1. Sam Roberts, “Bonard Fowler, Alabama Officer in Shooting That Led to Selma March, Dies at 81,” New York Times, 9 July 2015, https://www.nytimes.com/2015/07/10/us/bonard-fowler-alabama-officer-in-shooting-that-led-to-selma-march-dies-at-81.html?_r=0.
2. George Wythe Munford, The Two Parsons; Cupid’s Sports; the Dream; and the Jewels of Virginia (Richmond, VA: J. D. K. Sleight, 1884), p. 208.
3. United States Election Project, “Voter Turnout,” http://www.electproject.org/home/voter-turnout/voter-turnout-data.
4. William E. Gladstone, “Kin beyond Sea,” North American Review, Sept.–Oct. 1878, p. 185.
1. George Washington to Theodorick Bland, 18 Nov. 1786; Washington to Edmund Randolph, 28 Mar. 1787, W. W. Abbot et al., eds., The Papers of George Washington, Confederation Series (Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia, 1992–1997), 4:377–379, 5:112–114.
2. George Washington to Bushrod Washington, 15 Nov. 1786; George Washington to Marquis de Lafayette, 15 Aug. 1787, ibid., 4:368–370, 5:294–297.
3. George Mason to George Mason, Jr., 1 June 1787, Kate Mason Rowland, The Life of George Mason, 1725–1792 (New York: Russell and Russell, 1964), 2:129–130.
4. Leonard L. Richards, Shays’s Rebellion: The American Revolution’s Final Battle (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2002).
5. George Washington to Henry Lee, Jr., 31 Oct. 1786; George Washington to Henry Knox, 26 Dec. 1786, Abbot et al., eds., Papers of George Washington, Confederation Series, 4:318–320, 481–483.
6. The Debates in the Several State Conventions on Adoption of the Federal Constitution (Philadelphia: J. B. Lippincott, 1881), 1:486; Glenn A. Phelps, George Washington and American Constitutionalism (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1993), pp. 91–120.
7. John Adams to Thomas Brand Hollis, 5 Apr. 1788, Papers of John Adams, Digital Edition, http://rotunda.upress.virginia.edu/founders/ADMS.
8. Benjamin Rush to Elias Boudinot, 9 July 1788, L. H. Butterfield, ed., The Letters of Benjamin Rush (Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society, 1951), 1:475.
9. Thomas Jefferson to Edward Rutledge, 18 July 1788, Julian P. Boyd, ed., The Papers of Thomas Jefferson (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1950–2016), 13:377–379.
10. James Wilson, “Remarks to Pennsylvania Ratifying Convention,” 26 Nov. 1787, David Mark Hall and Kermit L. Hall, eds., Collected Works of James Wilson (Indianapolis: Liberty Fund, 2007), 1:182.
11. Alexander Hamilton, James Madison, and John Jay, The Federalist Papers (New York: SoHo Books, 2012), no. 39, p. 108.
12. “On Some of the Principles of American Republicanism,” Baltimore Federal Gazette, 8 May 1797, p. 3.
13. A Voter, “For the Centinel,” Georgetown, District of Columbia, Centennial of Liberty, 19 Aug. 1800, p. 3.
14. An American Citizen, “Commentary Number IV,” Pennsylvania Gazette, 24 Oct. 1787, p. 3.
15. John Adams to James Sullivan, 26 May 1776, Papers of John Adams.
16. Alexander Hamilton, The Farmer Refuted &c, 23 Feb. 1775, Founders Online, https://founders.archives.gov/documents/Hamilton/01-01-02-0057.
17. Max Farrand, Records of the Federal Convention of 1787 (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1911), 2:202, 203–204.
18. Ibid., 2:203, 204.
19. Ibid., 2:201.
20. “Northwest Ordinance,” Primary Documents of American History, Library of Congress, https://www.loc.gov/rr/program/bib/ourdocs/northwest.html; Peter S. Onuf, Statehood and Union: History of the Northwest Ordinance (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1987).
21. Jerrold G. Rusk, A Statistical History of the American Electorate (Washington, DC: CQ Press, 2001), pp. 23–24.
22. Ibid., pp. 31–33; Donald Ratcliffe, “The Right to Vote and the Rise of Democracy, 1787–1828,” Journal of the Early Republic 33 (2013): 230–243. An excellent online database of voter turnout in the early republic is now available: Phillip Lampi, “A New Nation Votes,” http://elections.lib.tufts.edu/.
23. Rusk, A Statistical History, pp. 23–24, 31–33.
24. Ibid., pp. 25–32, 50–54.
25. James Madison, “Speech to Virginia Ratifying Convention,” 20 June 1788, V. Gaillard Hunt, ed., The Writings of James Madison (New York: G. P. Putnam’s Sons, 1900–1910), 5:223; Colleen A. Sheehan and Gary L. McDowell, eds., Friends of the Constitution: Writings of the “Other” Federalists, 1787–1788 (Indianapolis: Liberty Fund, 1998), p. 194.
26. A Friend of Society and Liberty, “To the INHABITANTS of the Western Counties of Pennsylvania,” Pennsylvania Gazette, 23 July 1788, p. 2.
27. Samuel Adams, “To the Legislature of Massachusetts,” 16 Jan. 1795, Samuel Adams Heritage Society, http://www.samuel-adams-heritage.com/documents/address-to-massachusetts-legislature.html.
28. The Federalist, no. 10, pp. 26–27.
29. John Adams to William Stephens Smith, 21 Dec. 1786, Papers of John Adams.
30. The Federalist, no. 63, p. 184.
31. “From Correspondents,” Philadelphia Gazette, 17 Feb. 1790, p. 3.
32. Thomas Jefferson to James Madison, 20 Dec. 1787, Papers of Thomas Jefferson, 12:438–447.
33. Christian G. Fritz, American Sovereigns: The People and America’s Constitutional Tradition before the Civil War (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2008), p. 179; Jacob Katz Cogan, “Imagining Democracy: Popular Sovereignty from the Constitution to the Civil War” (Ph.D. dissertation, Princeton University, 2002), p. 29.
34. The Federalist, no. 65, p. 188.
35. “The Convention of Massachusetts,” Connecticut Courant, 3 Mar. 1788, p. 1.
36. “Mr. Martin’s Information to the House of Assembly,” Pennsylvania Packet, 1 Feb. 1788, p. 2.
37. Amicus, “Hints,” Charleston Columbian Herald, 28 Aug. 1788, p. 2.
38. Harvey Flaumenhaft, The Effective Republic: Administration and Constitution in the Thought of Alexander Hamilton (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1992), p. 151.
39. Annals of Congress, House of Representatives, 1st Congress, 1st session, 15 Aug. 1789, pp. 761–762, https://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/ampage?collId=llac&fileName=001/llac001.db&recNum=51.
40. Seth Cotlar, “Languages of Democracy in America from the Revolution to the Election of 1800,” in Re-Imagining Democracy in the Age of Revolutions, ed. Joanna Innes and Mark Philip (New York: Oxford University Press, 2013), p. 21.
41. Annals of Congress, 15 Aug. 1789, pp. 761–762, 766.
42. Ibid., pp. 767, 770.
43. Christopher Terranova, “The Constitutional Life of Legislative Instructions in America,” New York University Law Review 84 (Nov. 2009): 1346.
44. Matthew Schoenbachler, “Republicanism in the Age of Democratic Revolution: The Democratic-Republican Societies of the 1790s,” Journal of the Early Republic 18 (Summer 1998): 248–250.
45. James P. Martin, “When Repression Is Democratic and Constitutional: The Federalist Theory of Democratic Representation and the Sedition Act of 1798,” University of Chicago Law Review 66 (1999): 132; George Washington to Burgess Ball, 25 Sept. 1794, Dorothy Twohig et al., eds., Papers of George Washington, Presidential Series (Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia, 1987–2016), 16:722–723.
46. Jeffrey L. Pasley, “The Cheese and the Words: Popular Political Culture and Participatory Democracy in the Early American Republic,” in Beyond the Founders: New Approaches to the Political History of the Early Republic, ed. Jeffrey L. Pasley, Andrew W. Robertson, and David Waldstreicher (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2004), pp. 31–56; Simon P. Newman, Parades and the Politics of the Street: Festive Culture in the Early American Republic (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1997); Robert W. T. Martin, Government by Dissent: Protest, Resistance, and Radical Democratic Thought in the Early American Republic (New York: NYU Press, 2013).
47. The Federalist, no. 60, p. 175; Powell v. McCormack, 395 U.S. 486 (1969); U.S. Term Limits, Inc. v. Thornton, 514 U.S. 779 (1995); Cook v. Gralike, 531 U.S. 510 (2001).
48. “Constitution of Maryland—1776”; “Constitution New Jersey—1776”; “Constitution of South Carolina—1790,” Francis Newton Thorpe, ed., The Federal and State Constitutions (Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1909), 3:1691, 5:2594–2595, 6:3258–3260.
49. Farrand, Records, 2:240, 242.
50. Robert G. Natelson, “The Original Scope of the Constitution to Regulate Elections,” Journal of Constitutional Law 13, no. 1 (2010): 39–40; Govtrack, “House Vote #11 in 1789,” https://www.govtrack.us/congress/votes/1-1/h11.
51. “Philadelphia,” Philadelphia Federal Gazette, 7 Feb. 1791, p. 3.
52. Juniatta Mann, “A Mistaken Principle in Government,” Philadelphia Independent Gazetteer, 10 Apr. 1790, p. 2.
53. On the apportionment of legislative districts in the early republic, see Rosemarie Zagarri, The Politics of Size: Representation in the United States, 1776–1850 (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2010); state systems for electing members of Congress is at p. 108.
54. Robert G. Dixon, Jr., Democratic Representation: Reapportionment in Law and Politics (New York: Oxford University Press, 1968), pp. 72–75; “Constitution of Delaware—1782”; “Constitution of Georgia—1789,” Thorpe, ed., The Federal and State Constitutions, 1:571, 2:785. Population data is from the 1800 U.S. Census.
55. Dixon, Democratic Representation.
56. Robert J. Dinkin, Voting in Revolutionary America (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1982), pp. 90–107.
57. Chilton Williamson, American Suffrage: From Property to Democracy, 1760 to 1860 (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1960), p. 123.
58. See, for example, “Universal Suffrage,” Hartford American Mercury, 26 May 1803, p. 3; “New York,” New York Citizen, 5 Dec. 1801, p. 2; “To the Public,” New York Evening Post, 15 Jan. 1802, p. 2; “Respecting the Selectmen of Charleston,” Boston Independent Chronicle, 8 Apr. 1804, p. 2; “Speech of Dr. Lieb,” Carlisle Gazette, 12 June 1807, p. 1; “Thursday November 11, 1811,” Richmond Enquirer, 26 Nov. 1811, p. 2; John T. Dempsey, “Control by Congress over the Seating and Disciplining of Members” (Ph.D. dissertation, University of Michigan, 1956), pp. 330–331.
59. William Shakespeare, Othello, ed. E. A. J. Honigmann (London: Thomson Learning, 1997), p. 156.
Epigraph: Lincoln–Douglas debates, Fifth Joint Debate, 7 Oct. 1858. Senator Stephen Douglas was the leading Democratic politician of the 1850s. He clashed with Abraham Lincoln in the famous Lincoln–Douglas debates during the Illinois Senate campaign of 1858. After defeating Lincoln in the state legislature’s vote for senator, Douglas lost to Lincoln in the presidential election of 1860.
1. “Universal Suffrage,” Connecticut Courant, 11 May 1803, p. 2; Boston New England Palladium, 17 May 1803, p. 1; New York Evening Post, 27 May 1803, p. 2; New York Herald, 1 June 1803, p. 2.
2. Connecticut General Assembly, The Public Statute Laws of the State of Connecticut, Book 1 (Hartford: Hudson and Goodwin, 1808), p. 300; “The Charter of Connecticut 1662,” Connecticut State Library, http://cslib.cdmhost.com/cdm/ref/collection/p128501coll2/id/188289; Jerrold G. Rusk, A Statistical History of the American Electorate (Washington, DC: CQ Press, 2001), pp. 24, 33; “Connecticut,” New Hampshire Farmer’s Cabinet, 4 Nov. 1847, p. 3.
3. Christopher Malone, Between Freedom and Bondage: Race, Party, and Voting Rights in the Antebellum North (New York: Routledge, 2007), p. 4.
4. Washington Farewell Address, 19 Sept. 1796, John C. Fitzpatrick, ed., The Writings of George Washington (Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1931–1944), 35:214–238.
5. Elisabeth S. Clemens, The People’s Lobby: Organizational Innovation and the Rise of Interest Group Politics in the United States, 1890–1925 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1997), pp. 20–22.
6. Allan J. Lichtman, “Elections and Electoral Eras,” in The Concise Princeton Encyclopedia of American Political History, ed. Michael Kazin (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2011), p. 198.
7. On the acts, see Terri Diane Halperin, The Alien and Sedition Acts of 1798: Testing the Constitution (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2016).
8. Annals of Congress, U.S. House of Representatives, 5th Congress, 1st session, July 1797, p. 430.
9. William Cranch to Abigail Smith Adams, 7 Jan. 1800, Papers of John Adams, Digital Edition, http://rotunda.upress.virginia.edu/founders/ADMS.
10. George Washington to Alexander Spotswood, Jr., 22 Nov. 1798, Dorothy Twohig et al., eds., Papers of George Washington, Retirement Series (Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia, 1998–1999), 3:216–217.
