JOSHUA—NOTE ON 1:1–5:15 Crossing into the Land. The Lord speaks first in the book of Joshua. His first initiative is to pass the mantle of leadership from Moses to Joshua, who has been groomed for this very task (see Deut. 31:1–8). Joshua is to lead the people to their inheritance in the Land of Promise, but first barriers must be crossed and relationships restored.
JOSHUA—NOTE ON 1:1–18 Joshua’s Charge. The first chapter of Joshua divides into three sections and consists largely of speeches. The first section (vv. 1–9) contains the Lord’s words to Joshua, charging him to assume the leadership position opened up by Moses’ death. The second section (vv. 10–15) recounts Joshua’s initial response, charging the “officers of the people” and the Transjordanian tribes to prepare to cross the Jordan into Canaan. The final section records the people’s resolve to follow Joshua as they had followed Moses (vv. 16–18).
JOSHUA—NOTE ON 1:1 After the death of Moses. While beginning a book with a death notice may strike a modern reader as odd, this notice effectively links the book of Joshua to the preceding “five books of Moses” (the Pentateuch), the last of which ends with a description of Moses’ death (Deuteronomy 34). In similar fashion, the book of Joshua will end and the book of Judges will begin with references to the death of Joshua (Josh. 24:29; Judg. 1:1; 2:8). These notices link the books together in a continuous chain and suggest the continuity of the Lord’s dealing with his people Israel through key leaders. Moreover, just as Moses is called the servant of the LORD here (also Josh. 1:7, 13, 15; 8:31, 33; 11:12; 12:6; 13:8; 14:7; 18:7; 22:2, 4, 5) and in the record of his death (Deut. 34:5), Joshua will receive the same title of honor at the end of his life (Josh. 24:29; Judg. 2:8). That the son of Nun was an Ephraimite is clear from Num. 13:8, but little else is known of Nun. Joshua himself is mentioned some 30 times in the Pentateuch, three times under his original name Hoshea (“salvation”) and the remainder under the name Joshua (“Yahweh saves”), given him by Moses in Num. 13:16. His first appearance is as a military commander, fighting the malevolent Amalekites shortly after Israel’s exodus from Egypt while Moses sat atop a nearby hill with his hands lifted toward heaven (Ex. 17:8–13). The Amalekite battle not only tested Joshua’s military mettle but also underscored a fundamental principle with respect to Israel’s wars—namely, that the battle is the Lord’s (cf. 1 Sam. 17:47).
That the Lord should explicitly instruct Moses to record the Amalekite battle in a book and “recite it in the ears of Joshua” (Ex. 17:14) anticipates Joshua’s future importance. As Moses’ assistant, Joshua accompanied him at least partway up Mount Sinai (Ex. 24:13; 32:17), and he also assisted Moses at the tent of meeting, where the Lord would “speak to Moses face to face” (Ex. 33:11). Joshua was among the 12 men sent to explore the land of Canaan (Num. 13:8). He alone joined Caleb in exhorting the people to trust God for victory (Num. 14:6–9)—an act of faith for which only he and Caleb, among their generation, were allowed to enter the Promised Land. More than a mere assistant, Joshua was prepared by these and other experiences to become Moses’ successor. Near the time of his death, when Moses requested that a successor be appointed, the Lord instructed him to commission Joshua the son of Nun, “a man in whom is the Spirit,” before “all the congregation” (Num. 27:18–19). Joshua was to be the one to lead Israel into the Promised Land (Deut. 1:38; 3:28; 31:23) and to apportion it among the tribes (Num. 34:17). As the book of Joshua opens, Moses has died and the time has finally come for Joshua—“full of the spirit of wisdom, for Moses had laid his hands on him” (Deut. 34:9)—to take the lead.
JOSHUA—NOTE ON 1:2 the land that I am giving to them. The “patriarchal promise,” first uttered to Abraham (Gen. 12:1–3), entailed three key elements: progeny (Abraham’s descendants would become a great nation), blessing (Abraham’s descendants would enjoy the blessings of living in covenant relationship with Yahweh—and were in turn to be a blessing to the nations), and land (Gen. 12:1, 5–7; 15:18). The Pentateuch ends with the first two elements beginning to be realized, but with Abraham’s descendants still on the plains of Moab, east of the Jordan River, outside the Land of Promise (Num. 22:1; Deut. 34:8). The dominant theme of the book of Joshua is the Lord’s faithfulness in fulfilling all his “good promises” (Josh. 21:45), especially the third element—the promise of land, which he “swore to their fathers to give them” (1:6; 21:43). Scores of references to the Lord giving the land appear throughout the book, eight in ch. 1 alone.
JOSHUA—NOTE ON 1:3 Every place that the sole of your foot will tread upon I have given to you. The fact that the Lord is sovereignly giving Israel the land does not negate their responsibility to step out in faith and take what is given (cf. vv. 9, 18).
JOSHUA—NOTE ON 1:4 The Land of Promise is to stretch from the wilderness in the south to Lebanon in the north, and from the river Euphrates in the (north) east to the Great Sea (the Mediterranean) in the west. This broad-brush description recalls Num. 34:1–12, where the Lord provides Moses a more detailed delineation of the boundaries of Israel’s “inheritance” in the land of Canaan (see map; cf. also Gen. 10:19; 15:18; Num. 13:17–22; Deut. 1:7).
JOSHUA—NOTE ON 1:5–9 Three times the Lord charges Joshua to be strong and courageous, words reminiscent of Joshua’s earlier commissioning under Moses (see Deut. 31:6–8, 23). Joshua will need strength and courage to accept his task (you shall cause this people to inherit the land; Josh. 1:6); to obey the Torah (Book of the Law [v. 8]; most likely this would have included at least the book of Deuteronomy or portions thereof [see Deut. 31:26, “this law”]); and to resist being terrified (do not be frightened, and do not be dismayed; Josh. 1:9). Most difficult of all will be the middle responsibility—namely, to make the Lord’s instructions (Hb. Torah) integral to who he is and what he does (v. 8a), meditating on them constantly so as to do them (v. 8b). Thus the middle exhortation is made emphatic by the addition of two small words: “only be strong and very courageous.” Given Joshua’s leadership responsibilities, this charge to be strong and courageous would be daunting were it not for the framing promises: I will be with you. I will not leave you or forsake you (v. 5); and the LORD your God is with you wherever you go (v. 9). Fortified by these assurances of the Lord’s abiding presence, Joshua is empowered to receive his commission with courage. The Hebrew terminology used in these assurances has nothing to do with worldly wealth or worldly success, but has everything to do with accomplishing one’s mission and acting with keen insight in any circumstance that presents itself. Only when one fails to “ask counsel from the LORD” (9:14) is such insight lacking.
JOSHUA—NOTE ON 1:12 For Moses’ instructions to the Reubenites, the Gadites, and the half-tribe of Manasseh, see Num. 32:6–7, 16–18, 28; Deut. 3:18–20. “All Israel” was to be involved in the conquest.
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| “Table of Contents” Item: | Corresponds To: |
|---|---|
| “arise, go over this Jordan … into the land that I am giving … to the people of Israel” (1:2–5) | Israel conquers Canaan (1:10–12:24) |
| “you shall cause this people to inherit the land” (1:6) | Israel’s inheritance distributed (chs. 13–21) |
| “be strong and very courageous, being careful to do according to all the law …” (1:7–9) | Covenant renewal (chs. 22–24) |
JOSHUA—NOTE ON 1:13 Like the OT notion of shalom (“peace, well-being”), rest (Hb. nuakh) suggests freedom from threat, the enjoyment of one’s inheritance, security within the borders of the land, and a state of all-around well-being. Rest is typically preceded by work, as in the creation account (Gen. 2:2–3) or in the celebration of the Sabbath (Ex. 20:8–11; Deut. 5:12–15), or even by warfare (Josh. 21:44; 23:1). The author of Hebrews weaves these OT threads together in expectation of a present spiritual and future rest (Hebrews 4) and urges his readers to “strive to enter that rest” (Heb. 4:11).
JOSHUA—NOTE ON 1:14 Your wives … shall remain in the land. Only the men were expected to participate in combat (cf. note on Jer. 50:37).
JOSHUA—NOTE ON 1:17 as we obeyed Moses … so we will obey you. In the ancient Near East, a change of leadership would typically involve a pledge of loyalty to the new leader.
JOSHUA—NOTE ON 2:1–24 Joshua, the Spies, and Rahab. In ch. 1, Joshua received his charge. In ch. 2, he begins to “take charge.” The adventures of the spies provide the central thread around which the chapter is woven. But at least as important is the story of Rahab’s escape from the coming judgment.
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Joshua prepared to enter Canaan by sending two spies from Shittim to scout out the land and the city of Jericho. The spies spent the first night in Jericho at the house of Rahab the prostitute, who hid the men and sent away the soldiers sent by the king of Jericho to capture them. After traveling deeper into the hills and hiding for three days, the spies headed back across the Jordan River to report to Joshua at Shittim.
JOSHUA—NOTE ON 2:1 Joshua … sent two men … as spies. The sending of the two spies, to gather intelligence about the hostile territory, underscores Joshua’s skill as a leader and his concern for prudent preparation. In the wider context, the story of the initial conquest and defeat of Jericho stands in stark contrast to the narrative describing Israel’s failure to take possession of the land 40 years earlier (see Numbers 13–14 and Deuteronomy 1). It also shows the stark contrast between the bad report of the 10 spies (Num. 13:25–33) as compared to the good report of the two spies (“Truly the LORD has given all the land into our hands,” Josh. 2:24). Shittim, which means “the Acacia trees,” was east of the Jordan River, though its exact location is unknown. Two potential sites have been proposed: Tell el-Kefrein, 6 miles (9.7 km) northeast of the Dead Sea, and the much larger Tell el-Hamman, 2 miles (3.2 km) farther east of the Jordan. Shittim was the site of an earlier instance of Israelite prostitution, both physical and spiritual (Num. 25:1–3). into the house of a prostitute. The narrative carefully avoids any suggestion of a sexual relation between the spies and Rahab. The house most likely was a kind of inn or way station, which would be a logical place to stay and to gather information. Although a prostitute, Rahab was spared judgment by the mercy of God, and she is remembered as one of the ancestors of Christ (Matt. 1:5), for her faith (Heb. 11:31) and for her good works (James 2:25).
