1. “Transcript of the Baldwin versus Buckley Debate at the Cambridge Union,” in Nicholas Buccola, The Fire Is upon Us: James Baldwin, William F. Buckley Jr., and the Debate over Race in America (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2019), 381.
2. Anna Julia Cooper, A Voice from the South (Xenia, OH: Aldine Printing House, 1892), 120–21.
3. W.E.B. Du Bois, The Souls of Black Folk (Chicago: A. C. McClurg, 1903), 3.
4. “Transcript of the Baldwin versus Buckley Debate at the Cambridge Union,” 383.
1. Álvar Núñez Cabeza de Vaca, The Narrative of Cabeza de Vaca, trans. and ed. Rolena Adorno and Patrick Charles Pautz (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2003).
2. Heather Williams, American Slavery: A Very Short Introduction (New York: Oxford University Press, 2014), 4.
3. See Stephanie Smallwood, Saltwater Slavery: A Middle Passage from Africa to American Diaspora (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2007); Eric Taylor, If We Must Die: Shipboard Insurrections in the Era of the Atlantic Slave Trade (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 2009); and Marcus Rediker, The Slave Ship: A Human History (New York: Penguin Books, 2014).
4. Alexander Falconbridge, An Account of the Slave Trade on the Coast of Africa (London: J. Phillips, 1788), 25.
5. Olaudah Equiano, The Interesting Narrative of the Life of Olaudah Equiano, or Gustavus Vassa, the African. Written by Himself (London: Printed by the author, 1789), 78–79.
6. David Eltis, “Construction of the Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade Database: Sources and Methods,” Voyages: The Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade Database, 2010, https://slavevoyages.org.
7. John Hope Franklin and Evelyn Brooks Higginbotham, From Slavery to Freedom: A History of African Americans, 9th ed. (New York: McGraw-Hill, 2011), 44.
8. Bob Janiskee, “Sullivan’s Island Was the African-American Ellis Island,” National Parks Traveler, March 4, 2009, https://www.nationalparkstraveler.org/2009/03/sullivan-s-island-african-american-ellis-island.
9. See, in general, Walter Johnson, Soul by Soul: Life Inside the Antebellum Slave Market (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2001).
10. See Thelma Jennings, “ ‘Us Colored Women Had to Go through a Plenty’: Sexual Exploitation of African-American Slave Women,” Journal of Women’s History 1, no. 3 (1999): 45–74.
11. Edmund Morgan, American Slavery, American Freedom: The Ordeal of Colonial Virginia (New York: W. W. Norton), 1975.
12. See Vincent Carretta, Phillis Wheatley: Biography of a Genius in Bondage (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 2011).
13. Annette Gordon-Reed, The Hemingses of Monticello: An American Family (New York: W. W. Norton, 2009).
14. Thomas Jefferson, Notes on the State of Virginia (Paris, 1785), 229.
15. Equiano, Interesting Narrative, 79.
1. Philip Foner, ed., The Life and Writings of Frederick Douglass, vol. 2, Pre–Civil War Decade, 1850–1860 (New York: International, 1950), 189.
2. See Saidiya Hartman, Scenes of Subjection: Terror, Slavery, and Self-Making in Nineteenth-Century America (New York: Oxford University Press, 1997); and Stephanie Camp, Closer to Freedom: Enslaved Women and Everyday Resistance in the Plantation South (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina, 2004).
3. See Elizabeth Maddock Dillon and Michael Drexler, eds., The Haitian Revolution and the Early United States: Histories, Textualities, Geographies (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2016).
4. See David Robertson, Denmark Vesey: The Buried Story of America’s Largest Slave Rebellion and the Man Who Led It (New York: Knopf, 1999).
5. David Walker, Walker’s Appeal in Four Articles; Together with a Preamble, to the Coloured Citizens of the World, but in Particular, and Very Expressly, to Those of the United States of America (Boston: Published by the author, 1829), 73.
6. Maria Stewart, “Why Sit Ye Here and Die?,” in Maria W. Stewart, America’s First Black Woman Political Writer: Essays and Speeches, ed. Marilyn Richardson (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1987), 48.
7. Harriet Jacobs, Incidents in the Life of a Slave Girl (Boston: Published for the author, 1861).
8. See Nell Irvin Painter, Sojourner Truth: A Life, A Symbol (New York: Norton, 1997).
9. Martin Delany, The Condition, Elevation, Emigration, and Destiny of the Colored People in the United States, Politically Considered (Philadelphia: Published by the author, 1852), 155.
