Introduction to First and Second Thessalonians
First Thessalonians
First Thessalonians is likely to be Paul’s oldest surviving letter and, indeed, the oldest surviving Christian text, but the Paul we meet in its pages was already a veteran apostle.1 Before he wrote any of the letters that would make him famous, Paul spent years preaching the gospel around the eastern side of the Roman Empire. About the year 49, Paul started a new phase of missionary activity, heading out on a westward journey that would lead him to the Roman province of Macedonia. Traveling on the Via Egnatia, a road running from Byzantium to the Adriatic coast, he came to Philippi, where he founded a church in the midst of significant opposition (1 Thess 2:1–2). He then went southwest to Macedonia’s capital, the busy port city of Thessalonica.
Thessalonica (Thessalonikē in ancient Greek; Thessaloniki in modern Greek) was founded in 316 or 315 BC by Cassander, one of the Macedonian generals who vied for control of the pieces of Alexander the Great’s empire after Alexander’s death in 323.2 Situated in a natural harbor on the Thermaic Gulf in the Aegean Sea and with the Via Egnatia offering relatively easy access to the east and the west, Thessalonica became a bustling center of commerce, and it remains so to this day. A series of shrewd political decisions led the city to enjoy a close relationship with Rome and its emperors. Rome granted Thessalonica a degree of independence as a so-called free city, and the city expressed its gratitude for Rome’s benevolence by honoring and fostering the worship of Roman gods—including the emperors. To the reverence of all things Roman, the diverse inhabitants of the city added the worship of Greek and Egyptian deities.3
Figure 1. Map of the Aegean Sea. [© Baker Publishing Group]
While in Thessalonica, Paul and his companions Silvanus and Timothy worked to support themselves (1 Thess 2:5–9) and preached about the “living and true God” and the Lord Jesus, who was crucified but rose again and will return triumphant (1:9–10). Some members of the city were persuaded, and a congregation of the Thessalonians was founded. After a relatively short period of time—perhaps a few months—Paul and his companions were forced to leave (1 Thess 2:17).4 According to the book of Acts (17:5–10), they fled under cover of darkness after being accused of sedition against Caesar. The apostolic band went on to Beroea and then to Athens, but all the while Paul felt it had been too early to leave the fledgling congregation. The same people who forced Paul to leave were bound to give the converts trouble, and Paul was worried they would abandon their new faith (1 Thess 3:5). He tried repeatedly to return to support them, but without success (2:18). So, while still in Athens he decided to send Timothy back to Thessalonica in his stead (3:1–2). When Timothy returned he had good news: the Thessalonian church had endured persecution and the death of some members, but they were holding fast to the faith (3:6–9; 4:13–18). Overjoyed, Paul responded by writing a letter that later tradition would call “1 Thessalonians.”5
In the letter Paul seeks to accomplish all the things he would do in person if he could go to Thessalonica: reestablish friendships, encourage the downtrodden, exhort them to increased faithfulness in certain areas, and provide new instruction on the fate of those who die before the Lord’s return. At one point Paul breaks into a prayer that is an excellent summary of the purpose of 1 Thessalonians as a whole:
Now may God himself, our Father, and our Lord Jesus direct our way to you, and may the Lord make you increase and abound in love for one another and for all, just as we have for you, so as to strengthen your hearts, to be blameless in holiness before our God and Father at the coming of our Lord Jesus with all his holy ones. (1 Thess 3:11–13)
Directly and indirectly, this prayer touches on four of the letter’s main concerns:
1. Expression of affection. The prayer illustrates Paul’s affection for the Thessalonians and his hope to be reunited with them. With the possible exception of Philippians, no letter of Paul’s is as warm and affectionate as 1 Thessalonians. One way this is manifested is with the vivid language of family. Paul is known for addressing the members of his churches as family members (“brothers”), but 1 Thessalonians contains by far the greatest concentration of this language and the most vivid familial metaphors (see commentary on 1 Thess 2:9–12). Paul addresses them as brothers, of course, but he also describes himself as their father and as a nurse or nanny who cherishes them (2:7, 11). He compares the experience of being parted from them to being orphaned (2:17). In practical terms, Paul is helping them to see themselves as a part of a new family, something that would be a comfort in the midst of rejection by other inhabitants of their city.
