1 Huxley, A., Point Counter Point, orig. pub. 1928, Perennial Classic ed. (New York: Harper & Row, 1965), pp. 32–3, 34–5.
2 Weltner, K., The Measurement of Verbal Information in Psychology and Education, trans. B. M. Crook (Berlin, Heidelberg and New York: Springer-Verlag, 1973), pp. 103–7.
3 Chatman, S., ‘The Semantics of Style’, in Kristeva, J., et al. (eds), Essays in Semiotics (Approaches to Semiotics 4, ed. T. Sebeok) (The Hague: Mouton, 1971), pp. 399–422.
1 Vygotsky, L., ‘Thought and Speech’ (from Chapter VII of Language and Thought), quoted in Saporta, S. (ed.), Psycho-linguistics: a Book of Readings (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1961), p. 576.
2 For a description of ‘casual’ and ‘non-casual’ discourse, see Voegelin, C. F., ‘Casual and Noncasual Utterances within Unified Structure’, in Sebeok, T. (ed.), Style in Language (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1960), pp. 57–68.
3 The main treatments of this notion are Austin, J., How to Do Things with Words (London: Oxford University Press, 1962), and Searle, J., Speech Acts: an Essay in the Philosophy of Language (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1969).
4 Searle, J., op. cit., p. 66.
5 Ohmann, R., ‘Speech Acts and the Definition of Literature’, Philosophy and Rhetoric, IV (1971), pp. 1–19.
6 For a discussion of illocutionary forms in Blake's Tyger, see Epstein, E. L., ‘The Self-Reflexive Artefact: an Approach to a Theory of Value in Literature’, in Fowler, R. (ed.), Style and Structure in Literature: Essays in the New Stylistics (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press and Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1975), pp. 40–78.
7 Vygotsky, L., op. cit., p. 535.
8 Quoted in Slobin, D. I., Psycholinguistics (Glenview, Ill. and London: Scott, Foresman, 1971), p. 101.
9 Ohmann, R., ‘Generative Grammars and the Concept of Literary Style’, Word, XX (1964), pp. 424–39. Ohmann's analysis is basically transformational-generative (Chomskyan); for a description of Chomskyan principles of syntactic analysis, see Fowler, R., Linguistics and the Novel (London: Methuen, 1977), PP.6ff.
1 Lieberman, P., Intonation, Perception, and Language (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1967), p. 125. See also Cairns, H. S., and Cairns, C. C, Psycholinguistics: A Cognitive View of Language (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1976), pp. 120–44, for a treatment of the interpretive process in phonology.
2 Lieberman, P., op. cit., pp. 165–6.
3 Joos, M., The Five Clocks: a Linguistic Excursion Into the Five Styles of English Usage (New York: Harcourt, Brace and World, 1967, orig. pub. 1962), p. 37.
4 Letter to Henry Cromwell, 25 November 1710. (Pope tried to give the impression that he had written much the same letter to William Walsh on 22 October 1706; see Sherburn, G. (ed.), The Correspondence of Alexander Pope, I (Oxford: The Clarendon Press, 1956), PP. 105–8).
For commentary on the Ajax lines, see (among many others), Tillotson, G., On the Pastoral Poetry of Pope (London: Oxford University Press, 1938), pp. 124–30, 150–1; Fussell, P., Poetic Meter and Poetic Form (New York: Random House, 1965), p. 43 (where he notices the lack of dissimilation of the sibilants in the first Ajax line, but not the lack of dissimilation of the ‘t's); and S. Chatman's treatment of these lines in A Theory of Meter (The Hague: Mouton, 1965). Lotspeich, C. M., ‘The Metrical Technique of Pope's Illustrative Couplets’, JEGP, 26 (1927), pp. 471–4, while short and not detailed in treatment, makes the point that Pope forces the reader to read the lines by manipulating his sense of the language. See also Adler, J. H., Tope and the Rules of Prosody’, PMLA, 76 (1961), pp. 218–26.
5 See Lieberman, P., op. cit., pp. 144 ff. For sensitive treatments of intonation from slightly different viewpoints, see Bolinger, D., Aspects of Language, 2nd ed. (New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1975), pp. 48–52 and passim; Lehiste, I., Supraseg-mentals (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1970); Palmer, F. R. (ed.), Prosodic Analysis (London: Oxford University Press, 1969); Crystal, D., Prosodic Systems and Intonation in English (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1969).
6 See Chomsky, N., and Halle, M., The Sound Pattern of English (New York: Harper & Row, 1968), for a treatment of stress-pattern in English words and phrases. See also Schmerling, S. F., Aspects of English Sentence Stress (Austin, Tex. and London: University of Texas Press, 1976) and Catford, J. C, Fundamental Problems in Phonetics (Bloomington, Ind. and London: University of Indiana Press, 1977).