11. Alex Ayres, ed., The Wit and Wisdom of Abraham Lincoln (New York: Meridian, 1992), p. 1858.
12. Annals of Congress, U.S. House of Representatives, 8th Congress, 1st session, 28 Oct. 1803, pp. 516–517.
13. Ibid., 26 Oct. 1803, p. 493.
14. Thomas Jefferson, Notes on the State of Virginia (Paris: s.n., 1784), p. 157.
15. Lucius Crassus, “Examination No. VII,” 7 Jan. 1802, Harold C. Syrett, ed., The Papers of Alexander Hamilton (New York: Columbia University Press, 1961–1987), 25:491–495.
16. John Adams to John Adams Smith, 12 May 1821, Adams Papers.
17. John Thomas Scharf, History of Maryland from the Earliest Days to the Present Day (Hatboro, PA: J. B. Piet, 1879), 2:611.
18. J. R. Pole, “Constitutional Reform and Election Statistics in Maryland, 1790–1812,” Maryland Historical Magazine 55 (1960): 279.
19. “Wilmin. Mirroa,” Maryland Hornet, 7 Dec. 1802, p. 4.
20. David S. Bogen, “The Annapolis Poll Books of 1800 and 1804: African American Voting in the Early Republic,” Maryland Historical Magazine 86 (1991): 57–65.
21. William Griffith, Eumenes (Trenton: G. Craft, 1799), pp. 33, 36; Jan Ellen Lewis, “Rethinking Women’s Suffrage in New Jersey, 1776–1807,” Rutgers Law Review 63 (2011): 1031–1035; “House Committee on Elections Report,” New Jersey Journal, 17 Dec. 1802, p. 2.
22. Lewis, “Rethinking Women’s Suffrage in New Jersey,” p. 1032.
23. David N. Gellman and David Quigley, eds., Jim Crow New York: A Documentary History of Race and Citizenship, 1777–1877 (New York: NYU Press, 2003), pp. 164–165, 103.
24. Ibid., pp. 107–108, 125.
25. Ibid., pp. 128, 141–142.
26. Ibid., pp. 120, 180. There is an extensive literature on the social construction of “whiteness” in American history. See, for example, “Toward a Bibliography of Critical Whiteness Studies,” Center on Democracy in a Multiracial Society, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Nov. 2006, pp. 20–26, http://nathanrtodd.netfirms.com/documents/Spanierman_Todd_Neville(2006)Whiteness_Bib.pdf.
27. Gellman and Quigley, eds., Jim Crow New York, p. 185.
28. George E. Walker, The Afro-American in New York City, 1827–1860 (New York: Garland, 1993), p. 116.
29. Gellman and Quigley, eds., Jim Crow New York, pp. 124–126, 132.
30. Corfield v. Coryell, 6 Fed. Cas. 546, no. 3, 230 C.C.E.D.Pa. (1823). Through much of American history Supreme Court justices also sat at times on appeals court panels.
31. Andrew Jackson, First Annual Message, 8 Dec. 1829, American Presidency Project, http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/?pid=29471.
32. Peter Argersinger, Structure, Process, and Party: Essays in American Political History (Armonk, NY: M. E. Sharpe, 1992), p. 37.
33. S. Croswell and R. Sutton, Debates and Proceedings in the New York State Convention for the Revision of the Constitution (Albany: Albany Argus, 1846), 30 Sept. 1846, p. 777; 2 Oct. 1846, p. 796; 1 Oct. 1846, pp. 783–785.
34. Ibid., 6 Oct. 1846, pp. 822–823.
35. Hanes Walton, Jr., Sherman C. Puckett, and Donald R. Deskins, Jr., The African American Electorate: A Statistical History (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 2012), p. 151.
36. “Constitution of New York, 1846,” Francis Newton Thorpe, ed., The Federal and State Constitutions (Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1909), 5:2656.
37. “Constitution of the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania, 1790,” ibid., 5:3096.
38. Reports of Cases Argued and Determined in the Supreme Court of Pennsylvania, vol. 6, May–September 1837 (Philadelphia: Kay and Brothers, 1880), Hobbs v. Fogg (Sunbury, July 1837), pp. 553–560.
39. Proceedings and Debates of the Constitutional Convention of the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania, Held on the Second Day of May 1837 (Harrisburg, PA: Packer, Barrett, and Parks, 1837), 19 June 1837, 2:476; 23 June 1837, 3:84.
40. Opinion of the Honorable John Fox against the Exercise of Negro Suffrage in Pennsylvania (Harrisburg, PA: Packer, Barrett, and Park, 1838).
41. Eric Ledell Smith, “The End of Black Voting Rights in Pennsylvania: African Americans and the Pennsylvania Constitutional Convention of 1837–1838,” Pennsylvania History 65 (1998): 279–299.
42. Ibid.; “The Appeal of Forty Thousand Citizens Threatened with Disenfranchisement to the People of Pennsylvania,” 14 Mar. 1918, Digital History, http://digitalhistory.hsp.org/pafrm/doc/appeal.
43. Van Gosse, “We Are Americans: The Ideology of Black Republicanism before the Civil War,” Harriet Tubman Institute for Research on Africa and Its Diasporas, 2004, http://avery.cofc.edu/wp-content/uploads/2012/08/gosse.pdf.
44. “Right of Suffrage in Ohio,” The North Star, 13 June 1850, p. 4.
45. Proceedings and Debates of the Virginia State Convention of 1829–1830 (Richmond: Ritchie and Cooke, 1830), 26 Oct. 1829, p. 47; 11 Nov. 1829, p. 257.
46. Ibid., 3 Nov. 1829, pp. 158–159; 20 Nov. 1829, pp. 398–399, 409; 23 Nov. 1829, pp. 437, 438.
47. Ibid., 21 Nov. 1829, p. 412; 13 Oct. 1829, p. 27; 26 Oct. 1829, p. 50.
48. John Marshall to James M. Garnett, 20 May 1829, Charles F. Hobson, ed., The Papers of John Marshall, Correspondence, Papers, and Selected Judicial Opinions, April 1827–December 1830 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1974–2006), 11:246–250.
49. Proceedings and Debates of the Virginia State Convention, 14 Nov. 1829, pp. 315–316.
50. Ibid., 13 Oct. 1829, p. 28; 26 Oct. 1829, p. 51.
51. “Constitution of Virginia, 1830,” Thorpe, ed., Federal and State Constitutions, 7:3821–3827.
52. Proceedings and Debates of the Virginia State Convention, 23 Nov. 1829, p. 439.
53. “Constitution of Virginia, 1851,” Thorpe, ed., Federal and State Constitutions, 7:3832–3837.
54. The details of Dorr’s Rebellion in the following paragraphs come from Erik J. Chaput, The People’s Martyr: Thomas Wilson Dorr and His 1842 Rhode Island Rebellion (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 2013).
55. Ibid., p. 9.
56. Ibid., pp. 165–166.
57. Luther v. Borden, 48 U.S. 1 (1849). For a recent application of the “political thicket” doctrine by several U.S. Supreme Court justices, see Vieth v. Jubelirer, 541 U.S. 267 (2004).
58. Journal of the Convention, Ohio, 1802 (Columbus: F. Orge Nashbee, 1827); Constitution of Ohio, 1802, Thorpe, ed., Federal and State Constitutions, 7:2901–2913.
59. Ohio Constitution of 1851, http://textbook2.infohio.org/images/section8images/1851_Ohio_Constitution_Transcript.pdf.
60. Walton, Puckett, and Deskins, The African American Electorate, p. 147; John Rozett, “Racism and Republican Emergence in Illinois, 1848–1860: A Reevaluation of Republican Negrophobia,” Civil War History 22 (1976): 102.
61. Alexander Keyssar, The Right to Vote: The Contested History of Democracy in the United States, rev. ed. (New York: Basic Books, 2009), p. 48.
62. Joseph P. Ferrie, “The End of American Exceptionalism? Mobility in the U.S. since 1850,” NBER Working Paper, May 2005, p. 23, http://www.nber.org/papers/w11324.pdf.
63. Ronald Hayduk, Democracy for All: Restoring Immigrant Voting Rights in the United States (New York: Routledge, 2006), pp. 19–20.
64. Other authorities indicate that fewer than 10 percent of adult white males were disenfranchised, but these estimates do not account for the significant effect of residency requirements and the smaller effects of disenfranchising paupers, felons, illiterates, and people of unsound mind.
65. Max Farrand, Records of the Federal Convention of 1787 (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1911), 2:241.
66. Ralph Ketcham, James Madison: A Biography (New York: Macmillan, 1971), p. 275; “Madison’s Election to the First Federal Congress, October 1788–February 1789,” Founders Online, https://founders.archives.gov/documents/Madison/01-11-02-0219.
67. Peter Argersinger, Representation and Inequality in Later Nineteenth Century America (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2012), p. 8.
68. Elmer C. Griffith, The Rise and Development of the Gerrymander (Chicago: Scott, Foresman, 1907), pp. 123–124; Andrew Hacker, Congressional Districting: The Issue of Equal Representation (Washington, DC: Brookings Institution, 1964), pp. 40–41.
69. Alec C. Ewald, The Way We Vote: The Local Dimension of American Suffrage (Nashville, TN: Vanderbilt University Press, 2009), pp. 40–46, 46 (quotation).
70. For an alternative view, see Keyssar, The Right to Vote, pp. 55–56.
71. Farrand, Records, 2:202–204.
72. Votes and Proceeding of the Senate of the State of Maryland, Nov. 1800 session (Annapolis, MD: Frederick Green, 1801), p. 48; Maryland State Archives, Session Laws, p. 1600, http://msa.maryland.gov/megafile/msa/speccol/sc4800/sc4872/003181/html/m3181-1600.html.
73. Gellman and Quigley, eds., Jim Crow New York, pp. 150–151; Chilton Williamson, American Suffrage: From Property to Democracy, 1760 to 1860 (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1960), p. 204.
74. James M. McPherson, Abraham Lincoln and the Second Revolution (New York: Oxford University Press, 1991), p. 50.
Epigraph: “Reconstruction,” Atlantic Monthly, Dec. 1866. The escaped slave Frederick Douglass became a nationally renowned orator, abolitionist, and leader of the movements for African American and women’s suffrage.
1. Allan J. Lichtman, “Elections and Electoral Eras,” in The Concise Princeton Encyclopedia of American Political History, ed. Michael Kazin (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2011), 1:200.
2. Henry Louis Gates, Jr., Lincoln on Race and Slavery (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2009), pp. 82–83.
3. Joshua A. Lynn, “Preserving the White Man’s Republic: The Democratic Party and the Transformation of American Conservatism, 1847–1860” (Ph.D. dissertation, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, 2015), p. 61.
4. Lichtman, “Elections and Electoral Eras,” 1:201.
5. Jerrold G. Rusk, A Statistical History of the American Electorate (Washington, DC: CQ Press, 2001), p. 33.
6. Abraham Lincoln, “Second Inaugural Address,” 4 Mar. 1865, The Avalon Project, http://avalon.law.yale.edu/19th_century/lincoln2.asp.
7. Andrew Johnson, “Speech on the Gag Resolution,” 31 Jan. 1844, LeRoy P. Graff and Ralph W. Haskins, eds., The Papers of Andrew Johnson (Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 1967–2000), 1:140.
8. “The Speech at St. Louis,” New Orleans Tribune, 16 Sept. 1866, p. 4; H. Lowell Brown, High Crimes and Misdemeanors in Presidential Impeachment (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2010), p. 149; Elizabeth R. Varon, “Andrew Johnson and the Legacy of the Civil War,” Oxford Research Encyclopedia, Mar. 2016, http://americanhistory.oxfordre.com/view/10.1093/acrefore/9780199329175.001.0001/acrefore-9780199329175-e-11.
9. David Warren Bowen, Andrew Johnson and the Negro (Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 1989), pp. 1–7.
10. John H. and Lawanda Cox, Politics, Principle, and Prejudice, 1865–1866: Dilemma of Reconstruction America (New York: Atheneum, 1969), p. 163.
11. Hanes Walton, Jr., Sherman C. Puckett, and Donald R. Deskins, Jr., The African American Electorate: A Statistical History (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 2012), pp. 148–158.
12. Gloria J. Browne-Marshall, The Voting Rights War: The NAACP and the Ongoing Struggle for Justice (Lanham, MD: Rowman and Littlefield, 2016), p. 34.
13. Walton et al., The African American Electorate, pp. 233–234.
14. Benjamin B. Kendrick, “The Journal of the Joint Committee of Fifteen on Reconstruction” (Ph.D. dissertation, Columbia University, 1914), pp. 50–60.
15. Herman V. Ames, The Proposed Amendments to the Constitution of the United States during the First Century of Its History (Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1896), pp. 227–228.
16. Congressional Globe, 39th Congress, 1st session, 20 May 1866, p. 2765, https://memory.loc.gov/ammem/amlaw/lwcglink.html#anchor40.
17. See, for example, North Carolina State Conference of the NAACP v. McCrory, 182 F. Supp. 3d 320 (M.D.N.C. 2016).
18. Congressional Globe, 39th Congress, 1st session, 8 May 1866, p. 2462.
19. Ibid., p. 2459.
20. See, for example, Saunders v. Wilkins, 152 F.2d 235 (4th Cir. 1945), cert. denied, 328 U.S. 870 (1946). See also Arthur Earl Bonfield, “Right to Vote and Judicial Enforcement of Section 2 of the Fourteenth Amendment,” Cornell Law Quarterly 46 (1960): 108–137.
21. Walton et al., The African American Electorate, pp. 151–160.
22. Congressional Globe, 40th Congress, 3rd session, 29 Jan. 1869, p. 727, https://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/ampage?collId=llcg&fileName=085/llcg085.db&recNum=204.
23. Ibid., 28 Jan. 1869, p. 668; 29 Jan. 1869, p. 707.
24. “Republican Party Platform of 1868,” American Presidency Project, http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/?pid=29622.