2. Concern for the converts’ growth in love and holiness. Though he was pleased with their progress (1 Thess 1:8), Paul felt there were deficiencies in their faith (3:10), areas where they needed additional teaching or encouragement to help them become “blameless in holiness” (3:13). A number of issues surface in the letter, but the most important are chastity (4:2–8), self-reliance (4:9–12), and grief (4:13–18).6
3. Instruction on the return of the Lord and the resurrection of the dead. The prayer that they would be found “blameless in holiness” when the Lord comes illustrates the †eschatological focus of the letter. Paul’s missionary preaching in Thessalonica had strongly emphasized what we might call “advent” themes (see commentary on 1 Thess 4:15) regarding the necessity of being prepared for the coming of the Lord. After Paul left, it seems that one or more of the congregation died, and the new believers did not know how to fit this disturbing reality into their new faith, possibly because they had assumed they would all live to see the return of the Lord. In response, Paul offers further instruction, explaining that those who die before the Lord’s return will be at no disadvantage (4:13–18; see also 5:1–11).
4. Instruction to expect persecution. There is no explicit mention of persecution in the prayer, but the reality of opposition to the faith pervades the circumstances around the letter and stands behind Paul’s prayer to return. Persecution is what forced Paul to leave Thessalonica and is at least part of the reason why he was worried that the believers there would fall away in his absence (1 Thess 3:3). Even if there is a touch of hyperbole in the letter’s descriptions of “great affliction” (1:6) and “much struggle” (2:2), whatever was happening seems to have been serious enough to force Paul out of the city and cause him to worry that the new converts would fall away. There was no official, systematic opposition to Christianity in this period, but it is not hard to imagine why Paul’s message would have been incendiary. Paul identifies the converts as former pagans (1:9).7 By switching allegiance from the gods of their families and city, the new Christians probably seemed odd, impious, and disloyal. Family and business relationships would have been threatened. Ordinary activities like sharing a meal could become a minefield of potential conflict because meat was often sacrificed to a god before being eaten.8 According to the book of Acts, many residents of Thessalonica opposed Paul and his companions on the grounds that they were inciting revolt, acting against the decrees of Caesar, and claiming that Jesus, not Caesar, was the true king (17:6–7). Paul had no interest in armed conflict with Rome (see Rom 13:1–7), but it is possible that his teaching was perceived as seditious by those who considered activities like swearing fealty to the gods of Rome essential for a good citizen.9 While in Thessalonica Paul taught the new converts to expect persecution (see 1 Thess 3:3), and afterward he encouraged them with the reminder that in their sufferings they were becoming like Jesus (1:6). At the same time, he understood all too well that sometimes the faithful crack under pressure, so he was anxious to offer support.
Second Thessalonians
Apart from a few exceptions in the nineteenth century, Paul’s authorship of 1 Thessalonians has never been questioned.10 In contrast, many New Testament scholars have serious doubts about the authorship of 2 Thessalonians, and only about half are confident that he is the author.11 While scholars vigorously debate the issue, the faithful are often less interested in or sympathetic to questions about the authorship of biblical books. When I taught in a seminary, students tended to assume that trustworthy professors would not seriously entertain the possibility that a book of the Bible might have been written by someone other than the person traditionally thought to be the author. There are compelling reasons, however, for taking questions about authorship seriously rather than dismissing them out of hand. Most fundamentally, it is never a good idea to dismiss bona fide arguments without a fair hearing or to seek to shelter one’s opinions from critical scrutiny. Indeed, though modernity has brought an unprecedented flood of investigations into the authorship of biblical books, learned Christians have debated questions of authorship since antiquity. In what follows, I describe the two main scenarios that scholars have proposed for the authorship of 2 Thessalonians, the first making Paul the author, and the second a later admirer.12 Then I provide a brief assessment of the arguments.