JOSHUA—NOTE ON 2:2 it was told to the king of Jericho. The spies’ intent to remain “undercover” was singularly unsuccessful! Canaan at that time consisted of various city-states, each with a central (often walled) city surrounded by villages and farmland and each with its own “king.”
JOSHUA—NOTE ON 2:4 I did not know. Rahab’s deceptive response has been alternatively condemned as a lie or defended as justified in the context of (impending) warfare. The narrative, in fact, does not address this ethical issue, and the NT, while commending Rahab for protecting the spies, offers no explicit comment regarding her methods (Heb. 11:31; James 2:25). Similar instances of “deception” are found in Ex. 1:15–21; 1 Sam. 16:2; 1 Kings 22:19–23. Given that this is a descriptive narrative, rather than prescriptive instruction, no general ethical principles can be drawn from her actions. It is also possible, however, to say that Rahab’s profession of faith (see Josh. 2:9–14) implies her new allegiance to the Lord and to his people. Thus she helps them in their warfare, and she expresses her new allegiance by protecting the spies with a ruse. (Cf. 8:5–8, where Joshua uses a ruse to win a battle.) Rahab is one of four women mentioned in the genealogy of Jesus in the first chapter of Matthew; the other three are Tamar (Matt. 1:3), Ruth the Moabitess (Matt. 1:5), and the “wife of Uriah” (Matt. 1:6).
JOSHUA—NOTE ON 2:6 Flax is the plant from which linen is made by a process of alternately drying and soaking the flax fibers. The flat rooftops of houses were convenient places for drying the stalks.
JOSHUA—NOTE ON 2:7 The Jordan River forms a large natural boundary between Transjordan on the east and Cisjordan on the west. As it lacked any bridges in antiquity, the Jordan was generally impassable except by swimming, or it could be waded at shallow areas (or fords) under appropriate water conditions. Between the Sea of Galilee in the north and the Dead Sea in the south, there were few places where the Jordan could be crossed. One such place, however, was near Jericho (on Jericho, see note on 6:1–2), and the king’s men probably hoped to cut off the fleeing spies at that crossing point. (See map.)
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After crossing the Jordan River and entering Canaan, the Israelites set up camp at Gilgal. From there they continued to move westward, first destroying the imposing city of Jericho and then defeating the smaller town of Ai. Later the Gibeonites (also called Hivites) deceived the Israelites into signing a peace treaty with them.
JOSHUA—NOTE ON 2:9 I know that the LORD has given you the land. Rahab shows a remarkable awareness of Israel’s history and of the Lord’s intention to give Israel the land of Canaan (cf. 1:2). Her confession is filled with the language and theology of the Pentateuch, especially Deuteronomy, and echoes Josh. 1:2. The narration itself does not clarify whether her confession implies spiritual conversion or simply recognition of the supreme power of Israel’s God, but her later integration into Israel (6:17, 25) favors a genuine conversion.
JOSHUA—NOTE ON 2:10 In Genesis 15 the Lord promised Abraham that his descendants would one day inherit the land of Canaan, but not until the iniquity of the Amorites was full. Outside the Bible the Amorites are referred to as Martu (Sumerian for “westerner”) and Amurru (Akkadian). They are attested as early as the beginning of the third millennium B.C. Migrating westward and southward into Canaan, they were at their strongest in the middle of the second millennium B.C. and faded quickly thereafter. In biblical parlance, the term “Amorite” is variously used to connote the inhabitants of Canaan generally, and the inhabitants of the hill country specifically. Sihon and Og are not mentioned outside the Bible (see Numbers 21; Deuteronomy 3).
JOSHUA—NOTE ON 2:11 as soon as we heard … our hearts melted.. Cf. Ex. 15:14–15. On Rahab’s apparent faith here, see note on Josh. 2:9.
JOSHUA—NOTE ON 2:12–14 we will deal kindly and faithfully with you. The response of the spies (v. 14) comes as a surprise, given that Israel was to dispossess and destroy the inhabitants of the land God had promised to Israel (see Num. 33:50–52; Deut. 7:1–2). This underscores the gracious character of the God of Israel and the fact that the boundary between Israel and Canaan was not drawn along ethnic lines but in terms of allegiance to the Lord. It also shows that there was room for exceptions in the general instruction to destroy the Canaanites, for people who came to genuine faith in the God of Israel.
JOSHUA—NOTE ON 2:15 her house was built into the city wall. This interesting architectural note explains how Rahab lowered the spies through a window to the outside of the city. Archaeological exploration at the site of Jericho (for more, see note on 6:5) suggests that the city probably enjoyed a double wall structure, with houses particularly of poorer individuals built between the inner and outer wall. Those houses abutting the outer wall may well have had a window in the wall.
JOSHUA—NOTE ON 2:18 scarlet cord. The instructions that Rahab should gather and retain her entire family in her house recall the procedure prescribed at the time of the first Passover (Ex. 12:22 and context). The cord’s color would enable it to stand out clearly against the wall.
JOSHUA—NOTE ON 2:24 The spies’ report echoes what Rahab herself said (v. 9).
JOSHUA—NOTE ON 3:1–4:24 Crossing the Jordan. Chapters 3 and 4 form a unit, bound together by the common theme of the Jordan crossing (see map). The Hebrew verb meaning “cross (over)” (Hb. ‘abar) occurs more than 20 times in these chapters alone (more than a third of the total occurrences in the book of Joshua). References to God exalting Joshua (3:7; 4:14) also indicate that the chapters are to be read together. The apparently repetitive layout of this material relates to the literary structure: the crossing and its commemoration with memorial stones are first anticipated briefly and then described from various angles, in much the same way that a film director sometimes repeats a significant event first from one angle, then from another. In a historical narrative, even simultaneous events must be described sequentially. The actual historical sequence would have involved (1) the blockage and crossing of the Jordan and then (2) the setting up of memorial stones, taken from the river bed, at Gilgal.
JOSHUA—NOTE ON 3:1 Shittim. See note on 2:1.
JOSHUA—NOTE ON 3:2 three days. In 1:11, the officers alerted the people that they would cross over the Jordan “within three days.” Now at the end of three days, the officers appear to give more specific instructions. But how does this sequence fit with the fact that the spies who were sent out in ch. 2 found it necessary to hide in the hills for “three days” (2:22) before returning to Joshua (2:24)? One possible solution is that the three-day periods mentioned in 1:11 and 3:2 are distinct, in which case the crossing of the Jordan would have taken place on the seventh day. Another solution is that Joshua had sent the spies prior to his words in 1:11 (see esv footnote on 2:1, “had sent”).
JOSHUA—NOTE ON 3:3 On the construction of the ark of the covenant and its significance as symbolizing and mediating the Lord’s presence, see Ex. 25:10–22. When not accompanying the Israelites into battle or preceding them through the Jordan, the ark was normally kept in the Most Holy Place of the tabernacle (later the temple). As passages such as 1 Samuel 4–6 and 2 Samuel 6 dramatically demonstrate, the ark was not a magical object and was not to be trifled with.
JOSHUA—NOTE ON 3:4 Two thousand cubits is just over half a mile (0.8 km). The explicitly stated reason that the Israelites were to maintain this distance between themselves and the ark is in order that you may know the way you shall go. From a distance of half a mile, more people would have been able to see the ark and thus follow its path. The sacrosanct nature of the ark may also have prompted this safe distance, but this is not stated.
JOSHUA—NOTE ON 3:5 Consecrate yourselves. Compare the Lord’s instructions through Moses at Mount Sinai (Ex. 19:10–15). Sanctifying, or “separating,” oneself included washing one’s clothes and temporarily abstaining from sexual relations (Ex. 19:14–15). The notice that the Lord is about to perform wonders (anticipated in Ex. 34:10–11) among the people further underscores Joshua’s role as Moses’ successor. The plagues visited on the Egyptians at the time of the exodus under Moses’ leadership were described as “wonders” (Ex. 3:20).
JOSHUA—NOTE ON 3:7 Today I will begin to exalt you. Through Joshua’s leading the people safely through the Jordan River, the Lord exalts Joshua so that the people “stood in awe of him just as they had stood in awe of Moses” (4:14).
JOSHUA—NOTE ON 3:10–11 God will drive out the seven peoples listed (described in Deut. 7:1 as “seven nations more numerous and mightier than you”; several of these nations are attested in sources outside the Bible). God’s presence with his people is also seen in the expression translated the ark of the covenant of the Lord of all the earth. The literal Hebrew (see esv footnote) strongly connects the Lord to his ark (cf. Josh. 3:13).
JOSHUA—NOTE ON 3:12 take twelve men. Anticipating the Lord’s instructions in 4:2, this notice alerts the reader that the 12 chosen men will likely have an important role to play as events unfold.
JOSHUA—NOTE ON 3:15 At the appropriate dramatic moment, the biblical narrator notifies the reader that the Jordan overflows all its banks—caused by spring rains and snowmelt from the Mount Hermon region and the Jordan’s headwaters—throughout the time of harvest, the grain harvest of March–April. The Jordan’s swollen waters would have been considerably more daunting than the river at its normal 3- to 10-foot (0.9- to 3.0-m) depth and 90- to 100-foot (27- to 31-m) width. Crossing such water would be no less miraculous than crossing the Red Sea (see 4:23).