25. Congressional Globe, 40th Congress, 3rd session, 4 Feb. 1869, pp. 858, 991.
26. Ibid., 28 Jan. 1869, p. 672.
27. Ibid., 29 Jan. 1969, p. 706; 4 Feb. 1869, p. 859.
28. Ibid., 8 Feb. 1869, pp. 990–991; 5 Feb. 1869, p. 902.
29. Ibid., 8 Feb. 1869, p. 1010.
30. Ibid., pp. 995–996.
31. Ibid., p. 1011.
32. Ibid., 28 Jan. 1869, p. 690.
33. Ibid., 4 Feb. 1869, pp. 694, 861.
34. Ibid., 9 Feb. 1869, p. 1014; 5 Feb. 1869, p. 900.
35. Ibid., 8 Feb. 1969, p. 1013; 9 Feb. 1989, pp. 1039, 1029, 1040; 15 Feb. 1869, p. 1226; 20 Feb. 1869, pp. 1425–1428; 25 Feb. 1869, p. 1563; 26 Feb. 1869, p. 1641.
36. Ibid., 9 Feb. 1869, p. 1037.
37. “The Fifteenth Amendment,” New York Times, 12 Apr. 1869, p. 4.
38. On ratification, see William Gillette, The Right to Vote: Politics and the Passage of the Fifteenth Amendment (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1965), pp. 133–152; and “Tennessee Ratifies Fifteenth Amendment,” Deseret News, 4 Apr. 1997, https://www.deseretnews.com/article/552624/Tennessee-ratifies-15th-Amendment.html.
39. “The First Amendment, and the Last Their Bearings,” Philadelphia Christian Recorder, 19 Feb. 1870, p. 2.
40. Hugh Davis, “We Will Be Satisfied with Nothing Less”: The African American Struggle for Equal Rights in the North during Reconstruction (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2011), p. 71.
41. Report of the Select Committee on Affairs in Alabama, 43rd Congress, 2nd session, House Report no. 262 (Washington, DC: United States Government Printing Office, 1875), pp. 1–1325; Mary Ellen Curtin, Black Prisoners and Their World, Alabama, 1865–1900 (Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia, 2000), pp. 55–56.
42. Robert L. Kaczorowski, The Politics of Judicial Interpretation: The Federal Courts, Department of Justice, and Civil Rights, 1866–1876 (New York: Fordham University Press, 2005), pp. 80–92.
43. Congressional Record, 43rd Congress, 2nd session, 27 Feb. 1875, pp. 1893, 1918, http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/amlaw/lwcrlink.html; “Negro Politics,” Atlanta Constitution, 20 Nov. 1874, p. 2.
44. Congressional Record, 27 Feb. 1875, p. 1918.
45. Slaughter-House Cases, 83 U.S. 36 (1873); “The Question of Races,” Chicago Tribune, 2 Jan. 1875, p. 4.
46. Congressional Record, 27 Feb. 1875, p. 1922.
47. Ibid., pp. 1903, 1907.
48. Ibid., 26 Feb. 1875, p. 1852.
49. U.S. v. Cruikshank, 92 U.S. 542 (1875).
50. Lichtman, “Elections and Electoral Eras,” 1:201.
51. “The ‘Negro Riots’ Season,” New York Times, 1 Apr. 1880, p. 4.
52. J. Morgan Kousser, The Shaping of Southern Politics: Suffrage Restrictions and the Establishment of the One-Party South, 1880–1910 (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1974), pp. 11–82; Michael Perman, Struggle for Mastery: Disfranchisement in the South, 1888–1908 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2001); Angela Behrens, Christopher Uggen, and Jeff Manza, “Ballot Manipulation and the ‘Menace of Negro Domination’: Racial Threat and Felon Disenfranchisement in the United States, 1850–2002,” American Journal of Sociology 109 (2003): 559–605.
53. McKay v. Campbell, 2 Abb. U.S. 120 (1870).
54. United States v. Reese, 92 U.S. 214 (1875).
55. Washington v. State, 75 Ala. 582 (1884).
56. Henry Cabot Lodge and T. V. Powderly, “The Federal Election Bill,” North American Review, Sept. 1890, p. 259; Perman, Struggle for Mastery, pp. 39–42.
57. Kousser, The Shaping of Southern Politics, pp. 238–264; Kent Redding and David R. James, “Estimating Levels and Modeling Determinants of Black and White Voter Turnout in the South, 1880 to 1912,” Historical Methods 34 (2001): 141–158; Rusk, A Statistical History, pp. 51–52. These low percentages reflect the disenfranchisement of women in most states.
58. Emma Lou Thornbrough, “The National Afro-American League, 1887–1908,” Journal of Southern History 27 (1961): 506. See also Shawn Lee Alexander, An Army of Lions: The Civil Rights Struggle before the NAACP (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2012), and Benjamin R. Justesen, Broken Brotherhood: The Rise and Fall of the National Afro-American Council (Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press, 2008).
59. W. E. B. Du Bois, The Souls of Black Folk (New York: Oxford University Press, 2007), pp. 41–42; Russell Brooker, The American Civil Rights Movement, 1865–1950: Black Agency and People of Good Will (Lanham, MD: Lexington Books, 2017), p. 180.
Epigraph: Speech, 16 Nov. 1895. Susan B. Anthony was one of the most important and prominent leaders of the nineteenth-century women’s movement. She cofounded several women’s rights organizations and, with Elizabeth Cady Stanton and others, coauthored the influential six-volume History of Woman Suffrage.
1. “Remarks of Susan B. Anthony at Her Trial for Illegal Voting,” 19 June 1873, The Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Susan B. Anthony Papers Project, Rutgers University, http://ecssba.rutgers.edu/docs/sbatrial.html.
2. “Severe Storm,” Washington Federalist, 2 Dec. 1800, p. 2.
3. On New Jersey and women’s suffrage in the early republic, see Jan Ellen Lewis, “Rethinking Women’s Suffrage in New Jersey, 1776–1807,” Rutgers Law Review 63 (2011): 1017–1035; and Judith Apter Klinghoffer and Lois Elkis, “The Petticoat Electors: Women’s Suffrage in New Jersey, 1776–1807,” Journal of the Early Republic 12 (1992): 159–193.
4. “Address to the People Called Quakers,” Trenton Federalist, 19 Sept. 1808, p. 2; Lewis, “Rethinking Women’s Suffrage,” p. 1032.
5. Elizabeth Cady Stanton, Susan B. Anthony, and Matilda Joslyn Gage, eds., History of Woman Suffrage, vol. 1 (New York: Fowler and Wells, 1881), pp. 53–62.
6. Jacob Katz Cogan and Lori D. Ginzberg, “The 1846 Petition for Woman’s Suffrage, New York State Constitutional Convention,” Signs 22 (1997): 431.
7. Sherman Croswell and R. Sutton, Debates and Proceedings in the New York State Convention (Albany: Albany Argus, 1846), 1 Oct. 1846, p. 783.
8. Sally G. McMillen, Seneca Falls and the Origins of the Women’s Rights Movement (New York: Oxford University Press, 2008), pp. 237–239.
9. Ibid., pp. 93–94.
10. Faye Dudden, Fighting Chance: The Struggle over Woman Suffrage and Black Suffrage in Reconstruction America (New York: Oxford University Press, 2011), p. 19.
11. J. V. Smith, Official Report of Debates and Proceedings in the Convention to Form a New Constitution for the State of Ohio (Columbus, OH: Bascom and Scott, 1851), 2:1182.
12. Eve LaPlante, Marmee and Louisa: The Untold Story of Louisa May Alcott and Her Mother (New York: Simon and Schuster, 2012), p. 168; Abby Hills Price, “Statement,” Massachusetts Convention of 1853, http://www.hope1842.com/priceconstconv.html.
13. Price, “Statement”; “Concord Women Cast First Votes,” 29 Mar. 1880, Mass Moments, http://www.massmoments.org/moment.cfm?mid=97.
14. “Moneka Women’s Rights Association,” Kansas Historical Society, https://www.kshs.org/kansapedia/moneka-woman-s-rights-association/15158; Marilyn Schultz Blackwell, “The Politics of Motherhood: Clarina Howard Nichols and School Suffrage,” New England Quarterly 78 (2005): 570–598.
15. Dudden, Fighting Chance, p. 62.
16. Ibid., pp. 70–71.
17. Ibid., p. 71.
18. Richard M. Re and Christopher M. Re, “Voting and Vice: Criminal Disenfranchisement and the Reconstruction Amendments,” Yale Law Journal 121 (2012): 1615.
19. Dudden, Fighting Chance, pp. 68–70, 94.
20. Congressional Globe, 39th Congress, 1st session, 23 Jan. 1866, p. 380, https://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/ampage?collId=llcg&fileName=070/llcg070.db&recNum=106.
21. Elizabeth Cady Stanton, Susan B. Anthony, and Matilda Joslyn Gage, The History of Woman Suffrage, 1861–1876, vol. 2 (Rochester, NY: Charles Vann, 1887), p. 173.
22. Ibid., p. 269; “Mr. Greeley on Female Suffrage,” New York Times, 3 Oct. 1867, p. 4.
23. Congressional Globe, 40th Congress, 3rd session, 4 Feb. 1869, p. 862, https://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/ampage?collId=llcg&fileName=086/llcg086.db&recNum=4.
24. Carolyn Summers Vacca, A Reform against Nature: Woman Suffrage and the Rethinking of American Citizenship, 1840–1920 (New York: Peter Lang, 2004), p. 134. See also Tracy A. Thomas, Elizabeth Cady Stanton and the Feminist Foundations of Family Law (New York: NYU Press, 2016), p. 12.
25. Ellen Carol DuBois, “Outgrowing the Compact of the Fathers: Equal Rights, Woman Suffrage, and the United States Constitution, 1820–1878,” Journal of American History 74 (1987): 849.
26. Eleanor Flexnor and Ellen Fitzpatrick, Century of Struggle: The Woman’s Right Movement in the United States (Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1996), pp. 136–148.
27. “The Fifteenth Amendment in Peril,” New York Times, 4 June 1869, p. 4.
28. Flexnor and Fitzpatrick, Century of Struggle, pp. 152–156; T. A. Larson, “The Woman Suffrage Movement in Washington,” Pacific Northwest Quarterly 67 (1976): 49–62.
29. Minor v. Happersett, 88 U.S. 162 (1875).
30. Flexnor and Fitzpatrick, Century of Struggle, pp. 155–156; Larson, “The Woman Suffrage Movement,” pp. 54–55.
31. Congressional Record, 49th Congress, 2nd session, 25 Jan. 1887, p. 984, https://congressional-proquest-com.proxyau.wrlc.org/congressional/result/pqpresultpage.gispdfhitspanel.pdflink/$2fapp-bin$2fgis-congrecord$2f3$2f1$2fc$2ff$2fcr-1887-0125_from_1_to_60.pdf/entitlementkeys=1234%7Capp-gis%7Ccongrecord%7Ccr-1887-0125.
32. “Woman’s Suffrage in the Senate,” Baltimore Sun, 29 Jan. 1887, p. 5; Congressional Record, 25 Jan. 1887, pp. 983–986.
33. “Woman’s Suffrage in the Senate,” New York Times, 26 Jan. 1887, p. 4.
34. “Women Who Ask to Vote,” Washington Post, 26 Jan. 1887, p. 2.
35. Elizabeth Cady Stanton, “To the Editor of the World,” 26 Apr. 1894, Ann D. Gordon, ed., The Selected Papers of Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Susan B. Anthony (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1997–2013), 5:596–598.
36. “The Woman Suffrage Waterloo in New York,” Baltimore Sun, 21 July 1894, p. 4.
37. “Woman Suffrage Defeated: The Constitutional Convention Decides against It,” New York Times, 16 Aug. 1894, p. 1.
38. “Will Carry on the Fight,” New York Times, 17 Aug. 1894, p. 5.
39. Sarah Smith, “Make It a Woman’s World: The 1911 California Woman Suffrage Campaign,” Chapman University Historical Review 7 (2015): 94.
40. Ibid., pp. 101–102.
41. “Assembly Concurrent Resolution 42: Relative to Chinese Americans in California,” 17 July 2009, California Legislative Information, http://leginfo.legislature.ca.gov/faces/billNavClient.xhtml?bill_id=200920100ACR42.
42. William B. Fisch, “Constitutional Referendum in the United States of America,” American Journal of Comparative Law 54 (2006): 495.
43. H. S. Gilbertson, “Popular Control under the Recall,” Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 38 (1911): 833.
44. Charles Edward Merriam and Louise Overacker, Primary Elections (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1928), pp. 60–107; Louise Overacker, “The Presidential Primary since 1924,” American Political Science Review 22 (1928): 108–109.
45. Shigeo Hirano and James M. Snyder, Jr., “The Direct Primary and Candidate-Centered Voting in U.S. Elections,” Working Paper, 2012, http://www.columbia.edu/~sh145/papers/primaries_personal_vote.pdf.
46. U.S. House of Representatives, 62nd Congress, 1st session, Report of the Committee on Election of President, Vice President, and Representatives in Congress, “Election of Senators by the People,” 12 Apr. 1911, United States Congressional Series Set (Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1911), p. 4.
47. Smith, “Make It a Woman’s World,” pp. 96–98; Equal Suffrage League, “Declares Women Suffragists Have Made Great Record in Progressive Legislation in Colorado,” Baltimore Sun, 18 Jan. 1911, p. 6.
48. An Iowa Woman, “Woman Suffrage Is Not Coming If the Men Take It Seriously,” The Woman Patriot, 19 Apr. 1919, p. 8.
49. Mary Jane Smith, “Laura Clay (1849–1941): States’ Rights and Southern Suffrage Reform,” in Kentucky Women, ed. Melissa A. McEuen and Thomas H. Appleton (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 2015), p. 129.