Scenario 1: Paul Is the Author
A short time after sending 1 Thessalonians—perhaps a few months later—word came to Paul that the Thessalonians had fallen prey to another †eschatological delusion. Whereas they formerly worried about those who died before the †parousia—that is, the Lord’s return—they now believed that the parousia had already come and they had missed out on it (2 Thess 2:1–2). Moreover, some members of the congregation were refusing to work in defiance of Paul’s earlier instruction (3:6–15; see 1 Thess 4:9–12). On top of all this, the converts continued to experience significant persecution (2 Thess 1:4–12). In response, Paul fired off the letter that we know as 2 Thessalonians. Only three chapters long, this short epistle deals quickly with all the problems that needed to be addressed, occasionally referring the Thessalonians to what had already been taught rather than explaining everything again (2:5). Because it was written so soon after 1 Thessalonians, it contains similar language and structure.
Scenario 2: Paul Is Not the Author
A generation or more after the death of Paul, an admirer of his wished to extend the apostle’s wisdom to a new situation. Using 1 Thessalonians as a template, this admirer wrote a new letter, ostensibly addressed to the church in Thessalonica but in reality more of an encyclical intended for wide Christian readership. The author was steeped in Paul’s thought and skilled at imitating his style, but he unintentionally left behind clues that would alert later readers to the fact that Paul was not the author.13 Here are the telltale signs most often discussed.
1. Many scholars have thought that 2 Thessalonians has a cold, authoritarian tone in comparison to the warmth of 1 Thessalonians. Most notoriously, the author thanks God not because he wants to but because it is an obligation (2 Thess 1:3; 2:13).
2. Second Thessalonians uses vocabulary and sentence structures that some argue are different from Paul’s own. For instance, the sentences tend to be longer than in 1 Thessalonians.
3. The possibility of forged letters surfaces two times in 2 Thessalonians, first in 2:2, when the author warns against possible forgeries (“a letter allegedly from us”), and then in 3:17, when the author takes up the pen to offer an authenticating sign to show that he really is Paul (“This greeting is in my own hand, Paul’s. This is the sign in every letter; this is how I write”). These passages strike many scholars as the marks of someone who is trying too hard to sound authentic.
4. The two letters are often thought to contradict each other on eschatology. First Thessalonians teaches that Jesus will return at an unknown time “like a thief at night,” surprising everyone (1 Thess 5:2–3). Second Thessalonians, in contrast, lists a series of events that must take place before Jesus returns (2 Thess 2:1–12). In 1 Thessalonians the parousia is viewed as imminent and unexpected; 2 Thessalonians was written later when it had become clear that the Lord was not going to come as quickly as previously assumed, so the author pushes it off into the middle distance and claims it will be preceded by clear warnings.
5. On a number of occasions 2 Thessalonians uses the very same words as 1 Thessalonians (compare 2 Thess 3:8 with 1 Thess 2:9).14 Moreover, the letters are structured similarly, including the very unusual double thanksgiving (1 Thess 1:2; 2:13; 2 Thess 1:3; 2:13). The overlap between the two letters makes perfect sense if 2 Thessalonians was written by a later author who had a copy of 1 Thessalonians. He copied Paul’s letter to make his new letter sound authentic even while contradicting 1 Thessalonians on matters of substance.
Assessment
Which scenario is more likely? Pauline authorship is certainly possible and was held by everyone until the nineteenth century. The question is whether scenario 2 is more plausible. The argument from the difference in tone is hardly worth considering. Paul was not obliged to take the same tone in every letter, and few, if any, of the passages alleged to be cold or authoritarian would have been read that way by an ancient audience (see commentary on 2 Thess 1:3).15 The arguments from differences in vocabulary and sentence structure run the danger of being merely impressionistic if they are not backed up by rigorous analysis. Recent work in this area suggests that the vocabulary and syntax of 2 Thessalonians falls within the range of the letters commonly acknowledged to be Paul’s.16 The argument that the author is too concerned to prove his authenticity in 2:2 and 3:17 is interesting, but these passages also make good sense on the assumption of Pauline authorship (see commentary on both passages).