10. Dred Scott v. Sandford, 60 U.S. at 405 (1857).
11. Toni Morrison, Beloved (New York: Knopf, 1987).
1. James McPherson, Ordeal by Fire: The Civil War and Reconstruction (New York: Knopf, 1982), 94, 114.
2. John Brown, “Address to the Court,” in Testimonies of Capt. John Brown, at Harper’s Ferry, with his Address to the Court (New York: American Anti-Slavery Society, 1860), 15.
3. McPherson, Ordeal by Fire, 294.
4. See Eric Foner, The Fiery Trial: Abraham Lincoln and American Slavery (New York: W. W. Norton, 2010).
5. On the enduring significance of the Fifty-Fourth, see Martin H. Blatt, Thomas J. Brown, and Donald Yacovone, eds., Hope and Glory: Essays on the Legacy of the 54th Massachusetts Regiment (Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 2001).
6. Jim Downs, Sick from Freedom: African-American Illness and Suffering during the Civil War and Reconstruction (New York: Oxford University Press, 2012).
7. See Iver Bernstein, The New York City Draft Riots: Their Significance for American Society and Politics in the Age of the Civil War (New York: Oxford University Press, 1991), 27–30.
8. See W.E.B. Du Bois, Black Reconstruction in America: An Essay toward a History of the Part Which Black Folk Played in the Attempt to Reconstruct Democracy in America, 1860–1880 (New York: Harcourt, Brace, and Company, 1935); and Eric Foner, Reconstruction: America’s Unfinished Revolution, 1863–1877 (New York: Harper and Row, 1988).
9. Downs, Sick from Freedom, 4.
10. See Paul Cimbala and Randall Miller, eds., The Freedmen’s Bureau and Reconstruction: Reconsiderations (New York: Fordham University Press, 1999).
1. Billie Holiday, vocalist, “Strange Fruit,” lyrics by Abel Meeropol, recorded April 20, 1939, Commodore Records C-526.
2. See Crystal Feimster, Southern Horrors: Women and the Politics of Rape and Lynching (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2009).
3. James Allen, Hilton Als, John Lewis, and Leon F. Litwack, Without Sanctuary: Lynching Photography in America (Santa Fe, NM: Twin Palms Publishers, 2000).
4. W.E.B. Du Bois, Dusk of Dawn: An Essay toward an Autobiography of a Race Concept (New York: Schocken Books, 1940), 67.
5. Gail Bederman, Manliness and Civilization: A Cultural History of Gender and Race in the United States, 1880–1917 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2005).
6. Bederman, Manliness and Civilization, 45–76; and Mia Bay, To Tell the Truth Freely: The Life of Ida B. Wells (New York: Hill and Wang, 2009).
7. See Kevin Gaines, Uplifting the Race: Black Leadership, Politics, and Culture in the Twentieth Century (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1996).
8. Anna Julia Cooper, A Voice from the South (Xenia, OH: Aldine Printing House, 1892), 31.
9. Booker T. Washington, “The Standard Printed Version of the Atlanta Exposition Address,” September 18, 1895, in The Booker T. Washington Papers, ed. Louis R. Harlan, vol. 3, 1889–95 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1974), 585.
10. Plessy v. Ferguson 163 US at 551 (1896).
11. Plessy v. Ferguson 163 US at 562 (1896).
12. See Cooper, Voice from the South.
13. W.E.B. Du Bois, The Souls of Black Folk (Chicago: A. C. McClurg, 1903), 49.
14. Du Bois, Souls of Black Folk, 53–54.
15. See James Grossman, Land of Hope: Chicago, Black Southerners, and the Great Migration (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1989); and Isabel Wilkerson, The Warmth of Other Suns: The Epic Story of America’s Great Migration (New York: Random House, 2010).
16. Rolfe Cobleigh, “Fighting a Vicious Film: Protest against ‘The Birth of a Nation,’ ” Boston Branch of the NAACP, 1915.
17. W.E.B. Du Bois, “Close Ranks,” Crisis, July 1918, 111.
18. Alessandra Lorini, Rituals of Race: American Public Culture and the Search for Racial Democracy (Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press, 1999), 245.
19. Du Bois, “Returning Soldiers,” Crisis, May 1919, 13.
20. Marcus Garvey, Declaration of Rights of the Negro Peoples of the World, quoted in Let Nobody Turn Us Around: Voices of Resistance, Reform, and Renewal—An African American Anthology, ed. Manning Marable and Leith Mullings (Lanham, MD: Rowman and Littlefield, 2003), 259.