50. Elna C. Green, Southern Strategies: Southern Women and the Woman Suffrage Question (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1997), p. 95.
51. “Final Vote Today on Women’s League,” New York Times, 26 Mar. 1919, p. 10; Paul E. Fuller, Laura Clay and the Woman’s Rights Movement (Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 1975), pp. 145–161; “Louisiana’s Honest Suffragists,” The Woman Patriot, 24 Apr. 1920, p. 4.
52. Aileen S. Kraditor, The Ideas of the Woman Suffrage Movement, 1890–1920 (New York: Columbia University Press, 1965), p. 139. On race, ethnicity, and suffrage, see Glenda Gilmore, Gender and Jim Crow: Women and the Politics of White Supremacy in North Carolina, 1896–1920 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1996); Marjorie Spruill Wheeler, New Women of the New South: The Leaders of the Woman Suffrage Movement in the Southern States (New York: Oxford University Press, 1993); Rosalyn Terborg-Penn, African-American Women in the Struggle for the Vote, 1850–1920 (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1998); and Vacca, A Reform against Nature.
53. Allan J. Lichtman, White Protestant Nation: The Rise of the American Conservative Movement (New York: Grove / Atlantic, 2008), p. 22.
54. Mary Isabel Brush, “State of Wisconsin to Be Pivotal Point of Woman’s Suffrage in November,” Chicago Daily Tribune, 4 Feb. 1912, p. I1.
55. Robert Booth Fowler and Spencer Jones, “Carrie Chapman Catt and the Last Years of the Struggle for Woman Suffrage: ‘The Winning Plan,’ ” in Votes for Women: The Struggle for Suffrage Revisited, ed. Jean H. Baker (New York: Oxford University Press, 2002), pp. 130–142.
56. Full statistical analysis available from the author. On the New York campaign, see Susan Goodier and Karen Pastorello, Women Will Vote: Winning Suffrage in New York State (Ithaca, NY: Three Hills, 2017). New York suffrage returns for counties and assembly districts are available in the New York Times, 4 Nov. 1915, p. 2, and 8 Nov. 1917, pp. 1, 3. The structure of the assembly districts changed between 1915 and 1917, thus demographic data is drawn from the censuses of both 1910 and 1920.
57. Kraditor, The Ideas of the Woman Suffrage Movement, pp. 231–248; Linda Ford, “Alice Paul and the Politics of Nonviolent Protest,” in Baker, ed., Votes for Women, pp. 174–188. See also generally Mary Walton, A Woman’s Crusade: Alice Paul and the Battle for the Ballot (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2010).
58. “Makes Suffrage Plea,” Washington Post, 8 Jan. 1918, p. 5.
59. Walton, A Woman’s Crusade, pp. 193–207, 203 (quotation).
60. “No Vote Changed by Wilson’s Plea to Let Women Vote,” Atlanta Constitution, 1 Oct. 1918, p. 1.
61. “Suffrage Wins in Senate: Now Goes to States,” New York Times, 5 June 1919, p. 1.
62. “Suffrage Now Up to States,” Baltimore Sun, 5 June 1919, p. 1; Arthur Sears Henning, “U.S. Senate Votes for Woman Suffrage,” Chicago Tribune, 5 June 1919, p. 1.
63. Carol Lynn Yellin, “Countdown in Tennessee, 1920,” American Heritage 30 (1978): 27–35.
64. “Planning to Win 37th State,” Atlanta Constitution, 19 Aug. 1920, p. 1.
65. “Better Citizens Now Women’s Aim, Says Mrs. Catt,” Atlanta Constitution, 19 Aug. 1920, p. 3.
66. Barbara Stuhler, For the Public Record: A Documentary History of the League of Women Voters (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 2000), p. 41.
67. Ibid., pp. 52, 110; National League of Women Voters, “Statements of Policy, Jan. 1923–Nov. 1925,” League of Women Voters Papers, microfilm reel 5, Harry S. Truman Presidential Library, Independence, Missouri (hereafter League Papers).
68. National League of Women Voters, “Minutes, National Convention,” 29 Apr. 1924, League Papers, part 2, reel 4.
69. Stuhler, For the Public Record, pp. 41–42; “Jubilee Convention of the National American Woman Suffrage Association,” 24–29 Mar. 1919, League Papers, part 2, reel 1.
70. National League of Women Voters, “Meeting of the Executive Committee,” 9–11 July 1924, League Papers, part 1, reel 2; National Convention, 14–20 Apr. 1926, League Papers, part 2, reel 3.
71. Liette Gidlow, The Big Vote: Gender, Consumer Culture, and the Politics of Exclusion, 1890s–1920s (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2004).
72. “Women in Politics,” Youth’s Home Companion, 27 Nov. 1924, p. 786.
73. “Electoral Quotas for Women: An International Overview,” 14 Nov. 2013, Parliament of Australia, http://www.aph.gov.au/About_Parliament/Parliamentary_Departments/Parliamentary_Library/pubs/rp/rp1314/ElectoralQuotas.
74. Abagail Geiger and Lauren Kent, “Number of Women Leaders around the World Has Grown, but Still a Small Group,” Pew Research Center, 8 Mar. 2017, http://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2017/03/08/women-leaders-around-the-world/.
1. “The Campaign of 1888 in Indiana,” Indiana Magazine of History 10 (1914): 47–50. Even with party ballots it was still possible to split tickets by striking out the names of candidates and substituting an alternative.
2. Gary W. Cox and J. Morgan Kousser, “Turnout and Rural Corruption: New York as a Test Case,” American Journal of Political Science 25 (1981): 655.
3. “Campaign Corruption Funds,” New York Times, 27 Feb. 1905, p. 6.
4. Jill Lepore, “Rock, Paper, Scissors: How We Used to Vote,” New Yorker, 13 Oct. 2008, http://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2008/10/13/rock-paper-scissors; Wallace S. Hutcheon, Jr., “The Louisville Riots of August, 1855,” Register of the Kentucky Historical Society 69 (1971): 150–172.
5. Melvin G. Holli, “Urban Reform,” in The Progressive Era, ed. Lewis L. Gould (Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, 1974), p. 137.
6. “A Really Secret Ballot,” New York Times, 18 Dec. 1888, p. 4.
7. Arthur Ludington, “The Present Status of Ballot Laws in the United States,” American Political Science Review 3 (1909): 252.
8. Ibid., pp. 256–261; Peter H. Argersinger, “A Place on the Ballot: Fusion Politics and Anti-Fusion Laws,” American Historical Review 85 (1980): 287–306; “Limitations on Access to the General Election Ballot,” Columbia Law Review 37 (1937): 86; “Straight-Ticket Voting States,” National Conference of State Legislatures, 31 May 2017, http://www.ncsl.org/research/elections-and-campaigns/straight-ticket-voting.aspx.
9. Phillip Loring Allen, “The Multifarious Australian Ballot,” North American Review 191 (1910): 602–611; Alan Ware, “Anti-Parties and Party Control of Political Reform in the United States: The Case of the Australian Ballot,” British Journal of Political Science 30 (2000): 1–29.
10. “Ex-Gov. Stone’s Warning,” New York Times, 28 Sept. 1900, p. 3.
11. Ware, “Anti-Parties and Party Control”; Erik J. Engstrom, “The Rise and Decline of Turnout in Congressional Elections: Electoral Institutions, Competition, and Strategic Mobilization,” American Journal of Political Science 56 (2012): 373–386; Jac. C. Heckelman, “The Effect of the Secret Ballot on Voter Turnout Rates,” Public Choice 81 (1995): 107–124.
12. Joseph P. Harris, Election Administration in the United States (Washington, DC: Brookings Institution, 1934), p. 247.
13. H. W. Dodds, “City Manager Government in American Municipalities,” British Journal of Comparative Legislation and International Law 6 (1924): 183–192; Zoltan L. Hajnal and Paul G. Lewis, “Municipal Institutions and Voter Turnout in Local Elections,” Urban Affairs Review 38 (2003): 660.
14. Chandler Davidson and George Korbel, “At-Large Elections and Minority Group Representation: A Re-Examination of Historical and Contemporary Evidence,” Journal of Politics 43 (1981): 982–1005.
15. Sarah F. Anzia, “Partisan Power Play: The Origins of Local Election Timing as an American Political Institution,” Studies in American Political Development 26 (2012): 24–49; statistic on p. 24.
16. Hajnal and Lewis, “Municipal Institutions,” pp. 645–646, 655.
17. Sarah F. Anzia, “Election Timing and the Electoral Influence of Interest Groups,” Journal of Politics 73 (2011): 412–427; Clinton Rogers Woodruff, ed., Proceedings of the Pittsburgh Conference for Good City Government and the Fourteenth Annual Meeting of the National Municipal League (Pittsburgh: National Municipal League, 1908), p. 89.
18. Charles R. Adrian, Governing Urban America: Structure, Politics, and Administration (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1955), p. 72; Zoltan L. Hajnal and Jessica Trounstine, “Where Turnout Matters: The Consequences of Uneven Turnout in City Politics,” Journal of Politics 67 (2005): 515–535.
19. See State Ex Rel. Klein v. Hillenbrand, Ohio St. 130 N.E. 29 (1920).
20. Ahern v. Elder, 195 N.Y. 493 N.E. 1059 (1909).
21. Permanent registration means renewal is required only when changing addresses. Joseph P. Harris, The Registration of Voters in the United States (Washington, DC: Brookings Institution, 1929), p. 106.
22. Report of the President’s Commission on Registration and Voting Participation, November 1963 (Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1963); Curtis B. Gans, Creating the Opportunity: How Voting Laws Affect Voter Turnout (Washington, DC: Committee for the Study of the American Electorate, 1987).
23. Michael Perman, Struggle for Mastery: Disfranchisement in the South, 1888–1908 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2001), pp. 15, 109.
24. Mills v. Green, 25 U.S. App. 383, 69 Fed. 852 (1895); 159 U.S. 651 (1895).
25. Williams v. Mississippi, 170 U.S. 213 (1898); Giles v. Harris, 189 U.S. 475 (1903).
26. “South Is within the Law in Suffrage Legislation,” Atlanta Constitution, 8 May 1904, p. 4; Arthur W. Machen, Jr., “Is the Fifteenth Amendment Void?” Harvard Law Review 23 (1910): 169.
27. Arthur W. Bromage, “Literacy and the Electorate,” American Political Science Review 24 (1930): 951.
28. Ibid., p. 962.
29. David McCormack, “Harvard Students Take the 1964 Louisiana Literacy Test That Black Voters Had to Pass before Being Allowed to Go to the Polls—And Every Single Person FAILED,” London Daily Mail, 12 Nov. 2014, http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-2831095/Harvard-students-sit-1964-Louisiana-Literacy-Test-black-voters-pass-allowed-polls-single-person-FAILED.html.
30. Ron Hayduk, Democracy for All: Restoring Immigrant Voting Rights in the United States (New York: Routledge, 2006), pp. 19–25; Gerald L. Neuman, “We Are the People: Alien Suffrage in German and American Perspective,” Michigan Journal of International Law 13 (1992): 297–298.
31. Hayduk, Democracy for All, p. 25; J. W. Gardner and Alpheus Henry Snow, “Participation of the Alien in the Political Life of the Community,” Proceedings of the American Society of International Law at Its Annual Meeting 5 (1911): 172–192.
32. Leon E. Aylsworth, “The Passing of Alien Suffrage,” American Political Science Review 25 (1931): 134; Hayduk, Democracy for All, pp. 25–31.
33. U. S. v. Thind, 261 U.S. 204 (1923); Gong Lum v. Rice, 275 U.S. 78 (1927). On race and citizenship, see Desmond King, Making Americans: Immigration, Race, and the Origins of the Diverse Democracy (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2000); Natalia Molina, How Race Is Made in America: Immigration, Citizenship, and the Historical Power of Racial Scripts (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2014); Haney Lopez, White by Law Tenth Anniversary Edition: The Legal Construction of Race (New York: NYU Press, 2006); and Evelyn Nakano Glenn, Unequal Freedom: How Race and Gender Shaped American Citizenship and Labor (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2004).
34. Helen L. Peterson, “American Indian Political Participation,” Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 311 (1957): 121–122.
35. Porter v. Hall, 34 Ariz. 308 (1928).
36. Harrison v. Laveen, 67 Ariz. 337 (1948).
37. Trujillo v. Garley, no. 1350 (D.N.M. 1948).
38. Bethany R. Berger, “Red: Racism and the American Indian,” UCLA Law Review 56 (2009): 645–646.
39. Jeanette Wolfley, “Jim Crow, Indian Style: The Disenfranchisement of Native Americans,” American Indian Law Review 16 (1991): 192–202; Laughlin McDonald, “Expanding Coverage of Section 5 in Indian Country,” in The Future of the Voting Rights Act, ed. David L. Epstein et al. (New York: Russell Sage, 2006), pp. 163–200.
40. Frank Kent, “The Great Game of Politics,” Baltimore Sun, 5 Feb. 1923, p. 7; 8 Feb. 1923, p. 7.
41. Jerrold G. Rusk, A Statistical History of the American Electorate (Washington, DC: CQ Press, 2001), pp. 52, 54.
42. Ibid.
43. Mark Lawrence Kornbluh, Why America Stopped Voting: The Decline of Participatory Democracy and the Emergence of Modern American Politics (New York: NYU Press, 2000), pp. 99–111. See, generally, Elisabeth S. Clemens, The People’s Lobby: Organization Innovation and the Rise of Interest Group Politics (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1997). All North Dakota presidential and congressional turnout statistics are from Rusk, A Statistical History, pp. 72–101.