Regarding the allegedly contradictory eschatological teaching in the two letters, it is important to remember that one person’s contradiction is another’s complementary perspective. First Thessalonians says that the Lord will come like a thief at night; 2 Thessalonians speaks of certain events that will presage his coming. We may find these two views contradictory, but the question is whether first-century followers of Jesus would have agreed. In the synoptic Gospels, Jesus combines these two supposedly contradictory perspectives. Like 1 Thessalonians, he affirms that he will return suddenly (Mark 13:32–37; see 1 Thess 5:2–3), like a thief at night (Matt 24:43–44; see 1 Thess 5:2), and that it is necessary to remain awake to watch for his coming (Mark 13:32–37; see 1 Thess 5:4–8). In these very same passages Jesus also says that certain events must take place before he comes and that these will serve as signs that the end is near (Mark 13:3–23; see 2 Thess 2:1–12). Like 2 Thessalonians, Jesus says that these events will include tribulations for the faithful and blasphemous activity in the temple (Mark 13:9–23; see 2 Thess 1:4–2:12). In short, the combined eschatological teaching of the two Thessalonian letters is precisely what we find bundled together in the Gospels. For the early Christians, the parousia was understood as a sudden calamity—especially for unbelievers (see 1 Thess 5:3–4)—but also as something that would be preceded by certain signs known to the faithful.
The overlap in wording and structure of the two letters (number 5 above) is more difficult to explain. It would make sense for a later imitator to lift phrases from 1 Thessalonians, but it is less clear why Paul himself would do so. One suggestion is that Paul simply repeated himself.17 It would have been easy enough for Paul to repeat phrases like “brothers loved by the Lord/God” if they were still on his mind a short time after writing 1 Thessalonians (1 Thess 1:4; 2 Thess 2:13).18 It is also likely that Paul or his scribe retained copies of his letters, so it is possible that Paul would have had ongoing access to 1 Thessalonians.19
In short, while there is at least one good reason to consider the possibility of non-Pauline authorship for 2 Thessalonians, most of the arguments advanced are surprisingly weak. I would therefore concur with those who continue to maintain that Paul was the author.20 Regardless of what one makes of such arguments, however, 2 Thessalonians will remain an object of study and prayer because the Church has received it as Scripture and understands it to be “inspired by God” (2 Tim 3:16). To paraphrase something Thomas Aquinas once wrote about the so-called deuterocanonical books of the Old Testament, some may doubt who the author is, but we do not doubt what it teaches.21
This commentary follows the approach of scenario 1, sketched above. A short time after sending 1 Thessalonians, word came to Paul that some of the issues addressed in the first letter needed further attention. Three main themes appear in the second letter.
1. God’s justice. The new converts have been suffering at the hands of certain opponents, so Paul encourages them with the assurance that when Jesus returns, God will repay all people for their deeds, punishing evildoers and comforting the afflicted (2 Thess 1:5–10). Paul expects that in the judgment the Thessalonians will be found to have lived lives “worthy” of the kingdom of God, but he continues to pray that this would be the case (1:5, 11–12).
2. The day of the Lord. This remains in the future. As noted above, the Thessalonians have gone from thinking that the dead would miss out on the Lord’s return to thinking that the Lord has already returned and they missed it (2 Thess 2:1–2). In response, Paul assures them that Jesus’s return will be a glorious “manifestation” (Greek epiphaneia) they are sure not to miss, and it will be preceded by a final rebellion by Satan and those under his sway (2:3–12). In order to prevent further confusion, Paul charges the Thessalonians to hold fast to the traditions he gave them (2:15).
3. The freeloaders. When Paul was in Thessalonica, he found it necessary to emphasize the importance of work (1 Thess 4:11). Certain members of the new church seem to have been all too willing to rely on the charity of their new brothers and sisters. Upon hearing that the problem was ongoing, Paul penned his strongest statement on the matter, instructing the congregation to discipline the erring members (2 Thess 3:6–15).