JOSHUA—NOTE ON 3:16 “Heap” is the same term used in the poetic celebrations of the miraculous crossing of the Red Sea (Ex. 15:8; Ps. 78:13; cf. “dry ground” in Josh. 3:17 with Ex. 14:21). It is particularly appropriate in the present passage, which adds the detail that the “heap” of water was very far away, at Adam. This apparently means that the water was stopped as far upriver as Adam, identified with modern Damiya, east of the Jordan and just south of the confluence with the Jabbok River (about 18 miles [29 km] north of the fords of the Jordan). It is a place where mudslides have occasionally completely blocked the Jordan’s southward flow, most recently in 1927 for some 20 hours. When the text says that the waters coming down from above stood and rose up in a heap, the implication is a supernatural act: either the waters stopped with no visible physical obstruction holding them back, or else a mudslide blocked the river, supernaturally timed to coincide with the priests’ dipping their feet in the brink of the water (Josh. 3:15).
JOSHUA—NOTE ON 3:17 all Israel … the nation. Apart from anticipations such as Ex. 19:6, “you shall be to me a kingdom of priests and a holy nation,” and the promise to Abram that God would make him “a great nation” (Gen. 12:2), Israel is not called a “nation” until now. In Egypt and in the wilderness, Israel was a “people”; now, with their having entered the Promised Land, the term “nation” begins to apply.
JOSHUA—NOTE ON 4:2 The Lord’s instruction that Joshua should take twelve men … from each tribe a man was apparently already anticipated by Joshua in 3:12 (cf. 4:4, “the twelve men … whom he had appointed”). Each of the 12 tribes is represented, which signifies the importance of the Jordan crossing for all Israel.
JOSHUA—NOTE ON 4:9 Joshua set up twelve stones in the midst of the Jordan. Commentators are divided over whether or not this represents a second group of stones in addition to those set up in Gilgal (vv. 8, 20). A face-value reading of the Hebrew text could suggest a second memorial, but the larger context suggests only one set of stones. Further, some read the Hebrew to the effect that Joshua had already set up 12 stones in the midst of the Jordan. to this day. The first occurrence of a phrase that appears frequently in the book of Joshua. The “day” in question is the day either of the biblical narrator or of his source materials (cf. 2 Chron. 5:9).
JOSHUA—NOTE ON 4:13 plains of Jericho. The troops passed over a broad plain between Jericho and the Jordan River, some 5 miles (8 km) east of Jericho.
JOSHUA—NOTE ON 4:14 exalted. Cf. 3:7.
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| Transjordan tribes assent to Joshua with same response as to Moses at Sinai. | 1:12–18 |
| “The LORD said to Joshua, ‘Today I will begin to exalt you in the sight of all Israel, that they may know that, as I was with Moses, so I will be with you.’” | 3:7 |
| The promise of 3:7 is fulfilled dramatically at the crossing of the Jordan River. | 4:14 |
| Joshua’s encounter with the “commander of the LORD’s army” was like Moses’ encounter at the burning bush. | 5:13–15 |
| The Lord was with Joshua, and his fame spread throughout the land. | 6:27 |
| Joshua’s obedience brings victory in battle. | 11:15 |
| “Joshua took the whole land.” | 11:23 |
JOSHUA—NOTE ON 4:19 tenth day of the first month. See note on 5:10. Gilgal is described as lying on the east border of Jericho, thus in its near vicinity. Several site identifications have been considered, but none is yet certain.
JOSHUA—NOTE ON 4:20 The twelve stones that Joshua set up at Gilgal represent the first of seven stone memorials described in Joshua (see also 7:26; 8:28–29; 8:32; 10:27; 22:34; 24:26–27). See chart. This first one is a reminder of God’s faithfulness in bringing Israel safely across the Jordan into the Promised Land.
JOSHUA—NOTE ON 4:21–23 The narrator so tells the account as to echo Israel’s crossing of the Red Sea: the God who led Israel out of Egypt has brought them into Canaan and will fulfill his purpose through them (cf. Gen. 12:3). Psalm 114:3 brings together the crossings of the Red Sea and the Jordan.
JOSHUA—NOTE ON 4:24 The dramatic manner in which the Lord brought Israel into the land was intended to alert the peoples of the earth to the fact that the hand of the LORD is mighty and to engender true devotion—which is what fear of the LORD connotes—in the hearts of God’s people forever, that is, through all the generations that would hear of the river passage.
JOSHUA—NOTE ON 5:1–15 Ritual Renewal and Divine Encounter. With Israel now finally in the Land of Promise, after so many years of living in the desert, the urge to begin the conquest must have been powerful. But Joshua 5 underscores matters of even greater importance. The reinstitution of the covenant sign of circumcision (vv. 2–9) and the celebration of Passover (vv. 10–12) remind God’s people of their privileged covenant relationship with him (signified by circumcision) and of their redemption out of bondage by him (signified by the Passover). These two fundamentally important rites are paralleled in the NT by baptism (the sign of covenant relationship; Col. 2:11–12) and the Lord’s Supper (celebration of redemption from the bondage of sin through the sacrificial death of the Lamb of God; Matt. 26:18–19). Observing circumcision and the Passover at this occasion requires that Israel act by faith: both to trust God for protection while they are vulnerable (Josh. 5:8) and to commit themselves afresh to basing their life in the land on their identity as God’s people (i.e., not simply as a political entity). Fittingly, an encounter with the “commander of the army of the LORD” reminds Joshua of his reliance on the Lord (vv. 13–15) and, with its militaristic overtones, anticipates the commencement of the conquest in ch. 6.
JOSHUA—NOTE ON 5:1 Even before Israel did anything to take the land, the Lord went before and demoralized the enemy so that there was no longer any spirit in them. This verse is transitional: (1) it completes the account of the Jordan crossing by noting its effects on those whom the Lord would drive out of the land, and (2) it explains how it is possible for Israel to exist unopposed in enemy territory long enough for the events of ch. 5 to take place.
JOSHUA—NOTE ON 5:2 Make flint knives … circumcise … a second time. Circumcision was widely practiced in the ancient Near East (see Jer. 9:25–26) but not universally. The Philistines were not circumcised (1 Sam. 14:6), nor, apparently, were some inhabitants of Canaan (Gen. 34:14). Unlike its significance in Egypt, for instance, where circumcision marked a rite of passage, in Israel circumcision was a sign of the covenant instituted by Yahweh in Gen. 17:10–14 and was to be administered to all males when they were eight days old. The need to circumcise the Israelite men under Joshua’s command a second time is explained in Josh. 5:4–5, 7. The use of flint knives, even in a time period when metal instruments had been developed, may attest to the antiquity of the practice (cf. Ex. 4:25), or it may have to do with the need for many instruments at one time. Flint, or obsidian, was readily available and was particularly well suited. An Egyptian text, dated to the twenty-third century B.C., speaks of 120 young men being circumcised at one time. The inscription on a similarly dated Egyptian tomb relief depicting circumcision indicates that flint knives were used.
JOSHUA—NOTE ON 5:6 land flowing with milk and honey. A land particularly suited to agrarian existence, Israel’s new home would flow with milk (from goatherding) and honey (perhaps, in addition to naturally occurring bee’s honey, also the syrup derived from boiling down figs or grapes). See Ex. 3:17; 13:5; Lev. 20:24; Num. 13:27; Deut. 6:3.
JOSHUA—NOTE ON 5:9 The name Gilgal sounds similar to a Hebrew verb meaning “to roll” (Hb. galal) and a noun meaning “wheel” (Hb. galgal), and thus is aptly associated with the Lord having rolled away the reproach of Egypt. The “reproach” may have been the aspersions the Egyptians would have cast on Israel had the Lord not succeeded in bringing them into the land (Ex. 32:12; Num. 14:13–16; Deut. 9:28), or it may refer to the reproach represented in the disobedient generation that has now died (see Josh. 5:4–6).
JOSHUA—NOTE ON 5:10 For the institution of the Passover, which celebrated Israel’s deliverance from the judgment that befell the Egyptians, see Exodus 12; on the timing of the Passover, see Ex. 12:18; Lev. 23:5; etc. Preparation for the first Passover meal, shortly before Israel’s departure from Egypt, took place according to Ex. 12:3 on the tenth day of the first month (Abib or Nisan, overlapping with modern March/April). The notice in Josh. 4:19 that “the people came up out of the Jordan on the tenth day of the first month” suggests a parallel; the transition from wandering in the wilderness to arrival in the land was a kind of “second exodus.” In the first exodus, the Passover preceded the crossing of the Red Sea. In this “second exodus,” it followed the crossing of the Jordan.
JOSHUA—NOTE ON 5:12 manna ceased. Cf. Ex. 16:35. Commensurate with their changed status, the people of Israel can now enjoy the fruit of the land of Canaan.
JOSHUA—NOTE ON 5:13–14 Are you for us, or for our adversaries? Joshua’s question to the man with the drawn sword is best understood as, “Are you one of ours, or one of our adversaries’ [soldiers]?” To this question the commander of the army of the LORD rightly answers “No,” i.e., “Neither” (in other words, not in the sense that Joshua is asking the question, assuming a merely human ally or enemy). Far from suggesting a lack of commitment to his people, the Lord underscores his commitment by marshaling his hosts on their behalf. The expression with his drawn sword in his hand appears in Num. 22:23, 31 and 1 Chron. 21:16, where it refers to the angel of the Lord as the agent of God’s zeal. The way that Josh. 5:15 (see note there) evokes Ex. 3:5 reinforces this identification and shows that the angel of the Lord is often a manifestation of the Lord himself. The “army of the LORD” is the force God commands when judging (Isa. 13:4) or protecting (1 Kings 22:19). worshiped. Or, “bowed down.” Joshua knew he was inferior to the commander; possibly he believed he was in God’s own presence. Exodus 23:20–33 relates God’s promise of his angel to secure Israel’s success in conquest.
JOSHUA—NOTE ON 5:15 Take off your sandals from your feet, for the place where you are standing is holy. Yet another indication of Joshua’s status as Moses’ successor: Joshua receives the same instructions Moses did at the burning bush (Ex. 3:5).