44. Samuel P. Huntington, The Third Wave: Democratization in the Late Twentieth Century (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1991), p. 26.
1. James Samuel Stemmons, “Negro Suffrage and the South,” Southwest Review 16 (1931): 181–182.
2. “What the Ballot Means to Us,” Chicago Defender, 19 Oct. 1918, p. 16.
3. National Colored Republican Conference, “Memorandum of Conference,” Mar. 1924, Papers of Calvin Coolidge, microfilm reel 93, Library of Congress, Washington, DC.
4. Republican Party Platform of 1928, 12 June 1928, American Presidency Project, http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/index.php?pid=29637.
5. Allan J. Lichtman, White Protestant Nation: The Rise of the American Conservative Movement (New York: Grove / Atlantic, 2008), p. 49; Neval Thomas, “The Republican Party Is Dead,” Baltimore Afro-American, 22 Sept. 1928, p. 1.
6. Lichtman, White Protestant Nation, p. 92.
7. Ibid., p. 65; Allan J. Lichtman, “Elections and Electoral Eras,” in The Concise Princeton Encyclopedia of American Political History, ed. Michael Kazin (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2011), p. 203.
8. Will Alexander to Rexford Tugwell, “Negroes in the Next Election,” 12 July 1935, OFC-300, Colored Folder, Franklin D. Roosevelt Presidential Library, Hyde Park, New York.
9. C. P. Trussell, “Roosevelt Scores Levying Poll Tax,” New York Times, 14 Feb. 1942, p. 1; C. P. Trussell, “Poll Tax Repeal Virtually Dead,” New York Times, 10 Nov. 1942, p. 1; “Poll Tax Upheld as Senate Defeats Cloture,” New York Times, 21 Nov. 1942, p. 1; “The Poll Tax Barbarians,” Chicago Defender, 5 Dec. 1942, p. 14; Kimberly Johnson, Reforming Jim Crow: Southern Politics and the State in the Age before Brown (New York: Oxford University Press, 2010), pp. 97–98.
10. Guinn v. United States, 238 U.S. 347 (1915).
11. Lane v. Wilson, 307 U.S. 268 (1939).
12. Nixon v. Herndon, 273 U.S. 536 (1927).
13. Nixon v. Condon, 286 U.S. 73 (1932); Grovey v. Townsend, 295 U.S. 45 (1935); Smith v. Allwright, 321 U.S. 649 (1944).
14. Schnell v. Davis, 336 U.S. 933 (1949); Lassiter v. Northampton County, 360 U.S. 45 (1959).
15. Breedlove v. Suttles, 302 U.S. 277 (1937).
16. Clark M. Clifford, “Memorandum for the President,” 19 Nov. 1947, Clark Clifford Political File, box 20, Truman Papers, Harry S. Truman Presidential Library, Independence, MO; Kari Frederickson, The Dixiecrat Revolt and the End of the Solid South, 1932–1968 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2001), pp. 118–149.
17. Lichtman, White Protestant Nation, p. 165; Frederickson, The Dixiecrat Revolt, pp. 150–186.
18. Lichtman, White Protestant Nation, pp. 165–166.
19. Earl Brown, “Civil Rights Scuttled,” New York Amsterdam News, 20 Oct. 1949, p. 12.
20. Brown v. Board of Education, 347 U.S. 483 (1954); Plessy v. Ferguson, 163 U.S. 537 (1896).
21. David A. Nichols, A Matter of Justice: Eisenhower and the Beginning of the Civil Rights Revolution (New York: Simon and Schuster, 2007).
22. Allan J. Lichtman, “The Federal Assault against Voting Discrimination in the Deep South: 1957–1967,” Journal of Negro History 54 (1969): 346–367; “The 1963 Report of the United States Commission on Civil Rights,” Congressional Record, 89th Congress, 1st session, 19 May 1965, p. 11020. All Congressional Record references for 1965 are at https://www.govinfo.gov/app/collection/crecb/_crecb/Volume%20111%20(1965).
23. “Statement by Attorney General Nicholas deB. Katzenbach before the House Judiciary Committee on the Proposed Voting Rights Act of 1965,” U.S. Department of Justice, 18 Mar. 1965, pp. 5–9, https://www.justice.gov/sites/default/files/ag/legacy/2011/08/23/03-18-1965.pdf.
24. Ibid.; Lichtman, “The Federal Assault,” pp. 366–367.
25. Diane McWhorter, Carry Me Home: Birmingham, Alabama, the Climactic Battle of the Civil Rights Revolution (New York: Simon and Schuster, 2001).
26. John F. Kennedy, “Radio and Television Report to the American People on Civil Rights,” 11 June 1963, John F. Kennedy Library and Museum, https://www.jfklibrary.org/Research/Research-Aids/JFK-Speeches/Civil-Rights-Radio-and-Television-Report_19630611.aspx.
27. “Presidential Job Approval: John F. Kennedy,” American Presidential Project, http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/data/popularity.php?pres=35.
28. Lichtman, White Protestant Nation, pp. 232, 247, 255.
29. “Democrats Charge G.O.P. Poll Watch Today Will Harass Negroes and the Poor,” New York Times, 3 Nov. 1964, p. 22.
30. Lichtman, White Protestant Nation, p. 257.
31. Baker v. Carr, 369 U.S. 186 (1962).
32. Wesberry v. Sanders, 376 U.S. 1 (1964); Reynolds v. Sims, 377 U.S. 533 (1964).
33. Stephen Ansolabehere and James M. Snyder, The End of Inequality: One Person, One Vote and the Transformation of American Politics (New York: Norton, 2008); Gary W. Cox and Jonathan N. Katz, Elbridge Gerry’s Salamander: The Electoral Consequences of the Reapportionment Revolution (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2002); Charles S. Bullock III, Redistricting: The Most Political Activity in America (Lanham, MD: Rowman and Littlefield, 2010); Thomas E. Mann, “Redistricting Reform,” The National Voter, June 2005, https://www.brookings.edu/wp-content/uploads/2016/06/p04-07.pdf.
34. Robert Mann, When Freedom Would Triumph: The Civil Rights Struggle in Congress, 1954–1968 (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 2007), pp. 221–222.
35. Allan J. Lichtman, “The Story behind Selma,” The Hill, 29 Jan. 2015, http://thehill.com/blogs/pundits-blog/civil-rights/231061-the-story-behind-selma.
36. “Lyndon B. Johnson: Voting Rights Address,” 15 Mar. 1965, Great American Documents, http://www.greatamericandocuments.com/speeches/lbj-voting-rights.html.
37. Congressional Record, 19 May 1965, pp. 11008, 11013–11014; 26 May 1965, pp. 11718, 11721; 10 May 1965, p. 10050; Mary McGrory, “An Implacable Man from Plaquemines,” Los Angeles Times, 2 Apr. 1965, p. A6.
38. Congressional Record, 10 May 1965, p. 10032.
39. For the text of the 1965 version of the act, see “Public Law 89–110, Voting Rights Act of 1965,” http://library.clerk.house.gov/reference-files/PPL_VotingRightsAct_1965.pdf.
40. Harper v. Virginia State Board of Elections, 383 U.S. 663 (1966).
41. South Carolina v. Katzenbach, 383 U.S. 301 (1966).
42. “History of Voting Rights Laws: The Voting Rights Act of 1965,” U.S. Department of Justice, https://www.justice.gov/crt/history-federal-voting-rights-laws.
43. Ibid.; City of Mobile v. Bolden, 446 U.S. 55 (1980).
44. Lichtman, “The Federal Assault,” p. 365. There are several fine books that deal with the enforcement of the Voting Rights Act. See, for example, Chandler Davidson and Bernard Grofman, eds., Quiet Revolution in the South: The Impact of the Voting Rights Act, 1965–1990 (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1994).
45. For section 5 objections, see “Section 5 Objection Letters,” U.S. Department of Justice, https://www.justice.gov/crt/section-5-objection-letters.
46. United States v. Dallas County Commission, 548 F. Supp. 794 (S.D. Ala. 1982).
47. U.S. v. Dallas County Commission, 850 F.2d 1430 (1988).
48. Garza v. County of Los Angeles, 756 F.Supp. 1298 (C. D. Cal. 1990).
49. Garza v. County of Los Angeles, 918 F.2d 763 (9th Cir. 1990).
50. Robert G. Retana, “Case Note Addendum: Garza v. County of Los Angeles,” La Raza Law Journal 4 (1991): 128.
51. Page v. Bartels, 144 F. Supp. 2d 346 (D.N.J. 2001); Sam Hirsch, “Unpacking Page v. Bartels: A Fresh Redistricting Paradigm Emerges in New Jersey,” Election Law Journal 1 (2002): 7–23.
52. “The Americans with Disabilities Act,” U.S. Department of Justice, Civil Rights Division, Disability Rights Section, https://www.ada.gov/ada_voting/ada_voting_ta.htm; Sally B. Hurme and Paul S. Appelbaum, “Defining and Assessing Capacity to Vote: The Effect of Mental Impairment on the Rights of Voters,” McGeorge Law Review 38 (2007): 931–1014; Kimberly Leonard, “Keeping the ‘Mentally Incompetent’ from Voting,” The Atlantic, 17 Oct. 2012, https://www.theatlantic.com/health/archive/2012/10/keeping-the-mentally-incompetent-from-voting/263748/; Dinesh Bhugra et al., “Mental Illness and the Right to Vote: A Review of Legislation across the World,” International Review of Psychiatry 28 (2016): 395–399.
53. Congressional Record, 102nd Congress, 1st session, 18 July 1991, pp. S10318–S10319, http://webarchive.loc.gov/congressional-record/20160425140950/http://thomas.loc.gov/home/backcr/cr1021.html.
54. “Bush Rejects ‘Motor Voter’ Legislation,” CQ Almanac 1992, https://library.cqpress.com/cqalmanac/document.php?id=cqal92-1107023; Royce Crocker, “The National Voter Registration Act of 1993: History, Implementation, and Effects,” Congressional Research Service, 18 Sept. 2013, pp. 3–6, https://fas.org/sgp/crs/misc/R40609.pdf.
55. Joint Center for Political and Economic Studies, “50 Years of the Voting Rights Act,” http://jointcenter.org/sites/default/files/VRA%20report%2C%203.5.15%20%281130%20am%29%28updated%29.pdf; Louis DeSipio, “Latino Political and Civic Participation,” in Hispanics and the Future of America, ed. Marta Tienda and Faith Mitchell (Washington, DC: National Academies Press, 2006), pp. 447–480.
56. Lichtman, White Protestant Nation, pp. 412–416.
57. Ibid.
58. Americans for Democratic Action, “2016 Congressional Voting Record,” https://adaction.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/02/2016.pdf.
59. On the legal issues raised in the Florida recount and the various court decisions, see Samuel Issacharoff, Pamela S. Karlan, and Richard H. Pildes, When Elections Go Bad: The Law of Democracy and the Presidential Election of 2000 (St. Paul, MN: Foundation Press, 2001).
1. U.S. Election Atlas, “2000 Election Timeline,” 2017, https://uselectionatlas.org/INFORMATION/ARTICLES/pe2000timeline.php; Richard L. Hasen, The Voting Wars: From Florida 2000 to the Next Election Meltdown (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2012).
2. U.S. Election Atlas, “2000 Election Timeline.”
3. Ibid.
4. Allan J. Lichtman, White Protestant Nation: The Rise of the American Conservative Movement (New York: Grove / Atlantic, 2008), p. 1.
5. Bush v. Gore, 531 U.S. 98 (2000); Julia Campbell, “U.S. Supreme Court Overturns Florida Court,” ABC News, 13 Dec. 2000, http://abcnews.go.com/Politics/story?id=1222392Page=1; Andrew Glass, “Gore Concedes to Bush,” Politico, 13 Dec. 2012, http://www.politico.com/story/2012/12/this-day-in-politics-084997.
6. Walter R. Mebane, Jr., “The Wrong Man Is President! Overvotes in the 2000 Presidential Election in Florida,” Symposium: U.S. Elections 2 (2004): 12–13.
7. Allan J. Lichtman, “Report on the Racial Impact of the Rejection of Ballots Cast in the 2000 Presidential Election in the State of Florida,” U.S. Commission on Civil Rights, June 2001, http://www.usccr.gov/pubs/vote2000/report/appendix/app7.htm; Allan J. Lichtman, “What Really Happened in Florida’s 2000 Presidential Election,” Journal of Legal Studies 32 (2003): 221–243.
8. Paul M. Schwartz, “Voting Technology and Democracy,” New York University Law Review 77 (2002): 633–634; David Kidwell and Joseph Tanfani, “Faulty Part May Have Voided Ballots,” Miami Herald, 12 Nov. 2001, p. 1A.
9. “Ten Years Later Infamous 2000 Election Ballot Recount Still Defines Palm Beach County to Many,” Palm Beach Post, 9 Nov. 2010, http://www.palmbeachpost.com/news/ten-years-later-infamous-2000-election-ballot-recount-still-defines-palm-beach-county-many/uscC5niN1BtOOs7d33V8GL/.
10. U.S. Election Assistance Commission, “The Election Administration and Voting Survey, 2016 Comprehensive Report,” 27 June 2017, p. 29, https://www.eac.gov/assets/1/6/2016_EAVS_Comprehensive_Report.pdf.
11. Wendy Underhill, “Election 2000: Before and After,” National Conference of State Legislatures, Sept. 2012, http://www.ncsl.org/research/elections-and-campaigns/election-2000-before-and-after.aspx.
12. Martin Luther King, Jr., Where Do We Go from Here: Chaos or Community? (New York: Harper and Row, 1967), p. 11.
13. National Conference of State Legislatures, “Voter ID History,” 31 May 2017, http://www.ncsl.org/research/elections-and-campaigns/voter-id-history.aspx.