The Beginning of Christian Literature
As noted above, 1 Thessalonians is often thought to be the oldest of Paul’s surviving letters, and therefore the oldest surviving Christian text. Second Thessalonians may very well be the second oldest. Paul’s Letters are the only ancient Greek letters that many modern readers have ever encountered, so it is easy to miss the ways in which they were very ordinary and the ways in which they show Paul’s creativity. Here are two short, non-Christian letters for comparison. The first was written by a son to encourage his parents, who were worried that they would be caught up in a civil war:
Esthladas to his father and mother, greetings and health. As I have often written you to be courageous and to take care of yourself until things have settled down, you would once again do well to exhort [parakaleō] yourself and those who are with you to be courageous. For I have just discovered that Paos is sailing up river in the month of Tubi with sufficient forces to subdue the mobs at Hermonthis and to deal with them as rebels. Take care of my sisters also and Pelops, Stachys and Senathuris. Farewell. [Egypt, 130 BC]22
The second example also happens to be from a son to his mother:
Apollinarius to Taesis, his mother and lady, many greetings. Before all I pray for your health. I myself am well and make supplication for you before the gods of this place. I wish you to know, mother, that I arrived in Rome in good health on the 25th of the month Pachon and was posted to Misenum, though I have not yet learned the name of my company; for I had not gone to Misenum at the time of writing this letter. I beg you then, mother, look after yourself and do not worry about me; for I have come to a fine place. Please write me a letter about your welfare and that of my brothers and of all your folk. And whenever I find a messenger I will write to you; never will I be slow to write. Many salutations to my brothers and Apollinarius and his children and Karalas and his children. I salute Ptolemaeus and Ptolemais and her children and Heraclous and her children. I salute all who love you, each by name. I pray for your health. [Rome, second century AD]23
Readers familiar with Paul’s Letters will immediately notice similarities. These letters, like Paul’s and most others, begin with “Person A to Person B, greetings.” After the greeting, many letters include a thanksgiving section in which the author reports thanking or praying to the gods on the recipient’s behalf. In the second letter quoted above, the soldier tells his mother that he makes “supplication for you before the gods of this place.” Paul’s Letters typically include a similar thanksgiving section. Like 1 and 2 Thessalonians, both of these letters attempt to comfort the recipients with news that will ease their worries. Also like the Thessalonian letters, the first letter exhorts (parakaleō) the recipients to a certain type of behavior (e.g., 1 Thess 4:1).24 Finally, letters often conclude with greetings from those who are present with the author, as well as to those present with the recipient. We see such greetings in the second letter above and often in Paul’s Letters (e.g., Phil 4:21–22).25
What would have stood out to the Thessalonians is the way Paul tinkered with letter-writing conventions. In the opening of the letter he changes the word “greetings” (chairein) to the related noun charis (“grace” or “gift”) and adds the traditional Jewish greeting “peace” (Greek eirēnē), from the Hebrew shalom. The Pauline greeting “grace and peace” also appears in various forms at the conclusions of his letters, replacing the typical “farewell.” The result is a subtle reminder at the beginning and end of his letters of God’s generosity, a key motif in his thought. Paul’s Letters are also unusual because he writes as part of a team, including Silvanus and Timothy in the opening introduction and frequently speaking in the first-person plural (“we”). Moreover, unlike most letters, these were written to be read aloud to a gathered assembly (1 Thess 5:27). Finally, the length and complexity of Paul’s Letters along with the authority with which he speaks in them give his letters unusual gravitas. It has been suggested that all these factors came together to form a new epistolary genre, the apostolic letter.26 With the benefit of hindsight, we can certainly say that 1 Thessalonians kicked off a tradition of Christian letter writing that continued in later New Testament books and the Church Fathers.27
The Thessalonian Letters in the Church