JOSHUA—NOTE ON 6:1–12:24 Taking the Land. Now that the Israelites are in the land, they must conquer it. Again, the Lord takes the initiative, his first words underscoring the fact that the land is his gift: “I have given Jericho into your hand” (6:2). Nevertheless, this does not annul the importance of God’s people acting on his commands. In this section, Joshua and Israel on occasion fail in their faithfulness to the Lord. The Lord nevertheless graciously restores them and fights for them (10:42) until the land is taken.
JOSHUA—NOTE ON 6:1–27 Jericho’s Fall: Firstfruits of War. As was often the case in ancient Near Eastern conquest accounts, key early conflicts are recounted in detail, while subsequent conflicts are noted more briefly. As the first city to be taken in Canaan, Jericho was to be wholly dedicated to the Lord, as a kind of symbolic “firstfruits” (cf. Lev. 23:10). The people of Israel were to take no plunder and were to leave no survivors. The chapter may be divided into three sections: the Lord’s instructions to Joshua (Josh. 6:1–5); the execution of the Lord’s instructions (vv. 6–21); and the aftermath of victory (vv. 22–27). Joshua was “by Jericho” in the last episode of ch. 5, and this has raised the question as to whether the early verses of ch. 6 should be regarded as the continuation of Joshua’s encounter with the “commander of the army of the LORD.” If this is the case, the Lord’s words in vv. 2–5 were given to Joshua during this encounter. This is a possibility, but the evidence in the text does not clearly show whether this suggestion is correct or not.
JOSHUA—NOTE ON 6:1–2 Jericho is one of the oldest known fortified cities in the ancient Near East, as well as one of the geographically lowest, at about 750 feet (229 m) below sea level. Well supplied with spring water, Jericho was an oasis and was sometimes referred to as the “city of palms” (Judg. 1:16). Throughout its long history of occupation, the actual settled area of Jericho occasionally shifted. OT Jericho is identified with Tell es-Sultan, a mound of about 10 acres. The name “Jericho” (Hb. yerikho) sounds like the Hebrew word “moon” (Hb. yareakh), leading many to the reasonable assumption that Canaanite Jericho may have been a center of moon worship. If so, then the Lord’s destruction of Jericho would have suggested victory over the false gods of Canaan (cf. his humiliation of the gods of Egypt at the time of the exodus; see Ex. 12:12; Num. 33:4). On the archaeology of Jericho, see note on Josh. 6:5.
JOSHUA—NOTE ON 6:3 march around the city. The remarkable instructions given to Joshua suggest a ritual aspect in the taking of Jericho, which underscores the divine agency while also recalling the divine creation in seven days.
JOSHUA—NOTE ON 6:4 the ark. The visible symbol of the Lord’s presence was at the center of the priestly and military personnel as they walked around the city of Jericho. It emphasizes that the conquest of the land of Canaan was first and foremost the Lord’s doing. See also v. 8, where the ark is called the “ark of the covenant of the LORD.”
JOSHUA—NOTE ON 6:5 and the wall of the city will fall down flat. Tell es-Sultan (OT Jericho) has had a long history of archaeological excavation. Many aspects of the site seemed to fit the biblical picture: clear evidence of fallen mud brick walls creating ramparts against the outer reinforcing wall, which could have allowed Israelite soldiers to go up, everyone straight before him; evidence of a rapid defeat in springtime; evidence of a lack of plundering; evidence of burning; etc. But the date seemed wrong. The question of dating the ruins of Tell es-Sultan—a site that has, in any case, experienced severe erosion—has recently been reopened. Many historians believe that the fall of Jericho occurred in the thirteenth century B.C. But some analyses of the original excavation reports, including pottery, stratigraphy, scarab data, and carbon 14 testing, have instead concluded that Jericho was destroyed at the end of the Late Bronze period (c. 1400 B.C.).
Jericho (Tell es-Sultan) is perhaps the oldest city on earth, and it is the lowest city on the surface of the planet (c. 750 feet/229 m below sea level). Jericho has undergone massive excavation work; major digs were led by Ernst Sellin and Carl Watzinger (1907–1909, 1911), John Garstang (1930–1936), and Kathleen Kenyon (1952–1958). Many important finds have been made at the site, one of the most notable being a city wall, some 4.5 feet (1.5 m) wide, attached to a monumental round stone tower. These are some of the earliest fortifications known to mankind. The diagram below portrays some of the remains from the excavations at Jericho from various periods of her history. Thus, the outer city wall comes from the Late Middle Bronze Age (2000–1550 B.C.) whereas the inner city wall dates to the Early Bronze Age (3200–2200 B.C.). Jericho was the first city west of the Jordan captured by the Israelites under the command of Joshua (Joshua 6). Whether or not there exist archaeological remains from that destruction is a hotly debated issue among archaeologists. Following the Israelite destruction, Jericho was abandoned for centuries until a new settlement was established by Hiel the Bethelite in the ninth century B.C. (1 Kings 16:34).
JOSHUA—NOTE ON 6:17 devoted to the LORD for destruction. “Devotion to destruction” (Hb. kherem) was not an exclusively biblical practice (cf. the Moabite Stone, where in the earliest instance of the name of Israel’s God in an inscription, King Mesha speaks of devoting to destruction the city of Nebo, killing 7,000 men and women and dragging the vessels of Yahweh before Chemosh). Though such total destruction may be offensive to modern sensibilities, the Bible insists that the total destruction of Jericho was commanded by the Lord himself (Deut. 20:16–17), and it gives evidence of God’s judgment on the terrible sin of the Canaanites. This order to destroy every living thing was not a license to kill indiscriminately in other warfare, because cities outside the Land of Promise were to be treated differently (Deut. 20:10–15). Rather, it was intended to punish the Canaanites (whose iniquity had become complete; cf. Gen. 15:16) and to protect the Israelites from falling into idolatry and apostasy (Deut. 7:1–6). The extermination of the Canaanites was a special case of divine judgment intruding into a period otherwise characterized by common grace; as such, it provides no pattern for general warfare (ancient or modern) but anticipates the final judgment that will befall all who persist in rebellion against God’s gracious overtures. See Introduction: The Destruction of the Canaanites.
JOSHUA—NOTE ON 6:18 Should Israel prove unfaithful in carrying out the order for total destruction, the camp of Israel itself will become a thing for destruction. Thus, the order (see v. 17) is not an instance of ethnic cleansing but of religious purification. Canaanites such as Rahab (ch. 2) and the Gibeonites (ch. 9), who devote themselves to the Lord, are spared, while Israelites who defy the Lord, such as Achan (ch. 7), themselves become kherem (i.e., devoted to destruction). Nor was sin a private affair; individual actions could jeopardize the entire camp (cf. 7:1).
JOSHUA—NOTE ON 6:19 Items that could not be destroyed, such as precious metals, were to go into the treasury of the LORD, and in that way be kept separate from common use.
JOSHUA—NOTE ON 6:20 So the people shouted. Hebrews 11:30 commends the people’s faith, for they believed the promise of Josh. 6:2–5, showing their faith by their obedience to the instructions.
JOSHUA—NOTE ON 6:21 devoted … to destruction. See note on 6:17.
JOSHUA—NOTE ON 6:23 Rahab … and all who belonged to her are spared, in keeping with the promise in 2:14, 17–20. Their placement outside the camp of Israel is apparently temporary (cf. 6:25) and likely necessitated by ritual uncleanness (Lev. 13:46).
JOSHUA—NOTE ON 6:26 Joshua’s oath of curse against anyone who should rebuild the city of Jericho underlines the symbolic significance of the first Canaanite city to fall. Jericho represents God’s judgment on Canaan, and the continuing presence of its ruins is to serve as a warning to Israel. Any attempt to rebuild and refortify the city, therefore, will suggest defiance of the Lord’s rule. For the fulfillment of Joshua’s curse, see 1 Kings 16:34.
JOSHUA—NOTE ON 7:1–26 Israel’s Failure: Achan’s Sin; Corporate Guilt. The events of chs. 1–6 (with the possible exception of ch. 2) were initiated by divine instruction. Chapter 7 recounts how Joshua launches an attack on the city of Ai, but it makes no mention either of a divine mandate to do so or of any inquiry made to the Lord as to how Israel should proceed. Perhaps Joshua felt overconfident after the remarkable success of Israel’s battle against Jericho (ch. 6), or perhaps the implication is that even an apparently easy target is not easy if the Lord is against them.
JOSHUA—NOTE ON 7:1 After the rousing success of Israel’s first victory in Canaan, the opening summary of this chapter has an ominous ring: But the people of Israel broke faith. See note on 1 Chron. 2:3–8. While Achan is the actual perpetrator, Israel as a covenant community is held responsible for the presence of sin in its midst. Achan’s abuse of the devoted things (on which, see notes on Josh. 6:17; 6:18; 6:19) arouses the anger of the LORD and leads to Israel’s first defeat in the land of Canaan. Despite his fine Israelite pedigree (of the tribe of Judah), Achan begins the “Canaanization” of Israel.
JOSHUA—NOTE ON 7:2–5 For a second time (see 2:1) Joshua sent men to spy out the land (7:1). But this spying mission proves disastrous. The spies give an optimistic estimate of the challenge of taking Ai, and the cost is the lives of thirty-six of their men (v. 5). In a striking reversal of what had earlier been the state of Canaanite morale (2:11; 5:1), now it is the Israelites whose hearts have melted and become as water (7:5). The location of ancient Ai, whose name means “ruin,” is often assumed to be at Khirbet et-Tell, in the central hill country about 13 miles (21 km) by road west of Jericho and 3,458 feet (1,054 m) higher in elevation. But the specific site identification is disputed, as the stratigraphy of et-Tell does not match important events of biblical history, such as Joshua’s campaign against it. It is more likely that Ai was in the same general location but at the modern site of Khirbet el-Maqatir.