7 Lieberman, P., op. cit., p. 145.
8 Ladefoged, P., in A Course in Phonetics (New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1975), pp. 97–102, supports the traditional view of a two-stress system for English. See, however, Epstein, E. L., and Hawkes, T., Linguistics and English Prosody (University of Buffalo, Studies in Linguistics, 1958).
9 Nabokov, V., Notes on Prosody (New York: Pantheon Books, Bollingen Series 72a, 1964), pp. 9–17.
10 For ‘paralinguistics’, see Crystal, D., op. cit.
11 Chomsky, N., Syntactic Structures (The Hague: Mouton, 1957), PP. 35–6.
12 Jespersen, O., A Modern English Grammar on Historical Principles (Copenhagen: Ejnar Munksgaard, 1927), Vol. II, 17.1–17.3.
13 Lowell, R., Salem, from Lord Weary's Castle and the Mills of the Kavanaughs (New York: Harcourt, Brace and World, 1961, orig.pub. 1944), p. 32.
14 See Bolinger, D., ‘Linear Modification’, PMLA, 67 (1952), pp. 1117–44; and ‘Adjectives in English: Attribution and Predication’, Lingua, 18 (1967), pp. 1–34.
15 Epstein, E. L., ‘Hopkins’ Heaven-Haven: A Linguistic-Critical Description’, Essays in Criticism, 23 (April 1973), pp. 137–45; Epstein, E. L., in Fowler, R., op. cit.; Epstein, E. L., ‘Blake's Infant Sorrow – an Essay in Discourse Analysis’, in Kachru, B., and Stahlke, H. (eds), Current Trends in Stylistics (Papers in Linguistics Monographs, Linguistic Research Incorporated, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada, 1972), pp. 231–41; Halliday, M. A. K., ‘The Linguistic Study of Literary Texts’, in Lunt, H. G. (ed.), Proceedings of the Ninth International Congress in Linguistics (The Hague: Mouton, 1964), pp. 302–7; Epstein, E. L., ‘Yeats’ Experiments with Syntax in the Treatment of Time’, in Porter, R., and Brophy, J. (eds), Modern Irish Literature: A William York Tindall Festschrift (New Rochelle, New York: Iona College Press/Twayne Publishers, 1972), pp. 171–84; Epstein, E. L., ‘Detemporalized Syntax in the Poetry of Yeats’, in Style and Text: a Nils Erik Enkvist Festschrift (Stockholm, Sweden: Språkförlaget Skriptor, 1975), pp. 305–16; PerlofF, M., The Poetic Art of Robert Lowell (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1973); Freeman, D. C, ‘Syntax and Poetics in Three Odes of John Keats’ (forthcoming); Freeman, D. C, ‘The Strategy of Fusion: Dylan Thomas's Syntax’, in Fowler, R., op. cit; Chatman, S., ‘Milton's Participal Style’, PMLA, 83 (1968), pp. 1386–99; Fairley, I., ‘Syntactic Deviation and Cohesion’, Language and Style, 6 (1973), pp. 216–29; Fairley, I., E. E. Cummings and Ungrammar; A Study of Syntactic Deviance in his Poems (New York: Watermill Publishers, 1975); Keyser, S. J., ‘Towards a Theory of Poetic Form and Meaning’, College English; (forthcoming); Fish, S., ‘Literature in the Reader: Affective Stylistics’, New Literary History, 2 (Autumn 1970), pp. 123–62; Fish, S., Surprised by Sin: The Reader in Paradise Lost (Berkeley, Calif.: University of California Press, 1971); Fish, S., Self-Consuming Artifacts (Berkeley, Calif.: University of California Press, 1972).
See also Baker, W. E., Syntax in English Poetry 1870–1930 (Berkeley, Calif.: University of California Press, 1967). Donald Davie's seminal work Articulate Energy (London: Routledge, 1955) provided much of the early impetus for the study of syntax in literature.
Roman Jakobson's contributions to this field, as to all fields of the study of the language of literature, has been enormous, and the mere listing of his articles and notes on the subject would amount to a listing of a fair portion of his Collected Works (for a bibliography, see Janua Linguarum series minor, no. 134, The Hague: Mouton, 1971). For an incisive commentary on Jakobson's principles of analysis, see Culler, J., Structuralist Poetics: Structuralism, Linguistics, and the Study of Literature (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1975), pp. 55–74.
1 Spitzer, L., Linguistics and Literary History: Essays in Stylistics (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1948). See also his two volumes of Stilstudien (Munich: Hueber, 1961). Other important works in the same critical field of Romantic In dividualist analysis are Vossler, K., Frankreichs Kultur im Spiegel seiner Sprachentwicklung (Heidelberg: Carl Winter, 1913); and his Gesammelte Aufsatze zur Sprachphilosophie (Munich: Hueber, 1923).
2 Burgess, A., Joysprick (London and New York: André Deutsch, Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1973), pp. 62–81. The entire book is impressive, but see also the chapter on ‘Borrowed Styles’, pp. 93–109.