First Thessalonians has always belonged in the context of worship, beginning with Paul’s command that the letter be read out loud to the gathered church (5:27). After the Thessalonians heard the letter, it is likely that they retained a copy for future reference. Paul and his coworkers may have also kept copies of these and other letters.28 As the years went by, the Thessalonians may have traded copies of Paul’s Letters with other churches, as the churches in Colossae and Laodicea were instructed to do (Col 4:16).29 We don’t have any direct evidence of how 1 and 2 Thessalonians were used in the remaining decades of the first century, but from around AD 100 we find Christian writers using phrases that seem to have been gleaned from them, either directly or through the language of the letters passing into common Christian parlance.30 For instance, the late first-century letter 1 Clement describes how a bishop should act in a “blameless and holy way” (amemptōs kai hosiōs [44.4]), which is very similar to the description of the apostles in 1 Thess 2:10.31 St. Polycarp, a bishop of Smyrna until his martyrdom in the mid-second century, wrote a letter to the church in Philippi asking them to “shun every kind of evil” (To the Philippians 11.1; see 1 Thess 5:22) and not to treat erring Christians as enemies (To the Philippians 11.4; see 2 Thess 3:15). Justin Martyr and Irenaeus of Lyon both discuss the coming of the lawless one (see 2 Thess 2:3–9), and Irenaeus is clearly well acquainted with 1 and 2 Thessalonians.32 The oldest surviving collection of Paul’s Letters, which dates roughly to around 200, includes 1 Thessalonians and probably 2 Thessalonians as well.33 Both letters appear on all the earliest lists of the New Testament canon.34
The earliest and best commentary on the Thessalonian letters is that of St. John Chrysostom (d. 407). This commentary is actually a series of homilies, but Chrysostom lingers over Paul’s every word and expects the listening congregation to do the same.35 Chrysostom revered Paul for his pastoral wisdom, and this makes his homilies on the Thessalonian letters particularly good. Unlike some of Paul’s other letters, 1–2 Thessalonians do not attempt a great deal of theological heavy lifting. They are primarily letters of consolation and moral exhortation, both of which Chrysostom delights in bringing to his congregation. In the years and centuries to follow, commentators on the Thessalonian letters such as Theodoret of Cyrus (d. ca. 457) and John Damascene (seventh–eighth century) owed much to Chrysostom’s homilies. The present commentary turns to Chrysostom for help time and again.
From late antiquity into the medieval period, readers read 1–2 Thessalonians for pastoral wisdom. In 1564, the Catechism of the Council of Trent cited the description of the apostles’ behavior (1 Thess 2:1–12) as a template for how parish priests should behave. The Thessalonian letters have also been an important source of instruction on the obligation of Christians to work rather than relying on others (see especially 1 Thess 4:9–12 and 2 Thess 3:6–15). In the ancient Church these passages were important for monks who taught one another that loafing and taking handouts would be their spiritual doom. Above all, 1–2 Thessalonians have been read in the Church as advent letters; that is, they speak of the future coming of the Lord. Paul’s prayers that God would find the Church worthy at the last judgment are echoed in various Church liturgies from the ancient Church to today (see Reflection and Application on 2 Thess 1:11–12). Late ancient and medieval Christians pored over Paul’s description of the lawless one (2 Thess 2:3), debating whether this would be a particular individual, perhaps someone already alive, or whether this was a description of anyone who opposes God. The best-known and best-loved passage in these letters is 1 Thess 4:13–18, where Paul comforts the Thessalonians with the news that the dead in Christ are not lost but rather will be raised and reunited with the Lord and with the living.
1. For a recent attempt to figure out the order in which Paul’s Letters were written, see Douglas A. Campbell, Framing Paul: An Epistolary Biography (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2014). Campbell dates 1 Thessalonians to the early 40s, almost a decade earlier than most scholars.
2. Cassander named the city after his wife, Thessalonikē, who was Alexander the Great’s half-sister. See Strabo, Geography 7.21.
3. The work of Charles Edson is still helpful. See “Cults of Thessalonica,” HTR 41 (1948): 153–204.
4. Acts 17:2 could imply that Paul was in Thessalonica for only two or three weeks, but Paul was in Thessalonica long enough to receive assistance from Philippi more than once (Phil 4:16).
5. Many today suppose on the basis of Acts 18:5 that Timothy rejoined Paul in Corinth and that Paul wrote 1 Thessalonians from there. Conversely, some ancient manuscripts of 1 Thessalonians label it as having been written in Athens, a view that is based on a plausible interpretation of 1 Thess 3:1–6. Either city is a possibility.
6. For other issues related to love of neighbor, see 1 Thess 5:12–15.
7. Acts 17:1–4 mentions that some Jews in Thessalonica were persuaded by Paul’s message, but the letter’s recipients are explicitly described as former idol worshipers. Nijay K. Gupta has argued that these former idol worshipers could include “God-fearers” (“The Thessalonian Believers, Formerly ‘Pagans’ or ‘God-Fearers’? Challenging a Stubborn Consensus,” Neotestamentica 52 [2018]: 91–113).