JOSHUA—NOTE ON 7:6–9 After tearing his clothes (a sign of distress and mourning; see Gen. 37:29, 34), Joshua speaks to the Lord for the first time in the chapter, raising his urgent complaint and accusing the Lord of bringing this people over the Jordan … to give us into the hands of the Amorites (Josh. 7:7). Joshua’s words carry the further implication that the Lord has reversed his repeated promise (ch. 1) to give both the land and the inhabitants of Canaan into Israel’s hands. Joshua’s fear that our name will be cut off … from the earth (7:9) hints at a further reversal, namely, of the Lord’s promise to Abraham to “make your name great” (Gen. 12:2). If these promises fail, Joshua insists, they will do little for your great name (on the issue of Israel’s fate and the Lord’s reputation, see Num. 14:13–16; Deut. 9:26–29). But Joshua is about to learn that his probing questions are misdirected.
View this chart online at http://kindle.esvsb.org/c65
| Positive: Jericho (chs. 2–6) | Negative: Ai (7:1–8:29) |
|---|---|
| An assurance of victory (6:2) | No assurance of victory (until 8:1) |
| Ritual purity (3:5; 5:2, 10) | Ritual impurity (7:1, 10–26) |
| Unity of the assembly (6:3–5) | Disunity of the assembly (7:3; 8:1) |
JOSHUA—NOTE ON 7:10–12 Get up! … Israel has sinned. In no uncertain terms, the Lord redirects Joshua’s attention to the true reason for Israel’s defeat: Israel has transgressed my covenant. They have taken some of the devoted things (see notes on 6:17; 6:18; 6:19), stolen, lied, and put them among their own belongings—all actions explicitly forbidden in the Law of Moses (Deut. 7:25–26). Adherence to that law was insisted on in the assurances given Joshua in Josh. 1:7–8. The actual perpetrator of these crimes was Achan (7:1). But in addition to the corporate responsibility inherent in a covenant community, there was also the apparent negligence of Joshua and Israel’s leaders in failing to seek divine direction for the Ai campaign (cf. 9:14’s explicit reference to a similar neglect in the Gibeonite affair). No wonder, then, that Israel cannot stand before their enemies (cf. 7:13, and contrast 1:5, where the reverse was promised, on condition of Israel’s faithfulness to the Lord).
JOSHUA—NOTE ON 7:13 Consecrate yourselves. See note on 3:5.
JOSHUA—NOTE ON 7:14 takes by lot. The Hebrew text reads simply “takes,” and “by lot” is the likely interpretation as the means by which God indicated his choice (Urim and Thummim being the other possibility; see note on 1 Sam. 14:41–42).
JOSHUA—NOTE ON 7:15 The offending party, once discovered, is to be burned with fire, because one who takes devoted things commits an outrageous act (an act of willful, sacrilegious folly) and makes himself and all that he has liable to the same treatment that the “devoted things” would receive. While it is possible that Achan’s family must have known of his offense and thus rightly shared his fate (v. 24), the text does not comment on this. Achan’s offense is not a civil infraction (for which he alone might be held responsible; cf. Deut. 24:16), but a religious one that defiled the camp and, most especially, those closest to him.
JOSHUA—NOTE ON 7:19 Joshua’s charge that Achan give glory to the LORD God and give praise to him is probably to be understood not so much as commanding worship as in preparing Achan to tell me now what you have done. The Greek words for “give glory to … God” appear in John 9:24, where the Jewish leaders put under oath a man whom Jesus has healed; and the word “praise” (Hb. todah) can connote confession as well as praise.
JOSHUA—NOTE ON 7:21 The allure of what Achan saw among the spoil was not insignificant; the five pounds of silver and a pound and a quarter of gold represent, according to some commentators, about what an average worker would have earned in a lifetime.
JOSHUA—NOTE ON 7:24–26 Having brought trouble on Israel by his covetous act, Achan is put to death and he and all that he had are covered under a great heap of stones in the Valley of Achor (Achor represents Hb. ‘akor, which sounds like the Hb. word for “trouble,” ‘akar). The word them (vv. 24, 25) presumably includes Achan’s children, but there is room for uncertainty here because (1) v. 15 only says “all that he has”; (2) this could be what “them” refers to; and (3) there is no mention of Achan’s wife. Seven heaps or piles of stones figure in the Joshua account (see note on 4:20). The first was set up by Joshua in 4:20 as a memorial to the Lord’s faithfulness in bringing Israel safely across the Jordan River. This heap of stones over Achan is a reminder of Israel’s potential for unfaithfulness and of the dire consequences that result. all Israel stoned him with stones. This method of execution appropriately involved the entire community, as the entire community had been defiled and needed to be purified. It also freed any single individual from bearing the weight of acting as sole executioner.
JOSHUA—NOTE ON 8:1–35 Israel’s Renewal: Ai’s Defeat. The first attempt to defeat the city of Ai (ch. 7) apparently proceeded without divine instruction, leaving Israel in the dark regarding its compromised standing brought about by Achan’s disobedience. The resulting defeat was costly, as was the remedy made necessary by Achan’s/Israel’s offense. The present episode recounts the successful defeat of Ai in response to explicit divine instructions, thus underscoring the importance of adherence to “the word of the LORD” (8:8, 27), followed by a special ceremony near Shechem (vv. 30–35). The passage goes into great detail for a small battle, probably to emphasize that success comes only from following the Lord’s instructions.
JOSHUA—NOTE ON 8:1 Do not be dismayed recalls Joshua’s charge in 1:9 and implies the assurance of the Lord’s abiding presence. Despite breaking faith (7:1) in the preceding chapter, Israel is now restored and given a second chance.
JOSHUA—NOTE ON 8:2 its spoil and its livestock you shall take as plunder. God has the right to determine the nature and extent of destruction in any given instance. In Deuteronomy 20, e.g., the prescribed treatment of cities outside the land of Canaan is less severe (Deut. 20:10–15) than that of cities within the land that Israel is to occupy (Deut. 20:16–20). Compare also the total destruction of people and the taking of plunder in Deut. 2:34–35; 3:6–7. Permission to take spoil here is ironic, in view of Joshua 7: if only Achan could have waited! ambush. Battles were sometimes won more by deceptive military strategy than by brute military strength, as is attested not only in the Bible but also in ancient Near Eastern, Greek, and Roman sources. Unlike the earlier case of Jericho, the divine instructions for the defeat of Ai depend less, if at all, on miraculous intervention than on clever strategy. The key in both instances is that the Lord’s instructions are to be heeded.
JOSHUA—NOTE ON 8:3–4 Thirty thousand men seems to some commentators to be a remarkably large number to lie in ambush. It is possible that the Hebrew word “thousand” should be understood in the alternative sense of “military unit.” Further, the 30 “thousands” or “units” may not all have been involved in the ambush (see 8:12).
JOSHUA—NOTE ON 8:8 In contrast to the first attack on Ai, this time everything is done according to the word of the LORD (also v. 27).
JOSHUA—NOTE ON 8:12 Perhaps the 5,000 men (or five units) set in ambush represent a subset of the force mentioned in vv. 3–4, and the other 25 thousand (or units) constitute the main attack force. If so, this may help to explain why the king of Ai falls for the ruse. Israel appears to be attempting the same direct approach of ch. 7, but with more than eight times as many troops.
JOSHUA—NOTE ON 8:18–20 Reminiscent of Moses’ wielding the “staff of God in [his] hand” in Israel’s wilderness battle against the Amalekites (Ex. 17:9) and earlier at the division of the sea (Ex. 14:16), Joshua is instructed by the Lord to stretch out the javelin that is in your hand toward Ai. Perhaps serving as a signal to the men in the ambush to arise and attack the city, this action more importantly symbolizes the Lord’s giving the city into Joshua’s hand. The stratagem succeeds, the city is set ablaze, and the soldiers of Ai have no power (Hb. “hands”) to flee this way or that.
JOSHUA—NOTE ON 8:28–29 The defeated city of Ai is left a heap of ruins, and its king, after being hanged on a tree (see Deut. 21:22–23), is buried beneath a great heap of stones (see note on Josh. 4:20). Both “heaps” (different words in Hb.) remain to this day—that is, to the time of the text’s composition. If the “great heap of stones” over Achan in 7:26 was a monument to Israel’s breaking faith, the present “great heap of stones” over the king of Ai is a monument to Israel’s second chance and restoration.
JOSHUA—NOTE ON 8:30–35 For Moses’ instructions regarding the event recorded here, see Deut. 27:1–8, with which Joshua carefully complies.
JOSHUA—NOTE ON 8:30–33 Mount Ebal, along with its counterpart Mount Gerizim (see Deut. 11:29), is some 20 miles (32 km) north of Ai, near Shechem, a city with long-standing ties to the ancestors of Israel, beginning with Abraham (Gen. 12:6–7; also Jacob in Gen. 33:18–20; 34:1–31). These associations may help to explain the curious fact that Israel is able to hold a covenant renewal in Shechem, apparently without having to capture it first. Mention of sojourner as well as native born among those assembled at Shechem may hint that some Shechemites voluntarily joined Israel (cf. the similar case of a “mixed multitude” exiting Egypt with the Israelites in Ex. 12:38).
JOSHUA—NOTE ON 8:32 Joshua wrote on the stones a copy of the law of Moses, thereby creating a fourth stone monument in the land (see note on 4:20). This monument was to be a reminder of Israel’s duty to live in obedience to the divine “Torah,” or “instruction” (cf. 1:7–8).
JOSHUA—NOTE ON 8:34 Included in the blessing and the curse sections of Deuteronomy 28 are statements of the Lord’s intent to set the people of Israel “high above all the nations of the earth” (or “land,” Hb. ’erets) and to “cause your enemies who rise against you to be defeated before you” (Deut. 28:1, 7). If the Canaanite kings in Joshua’s day “heard” (Josh. 9:1) that these and similar words were read during the covenant renewal ceremony at Shechem, this would certainly have contributed to their alarm (see also note on 8:30–35).