3 For a suggestive treatment of the idea that the concept of the mot juste necessarily involves the death of individual style, see Purdy, S., ‘Henry James, Gustave Flaubert, and the Ideal Style’, Language and Style, 3 (1970), pp. 163–84.
4 Ulysses (New York: Random House edition, reset 1961), p. 51.
5 Milic, Louis T., A Quantitative Approach to the Style of Jonathan Swift (The Hague: Mouton, 1967). Kiparsky, P., ‘The Role of Linguistics in a Theory of Poetry’, Daedalus, 102, 3 (1973), PP. 221–44; he also discusses some of the patterning to be found in the poetry of Dylan Thomas. Ohmann, R., ‘Prolegomena to the Analysis of Prose Style’, in Martin, H. G. (ed.), Style in Prose Fiction (New York: Columbia University Press, 1959); Ohmann, R., Shaw: the Style and the Man (Middletown, Connecticut: Wesleyan University Press, 1962); Ohmann, R., ‘Generative Grammars and the Concept of Literary Style’, Word, 20 (1964), pp. 423–39 (on the style of Hemingway, Faulkner, Lawrence and James); Ohmann, R., ‘Literature as Sentences’, College English, 27 (1966), pp. 261–7; Ohmann, R., ‘A Linguistic Appraisal of Victorian Style’, in Levine, G., and Madden, W. (eds), The Art of Victorian Prose (New York and London: Oxford University Press, 1968) (on the style of Matthew Arnold); see also Chatman, S., The Later Style of Henry James (Oxford: Blackwells, 1972).
Ohmann's essay ‘Mentalism in the Study of Literary Language’, in Zale, E. M. (ed.), Proceedings of the Conference on Language and Language Behavior (New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, 1968), pp. 188–212, is the source of the statement that ‘literary criticism is the study of mental structures’ (p. 210).
In this important essay, Ohmann argues that there is a competence in creativity comparable to the ‘linguistic competence’ by which the ordinary speaker constructs and understands the sentences of his language. In the course of the essay Ohmann deals with the linguistic choices made (probably outside of awareness) by Gibbon, Saul Bellow, Henry James, Yeats, Keats, and Richard Wilbur, and finds in them signs of the separate individuality of these writers.
For a statistical approach to the analysis of style, see Doležel, L., and Bailey, R. W. (eds), Statistics and Style (New York, London and Amsterdam: Elsevier, 1969).
For a sensitive treatment of the theoretical issues involved in deciding whether style is an individualizing factor or composed of general linguistic elements, see Hirsch, E. D., ‘Stylistics and Synonymity’, Critical Inquiry, I (1975), pp. 559–79. Langbaum, R., The Mysteries of Identity (New York: Oxford University Press, 1977).
6 Ohmann, R., Shaw: the Style and the Man, pp. xi-xiii.
7 Ohmann, R., ‘Generative Grammar and the Concept of Literary Style’.
8 Orwell, G., 1984 (New York: Signet, 1961, orig. pub. 1949), P.42.
9 One attempt to arrive at general descriptions of deviations from a general norm was made by P. Guiraud, in Les Caractéres Statistiques du Vocabulaire (Paris: Presses Universitaires de France, 1954). For treatments of the problems inherent in the study of style by statistical methods, see Bailey, R. W., ‘Statistics and Style: a Historical Survey’, in Doležel, L., and Bailey, R. W. (eds), Statistics and Style, pp. 217–36.
10 The data on Joyce and Yeats are derived from Hanley, M., Word Index to James Joyce's Ulysses (Madison, Wis.: University of Wisconsin Press, 1951, orig. pub. 1937), and Parrish, S. M. (ed.), A Concordance to the Poems of William Butler Teats (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1963). The material from the Wake derived from Hart, C, A Concordance to Finnegans Wake (Minneapolis, Minn.: University of Minnesota Press, 1963).
11 Riffaterre, M., ‘Criteria for Style Analysis’, Word, 15 (1959), pp. 154–74; ‘Stylistic Context’, Word, 16 (1960), pp. 207–18; ‘Problèmes d'Analyse du Style Littéraire’, Romance Philology, 14 (1961), pp. 216–27; ‘Vers la Définition du “Style” ‘, Word, 17 (1961), pp. 318–44; ‘The Stylistic Function’, in Lunt, H. (ed.), Proceedings of the Ninth International Congress of Linguists (The Hague: Mouton, 1964).
12 Ghatman, S., in Kristera et al. (eds), pp. 417–18. See p. 81.
13 Alekhine, London, 1957, p. 138.
14 Ong, W. J. (S.J.), ‘A Dialectic of Aural and Objective Correlatives’, Essays in Criticism, 8 (1958), pp. 73–108.
15 Poulet, G., ‘The Phenomenology of Reading’, New Literary History, I, 1 (October 1969), pp. 53–68.