8. See, e.g., 1 Cor 8; 10.
9. Karl P. Donfried, “The Cults of Thessalonica and the Thessalonian Correspondence,” NTS 31 (1985): 336–56. On Acts 17, see C. Kavin Rowe, World Upside Down: Reading Acts in the Graeco-Roman Age (New York: Oxford University Press, 2010), 91–103.
10. Some argue that 1 Thess 2:13–16 was added by a later editor. See commentary on that passage.
11. Based on Paul Foster’s informal survey at the 2011 British New Testament Conference. See Foster, “Who Wrote 2 Thessalonians? A Fresh Look at an Old Problem,” JSNT 35 (2012): 150–75, esp. 171.
12. For a full-length defense of the non-Pauline origin of 2 Thessalonians, including possible scenarios not discussed here, see, e.g., M. Eugene Boring, I & II Thessalonians, NTL (Louisville: Westminster John Knox, 2015), 209–27. For a full defense of Pauline authorship, see, e.g., Abraham J. Malherbe, The Letters to the Thessalonians: A New Translation with Introduction and Commentary, AB 32B (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2000), 349–74.
13. Biblical commentators have often claimed that writing in the name of others was seen as morally unproblematic, but recent studies have rightly challenged this. See, most recently, Armin D. Baum, “Content and Form: Authorship Attribution and Pseudonymity in Ancient Speeches, Letters, Lectures, and Translations—A Rejoinder to Bart Ehrman,” JBL 136 (2017): 381–403.
14. See the table in Béda Rigaux, Saint Paul: Les Épitres aux Thessaloniciens, EBib (Paris: Lecoffre, 1956), 133–34.
15. In 1983 I. Howard Marshall noted the flimsiness of this argument; see 1 and 2 Thessalonians, NCBC (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1983), 34.
16. See the summary in Campbell, Framing Paul, 205–16.
17. Rigaux, Les Épitres aux Thessaloniciens, 152.
18. Malherbe, Letters to the Thessalonians, 357.
19. Campbell, Framing Paul, 201–2.
20. In the commentary I note occasionally how certain passages would be understood differently if the letter had been written by someone else.
21. See Thomas Aquinas, Principium biblicum 2.1204.
22. P.Dryton 36. Translation from Stanley K. Stowers, Letter Writing in Greco-Roman Antiquity, LEC 5 (Philadelphia: Westminster, 1986), 97–98.
23. P.Mich. 8 491 (A. S. Hunt and C. C. Edgar, trans., Select Papyri, vol. 1, Private Documents, Loeb Classical Library 266 [Cambridge, MA: Cambridge University Press, 1932], 303).
24. Stowers (Letter Writing in Greco-Roman Antiquity, 96–97) gives this letter and 1 Thessalonians as examples of paraenetic letters—that is, letters written to commend certain types of behavior and to discourage others.
25. For a list of epistolary clichés running throughout 1 Thessalonians, see Malherbe, Letters to the Thessalonians, 90.
26. Boring, I & II Thessalonians, 38.
27. See, e.g., 1 Clement.
28. Harry Y. Gamble, Books and Readers in the Early Church: A History of Early Christian Texts (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1995), 96–101.
29. Gamble, Books and Readers in the Early Church, 96–101.
30. See Rigaux, Les Épitres aux Thessaloniciens, 112–20.
31. The words amemptōs and hosiōs never appear together in Greek literature until 1 Thess 2:10 and then 1 Clement, according to the Thesaurus Linguae Graecae database.
32. Justin Martyr, Dialogue with Trypho 32.4; Irenaeus, Against Heresies 3.6.5.
33. Chester Beatty Papyrus 46. Not all of Papyrus 46 has survived, but it would have had room for 2 Thessalonians.
34. Both 1 Thessalonians and 2 Thessalonians are missing from the list given in the sixth-century codex Claromontanus, but this is usually thought to be accidental.
35. It is not clear if these homilies were preached in Antioch or Constantinople, nor is it clear that they were preached sequentially. See Pauline Allen, “John Chrysostom’s Homilies on I and II Thessalonians: The Preacher and His Audience,” StPatr 31 (1997): 3–21.