JOSHUA—NOTE ON 9:1–27 Israel’s Canaanite Covenant: The Gibeonite Ruse. As did the sparing of the Canaanite prostitute Rahab with her family and their incorporation into Israel (2:1–21; 6:22–25), the present episode forces reflection on the divinely mandated “complete destruction” of the Canaanite “nations”—especially since the mandate explicitly states, “You shall make no covenant with them and show no mercy to them” (Deut. 7:1–2). The rationale given in the Deuteronomy passage is that to spare and intermarry with Canaanites will “turn away your sons from following me, to serve other gods” (Deut. 7:4). Thus, the issue is one of religious loyalty to the true God rather than to “other gods.” That both Rahab and the Gibeonites express belief in the power and supremacy of the Lord eases the tension created by their inclusion.
c. 1406/1220 B.C.
Joshua fulfilled Moses’ command to renew the covenant at Shechem by placing copies of the covenant on Mount Ebal and directing the Israelite tribes to shout the blessings and curses of the covenant to each other across the valley separating Mount Ebal and Mount Gerizim (see also Deut. 11:29–30; 27:4–13).
JOSHUA—NOTE ON 9:3 The identification of the city of Gibeon with el-Jib, a site 6 miles (9.7 km) northwest of Jerusalem, has been confirmed archaeologically by the discovery of numerous jar handles inscribed with the name Gibeon.
JOSHUA—NOTE ON 9:4 Cunning (Hb. ‘ormah) implies cleverness and calculation. The extra emphasis in saying they on their part underscores the comparison between Joshua and the Gibeonites—that is, just as Joshua had acted shrewdly to win at Ai, so the Gibeonites acted shrewdly for the sake of their survival.
JOSHUA—NOTE ON 9:6 The Gibeonites claimed they came from a distant country as grounds for Israel’s making a covenant with them. This deception suggests awareness of the distinction Moses drew between cities inside and outside the Land of Promise (Deut. 20:10–18).
JOSHUA—NOTE ON 9:7 The Hivites are included in the virtually identical lists of Deut. 20:17 (those to be devoted “to complete destruction”) and Josh. 9:1–2 (those determined to “fight against Joshua and Israel”). The Gibeonites may have represented a subset of a larger Hivite population in Canaan. The Hivites, often identified as Hurrians, appear to have been of Indo-European origin. The comment perhaps you live among us indicates that the men of Israel were initially suspicious, but they nevertheless proceed without inquiring of the Lord (v. 14).
JOSHUA—NOTE ON 9:14 The notice that Israel did not ask counsel from the LORD represents a rare instance of explicit commentary by the narrator. While it helps explain how Israel was duped, it also constitutes a serious criticism of Israel’s willingness to trust their own surface-level impressions while neglecting the insight that inquiring of the Lord could have offered. What would have happened if the Lord had revealed the Gibeonites’ deception to Israel? This, of course, remains an open question—though Gibeon may have been spared on the basis of their acknowledgment of the Lord. Without directly criticizing the Gibeonites, the narrator simply notes that they “acted with cunning” (see note on v. 4) to escape God’s judgment. A few verses later, however, the Gibeonites are cursed for their deception (vv. 22–23).
JOSHUA—NOTE ON 9:18 the leaders … had sworn. The right course of action in the case of wrongful or unlawful oaths involving action yet in the future (e.g., Jephthah’s unwitting vow to sacrifice his daughter; Judg. 11:30–40) is to repudiate the oath and to seek forgiveness for having made it (cf. Lev. 5:4–6); however, oaths that establish a covenant relationship are of a different order and must be kept (cf. Gen. 26:26–31; 1 Sam. 20:8; 2 Sam. 21:7; Ezek. 16:59–60). The text does not state why the congregation murmured against the leaders, but it may have been because the covenant with the Gibeonites prevented the congregation from destroying them, or, perhaps more selfishly, from despoiling them.
JOSHUA—NOTE ON 9:23 There is an interesting ambiguity in Joshua’s words to the Gibeonite deceivers. They are pronounced cursed, never to be anything but servants. Specifically, they are to be cutters of wood and drawers of water (which were menial tasks in ancient societies). Yet, while v. 21 states that these duties are to be carried out “for all the congregation,” Joshua assigns the Gibeonites more particularly to the house of my God (the summary statement in v. 27 combines both the general and the particular statements). Supplying wood and water for the extensive sacrificial system in Israel would indeed be hard work, but to be closely associated with the house of God should be construed as a blessing (Ps. 84:10).
JOSHUA—NOTE ON 9:27 in the place that he should choose. Cf. Deut. 12:5. Shiloh appears to have served as Israel’s central sanctuary from the time of Joshua (see Josh. 18:1) until the fall of Shiloh on the eve of the monarchy (1 Sam. 4:3; cf. Ps. 78:60; Jer. 7:12). From the time of David and Solomon, Jerusalem served as the central sanctuary (2 Sam. 6:12–14; 1 Kings 9:3).
JOSHUA—NOTE ON 10:1–43 Defense of Gibeon, Conquest of the South. The end of ch. 9 finds Israel in a covenant relationship with a Canaanite city and people! The defection of an important Canaanite city causes alarm among other city leaders, and a coalition is formed. Despite Israel’s presumptuousness in not inquiring of the Lord before making a covenant (9:14), once made, the covenant is defended even by the Lord himself. In ch. 10 he decisively intervenes to defend Israel’s Canaanite ally. The battle is recounted first briefly in vv. 1–10, while vv. 11–15 provide additional details; vv. 16–27 add yet further details, focusing on the fates of the five kings; and, finally, vv. 28–39 recount the so-called “southern campaign” in which key southern cities are defeated. Because the events of ch. 10 are precipitated by Canaanite aggression, Israel’s defeat of the south can be viewed as a defensive operation. The chapter concludes with a summary of the conquest so far (vv. 40–43).
JOSHUA—NOTE ON 10:1 The name Adoni-zedek resembles that of another king of Jerusalem, Melchizedek of Gen. 14:18. The names sound like “lord of righteousness” and “king of righteousness,” respectively.
JOSHUA—NOTE ON 10:2–4 That the Gibeonites had submissively joined in covenant with Israel strikes fear in the heart of Adoni-zedek (and other Canaanites), for Gibeon was a great city, like one of the royal cities and all its men were warriors. A royal city would have been of sufficient importance to have its own “king” and would likely have controlled a larger district.
JOSHUA—NOTE ON 10:5 Amorites. See notes on 2:10 and 5:1.
JOSHUA—NOTE ON 10:8 I have given them into your hands. Whatever questions were raised by Israel’s failure to “ask counsel from the LORD” (9:14) before making a covenant with the Gibeonites, the Lord assures Joshua that he will be with him in defending the Gibeonites against the Jerusalem coalition (see map). The past tense “have given” is significant: God has decided on the outcome, but Israel must still do some hard fighting (cf. 1:3 and note; 2:9, 24; 6:2, 16; 8:1; 10:19).
JOSHUA—NOTE ON 10:9 marched up all night from Gilgal. While the precise location of Gilgal is not known, according to 4:19 it was “on the east border of Jericho.” From the vicinity of Jericho in the Jordan Valley to Gibeon in the hill country would have been an uphill journey of 15 miles (24 km).
JOSHUA—NOTE ON 10:10 The Lord threw the Jerusalem coalition into a panic before Israel, and the battle spread west to Beth-horon and then southwestward as far as Azekah and Makkedah, thus covering more than 30 miles (48 km). This military action not only secured a foothold in central Canaan, controlling the major east-west corridor from the Jordan through the central hills to the coast, but also opened the way for Joshua’s southern campaign (vv. 29–43).
JOSHUA—NOTE ON 10:11 Large stones from heaven is a picturesque way of referring to the hailstones with which the divine Warrior decimated the fleeing Amorite troops.
JOSHUA—NOTE ON 10:12–14 Sun, stand still. The traditional understanding of this passage is that it refers to a miracle of cosmic proportions, in which the earth ceased rotating for a time. Since the Bible unquestionably teaches that God brought the universe into existence (Genesis 1; Ps. 33:6) and that he owns and rules it all for his own purposes (cf. Ex. 19:5; Deut. 10:14), this certainly would be possible. As alternatives to the traditional understanding, a number of possibilities have been proposed: (1) a solar eclipse (problematic, however, as the sun and moon are described in opposition, not conjunction); (2) poetic imagery (a day that seemed prolonged by virtue of how much was accomplished); (3) a day in which the sun’s heat was diminished (perhaps by cloud cover), allowing Israelite troops to continue fighting; and (4) a refraction of light (causing the light to linger until the battle was completed). An additional possibility proposed more recently suggests that (5) Joshua is exploiting the Canaanites’ superstitious fear of a bad omen, related to the position of the sun and the moon “standing” on the opposing horizons (the sun “at Gibeon, and the moon in the valley of Aijalon,” Josh. 10:12). None of these proposals are without difficulties, however, and each fails to do justice to the claim that there has been no day like it before or since (v. 14). Given the miracle-working God of the Bible, the traditional understanding is certainly possible (perhaps cf. 2 Kings 20:9–11, paralleled in Isa. 38:8, where the sun’s shadow moves backwards 10 steps). Although there is not enough information in the narrative to determine the precise nature of this exceptional day, the author’s emphasis in any case is on the extraordinary answer that God gave to Joshua’s prayer, and on the fact that the LORD heeded the voice of a man (Josh. 10:14). Apart from the present context, the Book of Jashar is mentioned only in 2 Sam. 1:18. No longer extant, the book appears to have contained poetic accounts or songs of the deeds of heroes (Hb. “Jashar” may be related to the Hb. words “sing” or “upright”).