14. Crawford v. Marion County Election Board, 553 U.S. 181 (2008).
15. National Conference of State Legislatures, “Voter ID History.”
16. Republican National Lawyers Association, “Vote Fraud Survey,” Nov. 2011, http://www.rnla.org/survey.asp; “Election Fraud in America,” News21, 12 Aug. 2012, https://votingrights.news21.com/interactive/election-fraud-database/. See also, generally, Lorraine C. Minnite, The Myth of Voter Fraud (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2010).
17. Applewhite v. Commonwealth of Pennsylvania, 330 M.D. 2012 (2014); One Wisconsin Institute Inc. v. Thompson, 198 F.Supp. 3d 896 (W.D. Wis. 2016); Gary O. Bartlett, executive director, North Carolina State Board of Elections, to Committees of the North Carolina General Assembly, 11 Mar. 2013, attachment F, “Documented Cases of Voter Fraud in North Carolina,” http://www.ncleg.net/documentsites/committees/JointAppropriationsGeneralGovernment/2013%20Session/03-07-13%20Meeting/sbe_GA_response_with_attachments.pdf.
18. Ray Christensen and Thomas J. Schultze, “Identifying Voter Fraud Using Orphan and Low Propensity Voters,” American Politics Research 42 (2014): 311–337; John S. Ahlquist, Kenneth R. Mayer, and Simon Jackman, “Alien Abduction and Voter Impersonation in the 2012 U.S. General Election: Evidence from a Survey List Experiment,” Election Law Journal 13 (2014): 460–475; M. V. Hood III and William Gillespie, “They Just Don’t Vote Like They Used To: A Methodology to Empirically Assess Voter Fraud,” Social Science Quarterly 93 (2012): 76–94.
19. Michael Schneider, “Federal, State Investigators Say No Widespread Fraud in Election,” Easton Star, 24 Aug. 1995, p. 5.
20. Steve Schultze, “GOP Wants to Tighten Voter Laws,” Milwaukee Journal Sentinel, 4 Nov. 2004, http://freerepublic.com/focus/f-news/1270231/posts.
21. Steven H. Huefner et al., From Registration to Recounts: The Election Ecosystems of Five Midwestern States (Columbus: Ohio State University Moritz College of Law, 2007), pp. 120–121, http://moritzlaw.osu.edu/electionlaw/projects/registration-to-recounts/book.pdf; Republican National Lawyers Association, “Voter Fraud Survey,” Wisconsin section; “Election Fraud in America,” News21, 12 Aug. 2012.
22. Allan J. Lichtman, “When the Dead Speak,” Gazette.net, 16 Oct. 1998, http://www.gazette.net/stories/101698/poliadmiss_31866.shtml.
23. Robert Farley, “Trump’s Bogus Voter Fraud Claims,” FactCheck.org, 19 Oct. 2016, https://www.factcheck.org/2016/10/trumps-bogus-voter-fraud-claims/.
24. Robert Barnes, “Stevens Second Thoughts on 2008 Photo-ID Ruling,” Washington Post, 16 July 2016, p. A15; John Schwartz, “Judge in Landmark Case Disavows Support for Voter ID,” New York Times, 16 Oct. 2013, p. 16.
25. Frank v. Walker, 773 F.3d 783, 796–797 (7th Cir. 2014).
26. Brendon Mock, “Institute Index: Running the Numbers on NC’s Discriminatory Voter Law,” Facing South, 15 Aug. 2013, https://www.facingsouth.org/2013/08/institute-index-running-the-numbers-on-ncs-discrim.html.
27. “7 Things to Know about Polarization in America,” 12 June 2014, Pew Research Center, http://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2014/06/12/7-things-to-know-about-polarization-in-america/; Drew De Silver, “The Polarized Congress of Today Has Its Roots in the 1970s,” 12 June 2014, Pew Research Center, http://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2014/06/12/polarized-politics-in-congress-began-in-the-1970s-and-has-been-getting-worse-ever-since/.
28. “A Deep Dive into Party Affiliation,” 17 Apr. 2015, Pew Research Center, http://www.people-press.org/2015/04/07/a-deep-dive-into-party-affiliation/.
29. Registration by race is from the online database of the North Carolina State Board of Elections. The board reports its data as white voters and African American voters, including Hispanics, that is, the board’s data does not separately break out Hispanic voters. The separation of Hispanics into their own category would slightly widen the gap, because Hispanics self-identify more as white than black in North Carolina.
30. Ari Berman, “The 94-Year-Old Civil-Rights Pioneer Who Is Now Challenging North Carolina’s Voter-ID Law,” The Nation, 25 Jan. 2016, https://www.thenation.com/article/the-92-year-old-civil-rights-pioneer-who-is-now-challenging-north-carolinas-voter-id-law/; “President Obama’s Letter to the Editor,” New York Times, 12 Aug. 2015, https://www.nytimes.com/2015/08/16/magazine/president-obamas-letter-to-the-editor.html.
31. Berman, “The 94-Year-Old Civil-Rights Pioneer”; Allan Smith, “94-Year-Old Rosanell Eaton Is Center of Voting Rights Case,” Business Insider, 25 Jan. 2016, http://www.businessinsider.com/rosanell-eaton-voter-id-rights-north-carolina-2016-1.
32. Hasen, The Voting Wars. See also Ari Berman, Give Us the Ballot: The Modern Struggle for Voting Rights in America (New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2015); Tova Wang, The Politics of Voter Suppression: Defending and Expanding Americans’ Right to Vote (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2012); Michael Waldman, The Fight to Vote (New York: Simon and Schuster, 2016), pp. 173–268; Abigail Thernstrom, Voting Rights—and Wrongs: The Elusive Quest for Racially Fair Elections (Washington, DC: AEI Press, 2009); Jesse H. Rhodes, Ballot Blocked: The Political Erosion of the Voting Rights Act (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2017); Charles S. Bullock III, Ronald Keith Gaddie, and Justin J. Wert, The Rise and Fall of the Voting Rights Act (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 2016); and Alexander Keyssar, The Right to Vote: The Contested History of Democracy in the United States, rev. ed. (New York: Basic Books, 2009), pp. 258–294.
33. Shelby County v. Holder, 570 U.S. 2 (2013).
34. Jim Malewitz and Alexa Ura, “As Court Scoldings Pile Up, Will Texas Face a Voting Rights Reckoning?” Texas Tribune, 17 June 2017, https://www.texastribune.org/2017/06/16/voter-wars-kickoff/; J. Morgan Kousser, “Do the Facts of Voting Rights Support Chief Justice Roberts’s Opinion in Shelby County?” Transatlantica 1 (2015): 1–50.
35. Unless otherwise indicated the data presented below is from my North Carolina trial testimony, available at http://moritzlaw.osu.edu/electionlaw/litigation/documents/TranscriptofTrialDay5heldon7172015.pdf; http://moritzlaw.osu.edu/electionlaw/litigation/documents/TranscriptofTrialDay7heldon7212015.pdf; and http://moritzlaw.osu.edu/electionlaw/litigation/documents/TranscriptofTrialDay14heldon7302015.pdf.
36. “House Passes Bipartisan Voter ID Bill,” nchouse117.com, 25 Apr. 2013, https://nchouse117.com/category/elections/page/2/; Brian Warner, “N.C. House Passes Voter ID Bill,” Jones Street Chronicles, 25 Apr. 2013, http://thevoterupdate.com/jones/?p=903#.VLc6uCvF9SI.
37. Rhonda Amoroso, “Voter ID Update: House Leaders Introduce Voter ID Bill,” USA Dot Com, 4 Apr. 2013, http://usadotcom.blogspot.com/2013_03_31_archive.html.
38. “North Carolina Voter ID Bill Moving Ahead with Supreme Court Ruling,” WRAL.com, 25 June 2013, http://www.wral.com/nc-senator-voter-id-bill-moving-ahead-with-ruling/12591669/; David Zucchino, “Changes Loom for N.C. Electorate,” Los Angeles Times, 30 June 2013, http://articles.latimes.com/2013/jun/30/nation/la-na-voting-rights-20130630; “Swift Impact of Voting Decision,” Durham Herald Sun, 27 June 2013, p. A8.
39. North Carolina Division of Motor Vehicles, “Requirements and Documents for No-Fee Voter ID Cards,” https://www.ncdot.gov/dmv/driver/id/.
40. General Assembly of North Carolina, “When Is the General Assembly in Session,” http://www.ncga.state.nc.us/gascripts/Help/KnowledgeBase/viewItem.pl?nID=35.
41. General Assembly of North Carolina, session 2013–14, House Bill 589, http://www.ncga.state.nc.us/gascripts/BillLookUp/BillLookUp.pl?Session=2013&BillID=h%20+589&submitButton=Go.
42. John B. Holbein and D. Sunshine Hillygus, “Erratum to Making Young Voters: The Impact of Preregistration on Youth Turnout,” American Journal of Political Science 61 (2017): 507.
43. “Current Issues in the State of North Carolina,” Feb. 2011, High Point University Survey Research Center, www.highpoint.edu/src/; SurveyUSA Market Research Study no. 20443, 11–14 Apr. 2013, http://www.surveyusa.com/client/PollPrint.aspx?g=8c5c6269-5692-483a-a5f0-9662c4e5567e&d=0; “North Carolinians Oppose Voting Bill Signed Today,” Public Policy Polling, 12 Aug. 2013, http://www.publicpolicypolling.com/pdf/2011/PPP_Release_NC_812.pdf; “Elon Poll,” High Country Press, 17 Apr. 2013, http://www.hcpress.com/news/elon-poll-nc-citizens-oppose-several-state-legislative-proposals-view-results-spanning-various-issues.html.
44. Laura Leslie, “Tillis: Fraud ‘Not the Primary Reason’ for Voter ID Push,” WRAL.com, 17 Mar. 2013, http://www.wral.com/tillis-actual-voter-fraud-not-the-primary-reason-for-voter-id-push-/12231514/.
45. Abby Cavenaugh, “State House Passes Voter ID Bill: Next Stop Is Senate Approval,” Anson Record, 1 May 2013, p. A1.
46. Shaun Bowler and Todd Donovan, “A Partisan Model of Electoral Reform: Voter Identification Laws and Confidence in State Elections,” State Politics and Policy Quarterly 16 (2016): 351; Stephen Ansolabehere and Nathan Persily, “Vote Fraud in the Eye of the Beholder: The Role of Public Opinion in the Challenge to Voter Identification Requirements,” Harvard Law Review 121 (2008): 1759.
47. Bartlett to Committees of the North Carolina General Assembly, 11 Mar. 2013, attachment F.
48. DNC v. RNC, 671 F. Supp. 2d 575 (D.N.J. 2009); DNC v. RNC, 673 F.3d 192 (2012); “Statement: DNC to Appeal Ruling to Continue RNC Consent Decree,” Democrats.org, 2 Feb. 2018, https://www.democrats.org/Post/statement-dnc-to-appeal-to-continue-rnc-consent-decree.
49. U.S. Election Assistance Commission, Election Crimes: An Initial Review and Recommendations for Additional Study, Dec. 2006, p. 9, https://www.eac.gov/assets/1/6/Initial_Review_and_Recommendations_for_Further_Study.pdf; Natasha Khan and Corbin Carson, “Comprehensive Database of U.S. Voter Fraud Uncovers No Evidence That Photo Id Is Needed,” News21, 12 Aug. 2012, http://votingrights.news21.com/article/election-fraud/; Wayne Slater, “Few North Carolina Voter-Fraud Cases Would Have Been Prevented by Photo ID Law,” Dallasnews.com, 8 Sept. 2013, http://www.dallasnews.com/news/politics/headlines/20130908-few-North Carolina-voter-fraud-cases-would-have-been-prevented-by-photo-id-law-review-shows.ece; U.S. Government Accountability Office, Issues Related to State Voter Identification Laws, Sept. 2014, https://www.gao.gov/assets/670/665966.pdf.
50. “Pennsylvania Voter ID Law Back in Court: Can It Be Enforced?” Christian Science Monitor, 15 July 2013, https://www.csmonitor.com/USA/Justice/2013/0715/Pennsylvania-voter-ID-law-back-in-court-Can-it-be-enforced.
51. North Carolina State Conference of the NAACP v. McCrory, 182 F. Supp. 3d 320 (M.D.N.C. 2016).
52. North Carolina State Conference of the NAACP v. McCrory, 831 F.3d 204 (4th Cir. 2016).
53. Ibid.; emphasis added.
54. Ibid.
55. “Super Suppressers: The 17 North Carolina Counties That Are Strangling Early Voting to Death,” insightus, 26 Oct. 2016, http://www.insight-us.org/blog/super-suppressors-the-17-north-carolina-counties-that-are-strangling-early-voting-to-death/#more-570; North Carolina State Conference of the NAACP v. State Board of Elections, 2016 U.S. Dist. LEXIS 153249; North Carolina v. N.C. Conference of the NAACP, 137 S. Ct. 1399 (2017).
56. Leadership Conference Education Fund, “The Great Poll Closure,” Nov. 2016, pp. 4–6, http://civilrightsdocs.info/pdf/reports/2016/poll-closure-report-web.pdf.
57. “Maricopa County Board of Supervisors Formal Meeting,” 17 Feb. 2016, video, http://maricopa.siretechnologies.com/sirepubtest/mtgviewer.aspx?meetid=2870&doctype=AGENDA; Rob O’Dell and Caitlin McGlade, “Map: Areas Hardest Hit by Slim Polling Options,” Arizona Republic, 28 Mar. 2016, http://www.azcentral.com/story/news/politics/elections/2016/03/27/slim-polling-options-maricopa-county/82278474/.