21. Marcus Garvey Jr., “Garveyism: Some Reflections on Its Significance for Today,” in Marcus Garvey and the Vision of Africa, ed. John Henrik Clarke with Amy Jacques Garvey (New York: Vintage, 1974), 377.
22. See Marable and Mullings, eds., Let Nobody Turn Us Around, 259–73; and Colin Grant, Negro with a Hat: The Rise and Fall of Marcus Garvey (New York: Oxford University Press, 2010).
23. Alain Locke, ed., The New Negro: An Interpretation (New York: A. and C. Boni, 1925), 3.
24. Sterling Brown, Southern Road (New York: Harcourt, Brace, and Company, 1932); Zora Neale Hurston, Mules and Men (Philadelphia: J. B. Lippincott, 1935); Hurston, Their Eyes Were Watching God (Philadelphia: J. B. Lippincott, 1937); Jessie Fauset, There Is Confusion (New York: Boni and Liveright, 1924); and Fauset, Plum Bun: A Novel without a Moral (New York: Frederick A. Stokes, 1929).
25. See Houston A. Baker Jr., Modernism and the Harlem Renaissance (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1987); George Hutchinson, The Harlem Renaissance in Black and White (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1995); and Rachael Farebrother, The Collage Aesthetic in the Harlem Renaissance (New York: Routledge, 2016).
26. Langston Hughes, “The Negro Speaks of Rivers,” Crisis, June 1921, 71.
27. Langston Hughes, “The Negro Artist and the Racial Mountain,” Nation, June 23, 1926, 694.
1. Nina Simone, “Mississippi Goddam,” Nina Simone in Concert, recorded March 21, 1964, Phillips PHM 200-135.
2. See Nancy Weiss, Farewell to the Party of Lincoln: Black Politics in the Age of F.D.R. (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1983).
3. James Goodman, Stories of Scottsboro (New York: Pantheon, 1994).
4. See Raymond Arsenault, The Sound of Freedom: Marian Anderson, the Lincoln Memorial, and the Concert That Awakened America (New York: Bloomsbury, 2009).
5. See Richard Kluger, Simple Justice: The History of Brown v. Board of Education and Black America’s Struggle for Equality (New York: Knopf, 1976).
6. Jo Ann Gibson Robinson, The Montgomery Bus Boycott and the Women Who Started It: The Memoir of Jo Ann Gibson Robinson (Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 1987).
7. Mamie Till-Mobley and Christopher Benson, Death of Innocence: The Story of the Hate Crime That Changed America (New York: Random House, 2003); and Elliott J. Gorn, Let the People See: The Story of Emmett Till (New York: Oxford University Press, 2018).
8. Melba Pattillo Beals, Warriors Don’t Cry: The Searing Memoir of the Battle to Integrate Little Rock’s Central High (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1994), 156.
9. See Barbara Ransby, Ella Baker and the Black Freedom Movement: A Radical Democratic Vision (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2003).
10. Martin Luther King Jr., “Letter from Birmingham Jail,” April 16, 1963, in Why We Can’t Wait (New York: Harper and Row, 1964), 70.
11. Martin Luther King Jr., “I Have a Dream: Address at March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom,” August 28, 1963, in A Call to Conscience: Landmark Speeches of Martin Luther King Jr., ed. Clayborne Carson and Kris Shepard (New York: Grand Central, 2001), 81–82.
12. Simone, “Mississippi Goddam.”
13. Malcolm X, “Message to the Grassroots,” November 10, 1963, Detroit, in Malcolm X Speaks: Selected Speeches and Statements, ed. George Breitman (New York: Merit, 1965), 17.
14. Malcolm X, “The Ballot or the Bullet,” April 3, 1964, Cleveland, in Malcolm X Speaks, 41.
15. Malcolm X, “After the Bombing,” February 14, 1965, Detroit, in Malcolm X Speaks, 164.
16. See Manning Marable, Malcolm X: A Life of Reinvention (New York: Penguin, 2011).
17. See Taylor Branch, At Canaan’s Edge: America in the King Years, 1965–68 (New York: Simon and Schuster, 2007).
18. Stokely Carmichael, “SNCC Position Paper on Black Power,” New York Times, August 5, 1966, quoted in Manning Marable and Leith Mullings, eds., Let Nobody Turn Us Around: Voices of Resistance, Reform, and Renewal—An African American Anthology (Lanham, MD: Rowman and Littlefield, 2009), 450.
