilians, and Whales (1991; London, Random House, 1993).
6 Thomas Nagel, ‘What Is It Like To Be A Bat?’,
Philosophical Review 83.4 (October 1974): 435–50.
7 Quoted in Karl Kroeber, ‘Ecology and American Literature: Thoreau and Un-Thoreau’,
American Literary History 9.2 (1997): 309–28, 320.
8 Kalevi Kull and Peeter Torop, ‘Biotranslation: Translation Between
Umwelten’, in Susan Petrilli (ed.),
Translation Translation (Amsterdam: Rodopi, 2003), 313–28. See also
Tino Maran's article on the promise of
biosemiotics, ‘Where Do Your Borders Lie? Reflections on the Semiotic Ethics of Nature’, in Gersdorf and Mayer (eds.),
Nature in Literary and Cultural Studies, 455–76.
9 In
Animal Others, 271–84.
10 Richard Jefferies,
Field and Hedgerow, new edn (1889; London: Lutterworth, 1948), 116–24.
11 See
Claire Colebrook,
Gilles Deleuze (London: Routledge, 2002), 29–54.
12 Simons,
Animal Rights, 171–2.
14 See, for example,
Alice Kuzniar, ‘A Higher Langauge: Novalis on Communion with Animals’,
German Quarterly 76 (2003): 426–42;
Jacqui Griffith, ‘Almost Human: Indeterminate Children and Dogs in “Flush” and “The Sound and the Fury”’,
Yearbook of English Studies 32 (2002): 163–76. For another reading of
Virginia Woolf's
Flush that takes its attempt to represent animal subjectivity more at face value, see
Craig Smith, ‘Across the Widest Gulf: Nonhuman Subjectivity in Virginia Woolf’s “Flush”’,
Twentieth-Century Literature 48 (2002): 348–61.
15 Gilles Deleuze and Felix Guattari,
A Thousand Plateaus: Capitalism and Schizophrenia, trans. Brian Massumi (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1987), 233–309.
16 Phillips,
Truth of Ecology, 205–10.
17 See Donna Haraway,
When Species Meet (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2008), 27–30.
18 Gareth Lovett Jones,
The Wind in the Pylons, vol. I (Aylesbury: Hilltop Publishing, 2003), 233.
19 Contrast
Tonia L. Payne's reading of two short stories by
Ursula K. Le Guin on long-term interstellar travel and the breakdowns that ensue from human beings living as sole species
in an environment, ‘“We are dirt: we are earth”: Ursula Le Guin and the Problem of Extraterrestrials’, in Gersdorf and Mayer
(eds.),
Nature in Literary and Cultural Studies, 229–48.
20 See also
Val Plumwood’s powerful reading of the
film
Babe (1995, dir. Chris Noonan) in
Ecological Culture, 160–6.
20 The future of ecocriticism
1 Orr,
Earth in Mind, 12.