58. “Democracy Diminished: State and Local Threats to Voting Post-Shelby County, Alabama v. Holder,” Legal Defense Fund, 31 Oct. 2016, p. 7, http://www.naacpldf.org/files/publications/Democracy%20Diminished-State%20and%20Local%20Voting%20Changes%20Post-Shelby%20v.%20Holder_4.pdf.
59. Unless otherwise indicated, all information on Texas redistricting is from Allan J. Lichtman, “Report for the Quesada Plaintiffs,” 28 Feb. 2014, Perez v. Texas, Case 5:11-cv-00360-OLG-JES-XR, Document 1065-5, http://moritzlaw.osu.edu/electionlaw/litigation/documents/Perez11606.pdf.
60. Perez v. Perry, United States District Court, Western District of Texas, San Antonio Division, no. SA-11-cv-360, Trial Transcript, 1839:2–7, Sept. 14, 2011.
61. “Defendants’ Response to Plaintiffs and the United States Regarding Section 3(C) of the Voting Rights Act,” Perez v. Texas, 26 Aug. 2013, p. 19, https://www.scribd.com/document/160397574/Texas-Response-to-Plaintiffs-and-United-States.
62. Greg Abbott, “Obama’s Scheme to Take over Texas,” Washington Times, 30 July 2013, http://www.washingtontimes.com/news/2013/jul/30/obamas-scheme-to-take-over-texas; “The United States versus Texas: Lone Star Republicans Continue to Hurl Rhetorical Missiles at Eric Holder,” MySA, 25 July 2013, http://blog.mysanantonio.com/texas-on-the-potomac/2013/07/the-united-states-vs-texas-lone-star-republicans-continue-to-hurl-rhetorical-missiles-at-eric-holder/.
63. State of Texas v. United States and Eric H. Holder, 887 F. Supp. 2d 133 (D.D.C. 2012).
64. Perez v. Abbott, 250 F. Supp. 3d 123 (2017); emphasis added.
65. For examples of objections, see Gromer Jeffers, Jr., “Texas House Panel’s Dallas Hearing on Redistricting Grows Contentious,” Dallas News, 6 June 2013, https://www.dallasnews.com/news/local-politics/2013/06/06/texas-house-panel-s-dallas-hearing-on-redistricting-grows-contentious.
66. Perez v. Abbott, 274 F. Supp. 3d 624 (2017).
67. “NAACP v. Steen (Consolidated with Veasey v. Abbott),” Brennan Center for Justice, 21 July 2017, https://www.brennancenter.org/legal-work/naacp-v-steen.
68. Abbott v. Veasey, 137 S. Ct. 612 (2017), Statement of Roberts, C.J.
69. Veasey v. Abbott, 249 F. Supp. 3d 868 (2017).
70. Jim Malewitz, “Federal Judge Tosses New Texas Voter ID Law, State Plans to Appeal,” Texas Tribune, 23 Aug. 2017, https://www.texastribune.org/2017/08/23/federal-judge-tosses-new-texas-voter-id-law/.
71. United States District Court, Middle District of Louisiana, Terrebonne Parish Branch, NAACP v. Jindal, No. 14-0069-JJB-EWD, Ruling, 17 Aug. 2017.
72. Hill v. Virginia State Board of Elections, 137 S. Ct. 788 (2017); Cooper v. Harris, 137 S. Ct. 1455 (2017); Covington v. North Carolina, 137 S. Ct. 1624 (2017).
73. Shaw v. Reno, 509 U.S. 630 (1993); Cooper v. Harris.
74. Common Cause v. Rucho, 279 F. Supp. 3d 587 (2018), court quoting Ariz. State Legislature v. Ariz. Indep. Redistricting Comm’n, 135 S. Ct. 2652, 2658 (2015).
75. Republican State Leadership Committee, “2012 REDMAP Summary Report,” 4 Jan. 2013, http://www.redistrictingmajorityproject.com/.
76. Ibid.
77. Jonathan Lai and Liz Navratil, “Pa. Congressional District Map Upheld as U.S. Supreme Court, Federal Judges Reject Republican Challenges,” Philadelphia Inquirer, 19 Mar. 2018, http://www.philly.com/philly/news/politics/state/pennsylvania-congressional-map-federal-lawsuit-dismissed-gerrymandering-20180319.html.
78. Michael Wines, “Pennsylvania Lawsuit Says House Redistricting Is a Partisan Gerrymander,” New York Times, 15 June 2017, https://www.nytimes.com/2017/06/15/us/gerrymander-pennsylvania-Congressional-district-lawsuit.html; Michael Wines, “Key Question before the Supreme Court: Will It Let Gerrymanders Stand,” New York Times, 21 Apr. 2017, https://www.nytimes.com/2017/04/21/us/democrats-gerrymander-supreme-court.html; Gill v. Whitford, no. 15-cv-421 (W.D. Wis. 2017); Greg Stohr, “Another Gerrymandering Case Added to the Supreme Court’s Docket, This Time against Democrats,” Governing, 12 Dec. 2017, http://www.governing.com/topics/politics/tns-supreme-court-maryland-gerrymandering.html. See, previously, Vieth v. Jubelirer, 541 U.S. 267 (2004), and LULAC v. Perry, 548 U.S. 399 (2006).
79. A. Phillip Randolph Institute v. Husted, 838 F.3d 699 (2016); “Brief for American History Professors as Amicus Curiae in Support of Respondents,” 22 Sept. 2017, p. 32, https://www.americanbar.org/content/dam/aba/publications/supreme_court_preview/briefs-2017-2018/16-980-amicus-resp-american-history-professors.authcheckdam.pdf.
80. National Voting Rights Act, sec. 8(b)(2); APRI v. Husted, 838 F.3d 699 (6th Cir. 2016); “Brief of Georgia and 16 Other States as Amici Curiae Supporting Petitioner,” SCOTUSblog, 16 Aug. 2017, http://www.scotusblog.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/08/16-980-tsac-Georgia-and-16-other-states.pdf; “Brief of the States of New York, et al., as Amici Curiae in Support of Respondents,” SCOTUSblog, Sept. 2017, http://www.scotusblog.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/09/16-980-bsac-states-of-NY.pdf.
81. “Joint Statement from the Department of Homeland Security and Office of the Director of National Intelligence on Election Security,” 7 Oct. 2016, https://www.dhs.gov/news/2016/10/07/joint-statement-department-homeland-security-and-office-director-national; “Intelligence Community Assessment: Assessing Russian Activities and Intention in Recent US Election,” 6 Jan. 2017, https://www.dni.gov/files/documents/ICA_2017_01.pdf.
82. Massimo Calabresi, “Election Hackers Altered Voter Rolls, Stole Private Data, Officials Say,” Time, 22 June 2017, http://time.com/4828306/russian-hacking-election-widespread-private-data/; Jessica Kwong, “Russians Successfully Hacked U.S. Voter Systems before 2016 Election, Top Official Says,” Newsweek, 7 Feb. 2018, http://www.newsweek.com/russians-successfully-hacked-us-voter-systems-2016-election-top-official-says-801253.
83. Eric Lipton and Scott Shane, “Democratic House Candidates Were Also Targets of Russian Hacking,” New York Times, 13 Dec. 2017, https://www.nytimes.com/2016/12/13/us/politics/house-democrats-hacking-dccc.html?_r=0.
84. Michael Morell and Mike Rogers, “Russia Never Stopped Its Cyberattacks on the United States,” Washington Post, 25 Dec. 2017, https://www.washingtonpost.com/opinions/russia-never-stopped-its-cyberattacks-on-the-united-states/2017/12/25/83076f2e-e676-11e7-a65d-1ac0fd7f097e_story.html?tid=a_inl&utm_term=.69b7d5b77b3a; Ellen Nakashima and Shane Harris, “The Nation’s Top Spies Said Russia Is Continuing to Target the U.S. Political System,” Washington Post, 13 Feb. 2018, https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/national-security/fbi-director-to-face-questions-on-security-clearances-and-agents-independence/2018/02/13/f3e4c706-105f-11e8-9570-29c9830535e5_story.html?utm_term=.5a0eba047e1f.
85. “Hackers Easily Bust into Voting Machines in Conference Challenge,” Fox News, 31 July 2017, http://www.foxnews.com/politics/2017/07/31/hackers-easily-bust-into-voting-machines-in-conference-challenge.html.
86. Aaron Blake, “Trump and Kobach Say Illegal Votes May Have Given Clinton the Popular Vote: The Math Disagrees,” Washington Post, 19 July 2017, https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/the-fix/wp/2017/07/19/the-white-house-still-thinks-illegal-votes-may-have-given-clinton-the-popular-vote-basic-logic-and-math-disagree/?utm_term=.a6a3933842a4; Allan Smith, “Trump Makes Outlandish Claims during Grilling by ABC News Anchor over Voter-Fraud Falsehoods,” Business Insider, 25 Jan. 2017, http://www.businessinsider.com/trump-voter-fraud-abc-interview-2017-1; Eli Yokley, “Many Republicans Believe Trump Won Popular Vote,” Morning Consult, 26 July 2017, https://morningconsult.com/2017/07/26/many-republicans-think-trump-won-2016-popular-vote-didnt/.
87. Kris W. Kobach, “Why the States Need to Assist the Presidential Commission on Election Integrity,” Breitbart.com, 12 July 2017, http://www.breitbart.com/big-government/2017/07/03/kobach-why-states-need-to-assist-the-presidential-commission-on-election-integrity/; “Kobach Letter to States on Election Integrity,” 28 June 2017, SCRIBD, https://www.scribd.com/document/352553337/Kobach-Letter-To-States-On-Election-Integrity; Adam Ganucheau, “Hosemann on Trump Voter ID Request: ‘Go Jump in the Gulf,’ ” Mississippi Today, 30 June 2017, https://mississippitoday.org/2017/06/30/hosemann-on-trump-voter-id-request-go-jump-in-the-gulf/.
88. Kris Kobach, “The Case for Voter ID,” Wall Street Journal, 23 May 2011, https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB10001424052748704816604576333650886790480; Sherman Smith, “Kobach Witness Can’t Support Claim That Illegal Votes Helped Hillary Clinton,” Topeka Capital-Journal, 13 Mar. 2018, http://www.cjonline.com/news/20180313/kobach-witness-cant-support-claim-that-illegal-votes-helped-hillary-clinton.
89. Steven Wayne Fish v. Kris Kobach, United States District Court for the District of Kansas, Case no. 16-2105-JAR-JPO, Order, 23 June 2017, pp. 4, 8; Fish v. Kobach, “Memorandum and Order,” 25 July 2017, p. 8.
90. Blake, “Trump and Kobach”; Manuela Tobias, “Is There Evidence of Voter Fraud in New Hampshire, as Kris Kobach Said? Not Really,” PolitiFact, 15 Sept. 2017, http://www.politifact.com/truth-o-meter/statements/2017/sep/15/kris-kobach/there-evidence-voter-fraud-new-hampshire-kris-koba/.
91. John Hanna, “Kansas Secretary of State Files 2 New Election Fraud Cases,” U.S. News and World Report, 31 Aug. 2017, https://www.usnews.com/news/best-states/kansas/articles/2017-0-31/kansas-secretary-of-state-files-2-new-election-fraud-cases; Jonathan Shorman, “Kobach Cites Non-Citizen Voters in Kansas as Trump Election Panel Begins,” Wichita Eagle, 19 July 2017, http://www.kansas.com/news/politics-government/article162505228.html.
92. U.S. Government Accountability Office, Report to Congressional Requesters, Issues Related to State Voter Identification Laws, Sept. 2014, p. 52, https://www.gao.gov/products/GAO-14-634195.
93. Zoltan L. Hajnal, Nazita Lajevardi, and Lindsay Nelson, “Voter Identification Laws and the Suppression of Minority Votes,” Journal of Politics 79 (2017): 363, 377. Although the authors do not limit their analysis to states with photo ID as opposed to non-photo ID laws, all but one of the states analyzed have photo ID laws.
94. Sharad Goel et al., “One Person, One Vote: Estimating the Prevalence of Double Voting in U.S. Presidential Elections,” 24 Oct. 2017, https://5harad.com/papers/1p1v.pdf.
95. John Wagner, “Trump Voting Fraud Panel Member Lamented Adding Democrats, ‘Mainstream’ Republicans,” Washington Post, 13 Sept. 2017, https://www.washingtonpost.com/politics/trump-voting-panel-member-lamented-inclusion-of-democrats-mainstream-republicans/2017/09/13/03f89a90-98bb-11e7-82e4-f1076f6d6152_story.html?utm_term=.4bc955c7e7d7; Christopher Ingraham, “Trump’s Fraud Commission Is Hearing a Proposal to Make Every Voter Pass a Gun Background Check,” Washington Post, 12 Sept. 2017, https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/wonk/wp/2017/09/12/trumps-voter-fraud-commission-is-hearing-a-proposal-to-make-every-voter-pass-a-gun-background-check/?utm_term=.74641fb0af42; “Legal Actions Taken against Trump’s ‘Voter Fraud’ Commission,” Brennan Center for Justice, 26 Dec. 2017, https://www.brennancenter.org/legal-actions-taken-against-trump%E2%80%99s-%E2%80%9Cfraud%E2%80%9D-commission.
96. Elizabeth Landers, Eli Watkins, and Kevin Liptak, “Trump Dissolves Voter Fraud Commission; Adviser Said It Went ‘Off the Rails,’ ” CNN, 4 Jan. 2018, http://www.cnn.com/2018/01/03/politics/presidential-election-commission/index.html; United States of America v. Internet Research Agency, et al., Criminal No. (18 U.S.C. §§ 2, 371, 1349, 1028A); Jessica Taylor, “Fact Check: Where Roy Moore’s Voter Fraud Claims Fall Flat,” NPR, 28 Dec. 2017, https://www.npr.org/2017/12/28/574222257/fact-check-where-roy-moores-voter-fraud-claims-fall-flat.