1. See Alondra Nelson, Body and Soul: The Black Panther Party and the Fight against Medical Discrimination (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2013).
2. Eldridge Cleaver, Soul on Ice (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1967).
3. Martin Luther King Jr., “Beyond Vietnam,” in A Call to Conscience: Landmark Speeches of Martin Luther King Jr., ed. Clayborne Carson and Kris Shepard (New York: Grand Central, 2001), 140, 144.
4. Taylor Branch, At Canaan’s Edge: America in the King Years, 1965–68 (New York: Simon and Schuster, 2007), 758, 767.
5. Gil Scott-Heron, “Whitey on the Moon,” Small Talk at 125th and Lenox, recorded 1970, Flying Dutchman Records, FD 10131.
6. Marvin Gaye, What’s Going On, recorded June 1, 1970, Tamla, T 54201.
7. See Elaine Brown, A Taste of Power: A Black Woman’s Story (New York: Pantheon, 1992).
8. Daniel Patrick Moynihan, “The Negro Family: The Case for National Action,” Office of Policy Planning and Research, U.S. Department of Labor, March 1965, 29.
9. Johnnie Tillmon, “Welfare Is a Women’s Issue,” Ms. Magazine, Spring 1972, 111–16.
10. See Shirley Chisholm, Unbought and Unbossed (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1970).
11. “The Combahee River Collective Statement,” in How We Get Free: Black Feminism and the Combahee River Collective, ed. Keeanga-Yamahtta Taylor (Chicago: Haymarket Books, 2017), 15, 22–23.
12. Toni Morrison, The Bluest Eye (New York: Holt, Rinehart, and Winston, 1970); Toni Cade Bambara, ed., The Black Woman: An Anthology (New York: New American Library, 1970); and Alice Walker, Meridian (New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1976).
13. See Lucius Barker and Ronald Walters, eds., Jesse Jackson’s 1984 Presidential Campaign: Challenge and Change in American Politics (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1989).
14. Darnell Hunt, Screening the Los Angeles “Riots”: Race, Seeing, and Resistance (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1997).
15. Anita Miller, ed., The Complete Transcripts of the Clarence Thomas–Anita Hill Hearings, October 11, 12, 13, 1991 (Chicago: Academy Chicago, 1994), 23, 154.
16. Barack Obama, “A More Perfect Union,” Philadelphia, March 18, 2008, National Public Radio, transcript, https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=88478467.
17. “ ‘New York Post’ Political Cartoon Raises Concerns,” National Public Radio, February 19, 2009, https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=100875822.
18. “Mayor to Quit over Obama Watermelon E-mail,” Associated Press, February 27, 2009, http://www.nbcnews.com/id/29423045/ns/us_news-life/t/mayor-quit-over-obama-watermelon-e-mail/#.Xr8q4JNKgdU.
1. “Transcript of the Baldwin versus Buckley Debate at the Cambridge Union,” in Nicholas Buccola, The Fire Is upon Us: James Baldwin, William F. Buckley Jr., and the Debate over Race in America (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2019), 381.
2. James Weldon Johnson, “Lift Ev’ry Voice and Sing,” 1900, in James Weldon Johnson, Complete Poems, ed. Sondra Kathryn Wilson (New York: Penguin, 2000), 110.
3. See Imani Perry, May We Forever Stand: A History of the Black National Anthem (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2018).
4. Sybrina Fulton and Tracy Martin, Rest in Power: The Enduring Life of Trayvon Martin (New York: Spiegel and Grau, 2017).
5. Jelani Cobb, “The Matter of Black Lives,” New Yorker, March 14, 2016, https://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2016/03/14/where-is-black-lives- matter-headed.
6. See Chad Williams, Kidada E. Williams, and Keisha Blain, eds., Charleston Syllabus: Readings on Race, Racism, and Racial Violence (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 2016).
7. Glenn Thrush and Maggie Haberman, “Trump Gives White Supremacists an Equivocal Boost,” New York Times, August 15, 2017, https://www.nytimes.com/2017/08/15/us/politics/trump-charlottesville-white-nationalists.html.
8. Lonnie G. Bunch III, A Fool’s Errand: Creating the National Museum of African American History and Culture in the Age of Bush, Obama, and Trump (Washington, DC: Smithsonian Books, 2019).
9. Campbell Robertson, “A Lynching Memorial Is Opening: The Country Has Never Seen Anything Like It,” New York Times, April 25, 2018, https://www.nytimes.com/2018/04/25/us/lynching-memorial-alabama.html.
10. Johnson, Complete Poems, 109.