Architecture
The history of British architecture spans more than three millennia, from the mysterious stone circles of Stonehenge to the glittering skyscrapers of modern London. The country's built heritage includes Roman baths and parish churches, mighty castles and magnificent cathedrals, humble cottages and grand stately homes. Exploring it all is one of the great joys of a visit to Britain.
Early Foundations
The oldest surviving structures in Britain are the grass-covered mounds of earth called 'tumuli' or 'barrows', used as burial sites by the country's prehistoric residents. These mounds, measuring anything from a rough hemisphere just 2m high to oval domes around 5m high and 10m long, are dotted across the countryside and are especially common in areas of chalk downland such as Salisbury Plain in southern England.
Even more impressive than the giant tumuli are the most prominent legacy of the Neolithic era – such as the iconic stone circle at Stonehenge in Wiltshire. Again, its original purpose is a mystery, providing fertile ground for hypothesis and speculation. The most recent theories suggest that Stonehenge may have been a place of pilgrimage for the sick, like modern-day Lourdes, though it was also used as a burial ground and a place of ancestor worship.
The Roman Era
Remnants of the Roman Empire are found in many towns and cities (mostly in England and Wales, as the Romans didn't colonise Scotland). The bath house complex in the city of Bath is one of the most impressive sets of remains. But Britain's largest Roman relic is the 73-mile-long sweep of Hadrian's Wall, built in the 2nd century as a defensive line stretching from coast to coast across the island. Originally intended to defend the Empire's territories in the south from the marauding tribes further north, it became as much a symbol of Roman power as a fortification.
Medieval Masterpieces
In the centuries following the Norman Conquest of 1066, the perfection of the mason's art saw an explosion of architecture in stone, inspired by the two most pressing concerns of the day: religion and defence. Early structures of timber and rubble were replaced with churches, abbeys and monasteries built in dressed stone. The round arches, squat towers and chevron decoration of the Norman or Romanesque style (11th to 12th centuries) slowly evolved into the tall pointed arches, ribbed vaults and soaring spires of the Gothic (13th to 16th centuries), a history that can often be seen all in the one church – construction often took a couple of hundred years to complete. Many cathedrals remain modern landmarks, such as those at Salisbury and York.
Stone was also put to good use in the building of elaborate defensive structures. Castles range from atmospheric ruins to stunning crag-top fortresses, such as Edinburgh Castle. And then there's the most impressive of them all: the Tower of London, guarding the capital for more than 900 years.
Stately Homes
The medieval period was tumultuous, but by the start of the 17th century life had become more settled and the nobility had less need for fortifications. While they were excellent for keeping out the riff-raff, castles were often too cold and draughty for comfortable aristocratic living.
Following the Civil War, the trend away from castles gathered pace, and throughout the 17th century the landed gentry developed a taste for fine 'country houses' designed by famous architects of the day. Many became the stately homes that are a major feature of the British landscape and a major attraction for visitors. Among the most extravagant are Castle Howard near York and Blenheim Palace near Oxford.
The great stately homes all display the proportion, symmetry and architectural harmony that was in vogue during the 17th and 18th centuries. These styles were later reflected in the fashionable town houses of the Georgian era, most notably in the city of Bath, where the stunning Royal Crescent is the ultimate example of the genre.
oBest Castles & Stately Homes
Edinburgh Castle, Edinburgh
Blenheim Palace, near Oxford
Tower of London, London
Castle Howard, near York
Windsor Castle, near London
Victoriana
The Victorian era was a time of great building activity. A style called Victorian Gothic developed, imitating the tall, narrow windows and ornamented spires featured in the original Gothic cathedrals. The most famous example is London's Houses of Parliament and the clock tower that everyone knows as Big Ben, which was officially renamed Elizabeth Tower in 2012 to celebrate the Queen's diamond jubilee. Another Victorian Gothic highlight in England's capital is the Natural History Museum.
Industrialisation
Through the late 19th and early 20th centuries, as Britain's cities grew in size and stature, the newly moneyed middle classes built smart townhouses in streets and squares. Elsewhere, the first town planners oversaw the construction of endless terraces of 'back-to-back' and 'two-up-two-down' houses to accommodate the massive influx of workers required for the country's factories. In many cases the terraced houses and basic tenements are not especially scenic, but they are perhaps the most enduring mark on the British architectural landscape.
London's New Landmarks
At 306m the Shard, in the centre of the capital, is one of Europe's tallest buildings. A giant, pointed glass skyscraper, it dominates the South Bank.
On the other side of the Thames, two more giant skyscrapers were completed in 2014: 20 Fenchurch St (nicknamed 'the Walkie-Talkie', thanks to its shape) and the slanting-walled Leadenhall Building (dubbed, inevitably, 'the Cheese Grater').
The 21st Century
During the first decade of this century, many areas of Britain placed new importance on having progressive, popular architecture as part of a wider regeneration. Edinburgh's Scottish Parliament Building is a fine example.
Britain’s largest and highest-profile architectural project of recent times was Olympic Park, the centrepiece of the 2012 Olympic Games. Situated in the London suburb of Stratford, it was renamed the Queen Elizabeth Olympic Park after the games. Alongside the main Olympic Stadium, there's the much-admired Velodrome and Aquatics Centre, dramatic structures in their own right.
London continues to grow upwards and British architecture continues to push new boundaries of style and technology. The buildings may look a little different, but they're still iconic and impressive.