JOSHUA—NOTE ON 10:15 The notice that Joshua returned … to the camp at Gilgal anticipates the conclusion of the entire southern campaign (cf. v. 43 and the apparent return to the “camp at Makkedah” in the interim, v. 21). Such summary statements, followed by more detailed descriptions, are quite common in Hebrew narratives. On the logical arrangement of ch. 10, see note on vv. 1–43.
JOSHUA—NOTE ON 10:21 Not a man moved his tongue. After Israel’s decisive defeat of the coalition, no Canaanites dared speak a word against Israel.
JOSHUA—NOTE ON 10:24 In the ancient Near East, victors would often put their feet on the necks of defeated foes, symbolizing supremacy. This action underlies the notion of making one’s enemies a footstool under one’s feet (Ps. 110:1).
JOSHUA—NOTE ON 10:25 Joshua applies to the leaders of Israel the assurance God gave him in 1:1–9.
JOSHUA—NOTE ON 10:26 hanged them on five trees. A sign of curse (Deut. 21:22–23; cf. the treatment of the king of Ai in Josh. 8:28–29).
JOSHUA—NOTE ON 10:27 The large stones set against the mouth of the cave containing the bodies of the slain Amorite kings serve as a fifth monument in the land (see note on 4:20 and chart). This monument recalls God’s gracious action in defending Israel’s covenant with a Canaanite city (even though they acted rashly in making it). to this very day. See note on 4:9.
JOSHUA—NOTE ON 10:28–39 Joshua next takes the important towns in the southern part of the land, establishing Israel’s hold on it. The accounts for the various towns are similar, reflecting the uniform pattern by which God gave these enemies over to Israel. The variations probably reflect the particularities of each battle. Observe that v. 33 makes no mention of taking Gezer (cf. 16:10; Judg. 1:29); it finally became an Israelite possession in 1 Kings 9:15–17, when Pharaoh gave it to Solomon.
JOSHUA—NOTE ON 10:40–42 This interim summary of the conquest credits Joshua, in the typically hyperbolic language of ancient Near Eastern conquest accounts, with leaving none remaining, totally destroying all that breathed. (Similar language in v. 20 juxtaposes the statement that Israel’s enemies were “wiped out” with the admission that a “remnant … remained of them.”) While Joshua is credited with acting obediently by taking no prisoners, the ultimate cause of Israel’s success is that the LORD God of Israel fought for Israel (v. 42).
JOSHUA—NOTE ON 10:43 Joshua’s return to the camp at Gilgal (anticipated already in v. 15) marks the successful conclusion of the central and southern campaigns.
c. 1400 B.C.
Upon hearing that the Gibeonites signed a peace treaty with the Israelites, five Amorite cities attacked Gibeon. Joshua’s forces came up from Gilgal to defend the Gibeonites, and they chased the Amorites as far as Azekah and Makkedah. Joshua’s forces continued their attack until they had captured Libnah, Lachish, Makkedah, Eglon, Debir, Hebron, and most likely Jarmuth.
JOSHUA—NOTE ON 11:1–12:24 Conquest of the North and a List of Defeated Kings. Just as the southern campaign was a necessary sequel to Israel’s defense of the Gibeonites, the northern campaign takes shape as a defensive measure against the northern kings gathered around Jabin of Hazor (see map). The account gives a terse description of what must have been fierce battles, more like 10:29–43, in contrast to chs. 6 and 8 and 10:1–28. This is probably because 11:6–9 makes the main point. The idea of compliance with God’s instructions given through Moses is a recurring theme (cf. 11:9, 12, 15, 20, 23), with 11:19–20 giving the narrator’s theological assessment. Chapter 12 lists the kings defeated under the leadership of Moses (12:1–6) and Joshua (12:7–24), bringing the basic conquest narrative to a close.
c. 1400 B.C.
After Joshua’s forces defeated several Amorite kings in the south, the king of Hazor assembled the northern Canaanite kings to battle the Israelites. Joshua and his men defeated the Canaanites at the waters of Merom and pursued them to Great Sidon and the Valley of Mizpeh. Then Joshua turned back and captured the city of Hazor.
JOSHUA—NOTE ON 11:1 Jabin, king of Hazor, is not to be confused with the “Jabin king of Canaan, who reigned in Hazor” during the time of Deborah and Barak (Judg. 4:2). The West Semitic name Jabin, which may mean something like “(he) builds,” is attested for rulers of Hazor in the Mari texts (18th century B.C.), the Amarna texts (14th century), etc., often in compound names employing the name of a deity. Thus, “Jabin” may have been a dynastic name especially associated with Hazor. Hazor (Tell el-Qedah)—located about 10 miles (16 km) north of the Sea of Galilee and covering an area of over 200 acres—was probably the largest city in Syria-Palestine in its day. The cities Shimron and Achshaph are also attested in the Amarna texts and in the itinerary of the Egyptian pharaoh Thutmose III (15th century B.C.).
JOSHUA—NOTE ON 11:4 The great horde mustered by the northern city-kings is described colorfully as in number like the sand that is on the seashore. Their chariots were of light construction, with four-spoked wheels, and were drawn by two horses (contrast the “chariots of iron” of 17:16–18).
JOSHUA—NOTE ON 11:5 Merom may be another name for Madon (v. 1), commonly identified with Tell Qarnei Hittin, 5 miles (8 km) west of the Sea of Galilee. It is mentioned by both Thutmose III (see note on v. 1) and the Assyrian king Tiglath-pileser III (8th century B.C.).
JOSHUA—NOTE ON 11:6 In keeping with the biblical prohibition against amassing and placing confidence in military hardware (cf. Deut. 17:16), Joshua is to hamstring their horses and burn their chariots. The former would have involved cutting the horses’ equivalent of the Achilles tendon, which would at the very least make the animal unfit for any military use (see also 2 Sam. 8:4).
JOSHUA—NOTE ON 11:10–15 That Hazor was head of all those kingdoms (v. 10) is not surprising, given its size (see note on v. 1) and prominent location beside a major north-south trade route. Having decimated the northern-coalition forces at Merom (vv. 7–9), Joshua turned back to Hazor, struck its king with the sword (v. 10) along with all who were in it, and finally burned Hazor with fire (v. 11). Joshua struck the other coalition cities as well, devoting them to destruction (v. 12; see Introduction: The Destruction of the Canaanites, but none of these cities was burned except Hazor alone (v. 13). Archaeologists looking for physical signs of Israel’s conquest must keep in mind that only three sites (Jericho in 6:24, Ai in 8:28, and Hazor) are explicitly said to have been burned. The Israelites were, after all, to live in towns and houses they had not built and to enjoy vineyards and olive groves they had not cultivated (Deut. 6:10–11). The archaeology of Hazor attests several violent destructions by fire, including in c. 1400, 1300, and 1230 B.C.
JOSHUA—NOTE ON 11:16–20 Not unlike the brief summary of the southern campaign in 10:40–42, the summary following the successful completion of the northern campaign is cast in absolute phrases, describing how Joshua took all that land, from the far south to the far north. The regions that were taken are described in 11:16, and v. 17 demarcates the southern and northern boundaries of the entire conquered area. Though some mistakenly assume the conquest under Joshua to have been a blitzkrieg, in fact it took a long time (v. 18), perhaps about seven years. This number is calculated from information provided for Caleb, Joshua’s fellow spy in Numbers 13–14. Caleb was 40 years old when Moses sent him as a spy (Josh. 14:7). From that time to the entry into the land of Canaan was another 38 years (Deut. 2:14), making Caleb 78 years old at the beginning of the conquest. Caleb receives his allotted territory at age 85 (Josh. 14:10), seven years after the start of the conquest. The political reality that not a city … made peace except Gibeon (11:19) is conjoined without embarrassment with the theological explanation that it was the LORD’s doing to harden their hearts (v. 20; on the interplay of human responsibility and divine sovereignty, see the long saga of the hardening of Pharaoh’s heart recounted in Exodus 4–14, beginning at 4:21).
JOSHUA—NOTE ON 11:21–22 That Joshua cut off the Anakim is highly significant. This race of giants, beside whom the spies under Moses felt like “grasshoppers” (Num. 13:33), terrified 10 of the 12 spies and prompted Israel to shrink back in fear. It is fitting to crown the account of the subjugation phase of the conquest by describing how Joshua has now largely eradicated this frightening threat (see further Josh. 14:6–15).
JOSHUA—NOTE ON 11:23 This verse begins the transition from the subjugation phase of the conquest (Joshua took the whole land) to the allocation/occupation phase (Joshua gave it for an inheritance to Israel according to their tribal allotments). The latter notice anticipates the events of chs. 13–19. And the land had rest from war. More fighting remains to be done when the Israelites attempt to occupy the conquered territories, but the Lord has proven true to the promises of 1:3–5, and the land lies subdued before them (cf. 18:1).
JOSHUA—NOTE ON 12:1–24 Now that the land has been conquered, and before it is apportioned, the full extent of the conquest is summarized. Verses 1–6 describe the land beyond the Jordan (from the vantage point of Israel, now west of the Jordan). This land consisted of the territories of the Transjordanian kings whom Israel had conquered under Moses’ leadership (Num. 21:21–35), that Moses had allocated to the tribes of Reuben and Gad and the half-tribe of Manasseh (Num. 32:33). Joshua 12:7–24 lists the kings whom Joshua and the people of Israel defeated on the west side of the Jordan (v. 7), the total coming to 31 (v. 24; see note on v. 9).
JOSHUA—NOTE ON 12:1 took possession of their land. If the emphasis in the first half of the book of Joshua is on the Lord’s faithfulness in giving Israel the land, it now falls to Israel to prove faithful in taking possession, that is, occupying the territories that will be allocated to them. The words rendered “possess” or “possession” appear with increased frequency in the second half of Joshua (in this chapter, see vv. 6–7).