97. Manny Fernandez and Eric Lichtblau, “Justice Drops a Key Objection to a Texas Voter ID Law,” New York Times, 27 Feb. 2017, https://www.nytimes.com/2017/02/27/us/justice-dept-will-drop-a-key-objection-to-a-texas-voter-id-law.html?mcubz=1&_r=0; Sari Horwitz, “Justice Dept. Sides with Ohio’s Purge of Inactive Voters in Case Heading to Supreme Court,” Washington Post, 8 Aug. 2017, https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/national-security/justice-department-reverses-position-to-allow-ohio-to-purge-inactive-voters-from-rolls/2017/08/08/e93c5116-7c35-11e7-9d08-b79f191668ed_story.html?utm_term=.9839eff39970; Amber Phillips, “The Time That the Senate Denied Jeff Sessions a Federal Judgeship over Accusations of Racism,” Washington Post, 10 Jan. 2017, https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/the-fix/wp/2016/11/18/that-time-the-senate-denied-jeff-sessions-a-federal-judgeship-over-accusations-of-racism/?utm_term=.cb97ed637a86.
98. Economist Intelligence Unit, “Democracy Rankings 2017,” 2018, http://pages.eiu.com/rs/753-RIQ-438/images/Democracy_Index_2017.pdf.
99. “Views on Perceptions of the American Political Process and Voter Fraud,” AP-NORC, Sept. 2016, http://www.apnorc.org/projects/Pages/views-on-the-american-election-process-and-perceptions-of-voter-fraud.aspx.
100. Freedom House, “Democracy in Crisis: Freedom House Releases Freedom in the World 2018,” 16 Jan. 2018, https://yubanet.com/world/democracy-in-crisis-freedom-house-releases-freedom-in-the-world-2018/.
101. “Press Briefing by Press Secretary Sarah Huckabee Sanders,” White House.gov, 20 March 2018, https://www.whitehouse.gov/briefings-statements/press-briefing-press-secretary-sarah-sanders-032018/.
1. Jack Raymond, “Germans Go to Polls Calmly: Take Free Elections as Duty,” New York Times, 15 Aug. 1949, p. 1; Gert-Joachim Glaessner, German Democracy: From Post-World War II to the Present Day (New York: Berg, 2005), p. 91.
2. “International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights,” https://treaties.un.org/doc/publication/unts/volume%20999/volume-999-i-14668-english.pdf.
3. Pamela S. Karlan, “Voting Rights and the Third Reconstruction,” in The Constitution in 2020, ed. Jack M. Balkin and Reva B. Siegel (New York: Oxford University Press, 2009), p. 161; Crawford v. Marion County Election Board, 553 U.S. 181 (2008).
4. H.J. Res. 44, 14 May 2013, Congress.gov, https://www.Congress.gov/bill/113th-Congress/house-joint-resolution/44/text.
5. “International Comparison of Felon Voting Laws,” ProCon.org, May 2014, http://felonvoting.procon.org/view.resource.php?resourceID=000289.
6. Christopher Uggen, Ryan Larson, and Sarah Shannon, Six Million Lost Voters: State-Level Estimates of Felon Disenfranchisement, 2016 (Washington, DC: Sentencing Project, 2016), pp. 4–13.
7. Ibid.; Heather Monahan, “Florida Set to Decide If Felons Have the Right to Vote Again,” News Channel 8, 4 Feb. 2018, http://www.wfla.com/news/florida-set-to-decide-if-felons-have-right-to-vote-again/1030530664.
8. Ibid., pp. 3, 15, 16; Bridgett A. King and Laura Erickson, “Disenfranchising the Enfranchised: Exploring the Relationship between Felony Disenfranchisement and African American Voter Turnout,” Journal of Black Studies 47 (2016): 799–821; Ed Kilgore, “An Initiative to Give Ex-Felons Voting Rights Could Remake Florida’s Politics in 2020,” New York Magazine, 23 Jan. 2018, http://nymag.com/daily/intelligencer/2018/01/florida-ballot-initiative-could-give-ex-felons-voting-rights.html.
9. Richardson v. Ramirez, 418 U.S. 24 (1974).
10. Sauvé v. Canada (Chief Electoral Officer), [2002] 3 S.C.R. 519, 2002 SCC 68.
11. Jerrold G. Rusk, A Statistical History of the American Electorate (Washington, DC: CQ Press, 2001), pp. 52–53; U.S. Elections Project, “Voter Turnout 2000–2106,” http://www.electproject.org/home/voter-turnout/voter-turnout-data.
12. T. M. Holbrook and Aaron Weinschenk, “Campaigns, Mobilization, and Turnout in Mayoral Elections,” Political Research Quarterly 67 (2014): 42–55.
13. Drew DeSilver, “Turnout Was High in the 2016 Primary Season, but Just Short of a Record,” Pew Research Center, 10 June 2016, http://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2016/06/10/turnout-was-high-in-the-2016-primary-season-but-just-short-of-2008-record/; Jay O’Callaghan, “Republican 2014 Primary Turnout Tops Democrats for the Second Time since 1930,” Human Events, 18 Oct. 2014, http://humanevents.com/2014/10/08/republican-2014-primary-turnout-tops-democrats-for-the-second-time-since-1930/.
14. Drew DeSilver, “U.S. Trails Most Developed Countries in Voter Turnout,” Pew Research Center, 15 May 2017, http://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2017/05/15/u-s-voter-turnout-trails-most-developed-countries/.
15. David A. Lieb, “Possible Effects of Gerrymandering Seen in Uncontested Races,” U.S. News, 25 June 2017, https://www.usnews.com/news/best-states/georgia/articles/2017-06-25/democracy-with-no-choices-many-candidates-run-unopposed.
16. “Trust in Government, 1958–2017,” Pew Research Center, 3 May 2017, http://www.people-press.org/2017/05/03/public-trust-in-government-1958-2017/.
17. Ellen Shearer, “Nonvoters in America 2012,” Ipsos Public Affairs, 13 Dec. 2012, http://nonvotersinamerica.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/12/Summary-Report-12-13-12.pdf.
18. Citizens United v. Federal Election Commission, 58 U.S. 310 (2010).
19. Center for Responsive Politics, “Lobbying Database,” https://www.opensecrets.org/lobby/; “How Many Lobbyists Are There in Washington?” Reuters, 13 Sept. 2009, https://www.reuters.com/article/us-obama-lobbying-sb/factbox-how-many-lobbyists-are-there-in-washington-idUSTRE58C1NX20090913; Megan R. Wilson, “Lobbying’s Top 50: Who’s Spending Big,” The Hill, 17 Feb. 2017, http://thehill.com/business-a-lobbying/business-a-lobbying/318177-lobbyings-top-50-whos-spending-big; Guy Rolnik, “How Many Newt Gingrich’s Are There in Washington? Much More Than You Might Think,” Pro-Market: Stigler Center at the University of Chicago Booth School of Business, 3 Apr. 2017, https://promarket.org/many-newt-gingrichs-washington-much-might-think/; John Delaney, “The Solution to Fixing Dysfunction in Congress,” Washington Post, 2 Sept. 2014, https://www.washingtonpost.com/opinions/the-solution-to-fixing-dysfunction-in-Congress/2014/09/02/0f0d0a9a-31e6-11e4-9e92-0899b306bbea_story.html?utm_term=.7eaba0f9afd4.
20. Martin Gilens and Benjamin Page, “Testing Theories of American Politics: Elites, Interest Groups, and Average Citizens,” Perspectives on Politics 12 (2014): 564–581.
21. Maria Gratschew, “Case Study 4: Sweden,” in International Foundation for Electoral Systems, Getting to the Core: A Global Survey on the Cost and Registration of Elections, Center for Transitional and Post-Conflict Governance, International Foundation for Electoral Systems, and Bureau of Development Policy, United Nations Development Programme, June 2005, p. 95, http://www.ifes.org/sites/default/files/corepublcolor_2.pdf.
22. “Oregon Motor Voter Act FAQ,” Oregon Secretary of State, http://sos.oregon.gov/voting/Pages/motor-voter-faq.aspx.
23. Rob Griffin et al., “Who Votes with Automatic Voter Registration?” Center for American Progress, 7 June 2017, https://www.americanprogress.org/issues/democracy/reports/2017/06/07/433677/votes-automatic-voter-registration/.
24. “Automatic Voter Registration,” Brennan Center for Justice, 13 Mar. 2018, https://www.brennancenter.org/analysis/automatic-voter-registration.
25. For a listing of studies and their findings, see U.S. Government Accountability Office, “Issues Related to Registering Voters and Administering Elections,” June 2016, pp. 88–92, 113–115, http://www.gao.gov/assets/680/678131.pdf; “Election Fraud in America,” News21, 12 Aug. 2012, https://votingrights.news21.com/interactive/election-fraud-database/.
26. “Same Day Voter Registration,” National Conference of State Legislatures, 12 Oct. 2017, http://www.ncsl.org/research/elections-and-campaigns/same-day-registration.aspx.
27. Art. 3, secs. 20, 21, Florida Constitution, http://www.leg.state.fl.us/statutes/index.cfm?submenu=3#A3S20.
28. “U.S. House Results,” CNN, 16 Feb. 2018, http://www.cnn.com/election/results/house.
29. Arizona State Legislature v. Arizona Independent Redistricting Commission, 576 U.S. (2015).
30. Bruce E. Cain, “Redistricting Commissions: A Better Political Buffer,” Yale Law Journal 121 (2012): 1808.
31. Claire Daviss and Rob Richie, “Fuzzy Math: Wrong Way Reforms for Allocating Electoral College Votes,” Fairvote, Jan. 2015, https://fairvote.app.box.com/v/fuzzy-math-wrong-way-reforms.
32. Residents of the District of Columbia can vote for president (Twenty-Third Amendment) and local officials. Voting rights for the U.S. House and Senate would require either statehood or a merger with Virginia or Maryland. Neither alternative has gained traction in Congress.
33. Voting Rights Coalition v. Wilson, 60 F.3d 1411 (9th Cir. 1995), cert. denied, 516 U.S. 1093 (1996); Foster v. Love, 522 U.S. 67 (1997).
34. Zoltan L. Hajnal and Paul G. Lewis, “Municipal Institutions and Voter Turnout in Local Elections,” Urban Affairs Review 38 (2003): 656. Also, at the state level, California has adopted a voting rights act (Election Code Section 14025-14032) that makes it easier for minorities to challenge discriminatory at-large election systems.
35. Paul Weyrich, speech, National Affairs Briefing of the Religious Roundtable, Dallas, TX, 22 Aug. 1980, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QFIYS8xb-QY. On the importance of Weyrich, see American National Biography Online, s.v. Paul Weyrich, http://www.anb.org/articles/07/07-00849.html.
36. Aaron Blake, “Republicans Keep Admitting That Voter ID Helps Their Party, for Some Reason,” Washington Post, 7 Apr. 2016, https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/the-fix/wp/2016/04/07/republicans-should-really-stop-admitting-that-voter-id-helps-them-win/?utm_term=.c02c9ca55c08; Scott Tranter, speech, Newseum, Washington, DC, 10 Dec. 2012, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-4KUj_hB2lA; “Tea Party Activist: No Thanks for Black Voters Voting Democratic,” Bloomberg News, 4 June 2013, http://go.bloomberg.com/political-capital/2013-06-04/tea-party-activist-no-thanks-for-black-voters-voting-democratic/.
37. Blake, “Republicans Keep Admitting”; Alice Miranda Ollstein, “The 4 Most Damning Revelations in Wisconsin’s Voter ID Trial,” ThinkProgress, 27 May 2016, https://thinkprogress.org/the-4-most-damning-revelations-in-wisconsins-voter-id-trial-8e71a37b0762; Dale Schultz, interview with Radio 92.1, http://www.themic921.com/onair/the-devils-advocates-47215/state-senator-dale-schultz-on-sd-12150295/.
38. “Rand Paul Warns Texas Could Turn Blue,” Politico, 9 Feb. 2014, http://www.politico.com/story/2014/02/rand-paul-texas-could-turn-blue-103292.html.
39. Schultz, interview; James Sensenbrenner, “Suppress Votes? I’d Rather Lose My Job,” New York Times, 31 Mar. 2016, https://www.nytimes.com/2016/03/31/opinion/suppress-votes-id-rather-lose-my-job.html?mcubz=1&_r=0.
40. Charles Stewart, “2016 Survey of the Performance of American Elections, Final Report,” https://dataverse.harvard.edu/file.xhtml?fileId=3012344&version=RELEASED&version=.0; Dan Lohrmann, “What Election Technology Actions Are Needed Now,” Government Technology, 15 Jan. 2017, http://www.govtech.com/blogs/lohrmann-on-cybersecurity/what-election-technology-actions-are-needed-now.html.
41. Mo Rocca hosted an award-winning 2012 PBS documentary, Electoral Dysfunction, on voting and voting rights.
42. Franklin D. Roosevelt, “Address at Marietta, Ohio,” 8 July 1938, American Presidency Project, http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/?pid=15672.
1. Pew Research Center, “The Party of Non-Voters,” 31 Oct. 2014, http://www.people-press.org/2014/10/31/the-party-of-nonvoters-2/. Pew defines nonvoters in its survey as “those who are either not registered to vote or are considered unlikely to vote in the upcoming midterms.”
2. “Remarks of Senator Paul Wellstone before the Grassroots Training Seminar at Iowa State, 11 July 1998,” Grassroots Heroes, http://www.geocities.ws/demcrat/newgrass.html.