JOSHUA—NOTE ON 12:9 The list of defeated kings (see map) begins with the king of Jericho and generally follows the sequence of the preceding narrative: central, southern, and northern campaigns. That some kings not mentioned in the preceding narrative appear in the list reminds the reader that historical reportage can be selective; the Joshua narratives are meant to be more than a mere catalog of historical information.
c. 1390 B.C.
The Israelites captured many key cities throughout Canaan, although apparently some of them were later taken back by the Canaanites (e.g., Jerusalem). Under the leadership of Moses, the Israelites captured towns east of the Jordan River, including Ashtaroth and Heshbon. Joshua led the Israelites to capture many towns west of the Jordan River (the locations of Geder and Lasharon are unknown).
JOSHUA—NOTE ON 12:24 This list of thirty-one kings suggests Israel’s overall success in gaining the upper hand in Canaan and in destroying the leaders of resistance, but it does not necessarily imply the destruction of the cities formerly ruled by these kings (see note on 11:10–15).
JOSHUA—NOTE ON 13:1–21:45 Dividing the Land. As with the first two sections, this third major section in Joshua begins with a divine initiative. The Lord instructs Joshua regarding the division and allocation of the land. Packed with geographical details often lost on modern readers, the boundary descriptions and town lists that characterize this section were doubtless of great interest to ancient Israelites inheriting their allotments in the land. Over time, the tribal allocations presented here undoubtedly became the basis for administrative documents, and these would have been subject to updating as new towns or villages were founded. Despite its historical-geographical content, this lengthy section shows careful literary shaping (see Introduction: Outline, as well as the note on 14:1–19:51).
JOSHUA—NOTE ON 13:1–33 It’s Yours, Now Take It! Before beginning to describe the tribal allotments west of the Jordan (ch. 14), the text stresses that, though Israel has gained the upper hand, there remains much land to possess, particularly along the coast and in the far north (13:1–7). A rehearsal of what was allocated east of the Jordan under Moses (vv. 8–33) sets the stage for what follows, as does the ominous notice that the eastern tribes have failed to drive out some of their enemies, leaving them to dwell in the midst of Israel “to this day” (v. 13).
JOSHUA—NOTE ON 13:1 The second half of the book of Joshua begins much like the first, with both the narrator and the Lord stating the status of Israel’s key leader. In 1:1 they announced that Moses was dead, and now in 13:1 they describe Joshua as old and advanced in years (cf. 23:1; Joshua’s death is mentioned in 24:29). By this point in the narrative, the subjugation phase of the conquest is largely completed (see summaries in 10:40–43 and 11:16–23), but the territories west of the Jordan must yet be allocated and occupied (see map). In other words, there remains yet very much land to possess.
JOSHUA—NOTE ON 13:6 I myself will drive them out. … Only allot the land to Israel. The boundary between the subjugation phase of the conquest and the allocation phase cannot be sharply drawn. Verses 1–7 speak of enemies whose land Israel has yet to “possess” (v. 1). The Lord pledges to continue to “drive them out” (lit., “dispossess,” related to the word “possess” in v. 1) and instructs Joshua to go ahead and “allot” these lands.
JOSHUA—NOTE ON 13:8 It is Moses who first mentions the inheritance given to these tribes (Num. 32:33–42; Deut. 3:8–17).
c. 1400 B.C.
During the conquest of Canaan, Joshua allotted the land to the tribes of Israel. These boundaries, however, do not necessarily reflect the land each tribe actually inhabited by the end of the conquest. Several tribes, such as Dan, were unable to drive out the Canaanites that lived in much of their allotted territory (19:47), while other tribes controlled portions of land that were not originally allotted to them (e.g., 17:11).
JOSHUA—NOTE ON 13:11 Geshurites and Maacathites. Geshur and Maacah were two small kingdoms north and east of the Sea of Galilee. This Geshur is not to be confused with the Geshur mentioned in v. 2, which lay far to the south on the Philistine coast.
JOSHUA—NOTE ON 13:13 the people of Israel did not drive out … dwell in the midst of Israel to this day. See note on 15:63.
JOSHUA—NOTE ON 13:14 The notice that the tribe of Levi receives no inheritance (repeated in v. 33, explained in 14:3–4, and recalled in 18:7 in the midst of the allotment listings) anticipates the designation of Levitical cities in Joshua 21; cf. Deut. 10:9 and the note on Num. 18:21–24.
JOSHUA—NOTE ON 13:22 Balaam … the son of Beor. His story is told in Numbers 22–24 and his death is mentioned in Num. 31:8.
JOSHUA—NOTE ON 14:1–19:51 Western Territories. This section describes the tribal allocations west of the Jordan, and it exhibits literary symmetry. It begins and ends almost identically, making reference to Eleazar the priest, Joshua, and the heads of the fathers’ houses of the Israelite tribes, who distributed by lot the territories west of the Jordan (14:1–5; 19:51). Inside this outer frame are references to the inheritance of the two faithful former spies, Caleb (14:6–15) and Joshua (19:49–51). These in turn frame the major central section describing the actual allocations to the nine and a half tribes who received no inheritance east of the Jordan (15:1–19, 40–48). A crucial assembly of the whole congregation of the people of Israel at Shiloh before the “tent of meeting” (18:1–10) bisects and anchors this section, with the allotments for the major tribes of Judah and Joseph (that is, Ephraim and the half-tribe of Manasseh) preceding (15:1–17:18) and the allotments for the other seven tribes following (18:11–19:48). Thus, chs. 14–19 provide detailed historical information in a carefully structured literary form, and in so doing underscore a fundamental theological truth: those like Caleb or Joshua who wholly follow the Lord (14:8–9, 14) will be able to enjoy their inheritance.
JOSHUA—NOTE ON 14:1 Eleazar the priest was Aaron’s son and successor (Num. 20:25; Deut. 10:6) and had been assigned his present task by Moses (Num. 34:17). Ten heads of the nine and a half tribes were explicitly named already in Num. 34:18–29.
JOSHUA—NOTE ON 14:2 That the inheritance was by lot guarantees divine oversight and protects Israel’s leaders from any suspicion of favoritism. The Lord’s progressively more detailed instructions to Moses regarding the lot-casting procedure are recorded in Num. 26:52–56; 33:50–54; 34:1–15.
JOSHUA—NOTE ON 14:3 Levites. See note on 13:14.
JOSHUA—NOTE ON 14:6–15 This section recounts Caleb’s inheritance of Hebron, which Moses swore to give him many years before (v. 9; Deut. 1:36; cf. Num. 14:24). It is one of four narrative passages, sometimes referred to as “land-grant narratives,” that are distinctive in Joshua 14–19 in that they focus on individuals. The other three are the allocation of Debir to Caleb’s daughter Achsah and her husband Othniel (15:13–19; Othniel reappears in Judg. 3:7–11); the bestowal of an inheritance on the daughters of Zelophehad (Josh. 17:3–6); and the granting of Timnath-serah to Joshua (19:49–50). Despite his advanced age of eighty-five years (14:10), Caleb maintains that his strength is undiminished and that he will be able to drive out the formidable Anakim, provided that the LORD will be with him (v. 12). Joshua was credited with cutting off the Anakim from Hebron already in 11:21. Either the Anakim have reasserted themselves in Hebron (11:22 mentions some survivors) or, more likely, as commander-in-chief Joshua supports and receives general credit for the eventual expulsion of the Anakim by Caleb (14:12–14; 15:14). That both the summary of Joshua’s defeat of the Anakim in 11:21–23 and the present account of Caleb’s taking of Hebron conclude with the statement, the land had rest from war (14:15; cf. 11:23 and nowhere else in Joshua), suggests that both sections relate to the same events.
JOSHUA—NOTE ON 14:8 wholly followed the LORD. See note on 14:1–19:51. Emphasized through repetition in 14:9, 14, this commendation of Caleb sets a standard by which Israel is to be measured in the narratives that follow.
JOSHUA—NOTE ON 15:1–63 As the western allocations begin, pride of place goes to the important tribe of Judah. In keeping with the general pattern of the subsequent allotments, the tribal boundaries are first described (vv. 1–12), followed by listings of cities according to region (vv. 20–62).
JOSHUA—NOTE ON 15:8 Jebusite (that is, Jerusalem). Not fully conquered until the time of King David (2 Sam. 5:6–10; for other attempts, see Judg. 1:8, 21).
JOSHUA—NOTE ON 15:13–19 he gave to Caleb … Caleb drove out. See note on 14:6–15. Othniel (15:17) reappears as a judge-deliverer in Judg. 3:7–11.
JOSHUA—NOTE ON 15:63 Against the backdrop of so much success, the notice that the people of Judah could not drive out the Jebusites from Jerusalem and that they dwell with the people of Judah at Jerusalem to this day is disconcerting in at least two respects. First, it recalls Moses’ repeated warnings against allowing Canaanites to survive and live among the Israelites (see notes on 6:17; 6:18). Second, it raises a theological question: how is it that the people of Judah “could not” drive out their foes? Surely the god of the Jebusites is not stronger than the God of Judah! This is not the first instance of failure to occupy (13:13), and it will not be the last. In 17:12 the Manassites are unable to occupy certain towns because “the Canaanites persisted in dwelling in that land.” In 17:16 the Ephraimites cite Canaanite possession of “chariots of iron” as preventing them from taking the plains. These statements seem to be in tension with the dominant theological conviction of the book of Joshua that “the hand of the LORD is mighty” (4:24) and with the divine promise to the leader Joshua that “No man shall be able to stand before you all the days of your life. … You shall cause this people to inherit the land” (1:5–6). Joshua himself seems to agree with this assessment, insisting in 17:18 that “you shall drive out the Canaanites, though they have chariots of iron, and though they are strong.” Perhaps statements of what Israel “could not” do are to be read as early evidence of spiritual slippage—of failure to follow the Lord “wholly” (see 14:8)—which will become increasingly evident in the book of Judges.
JOSHUA—NOTE ON 16:1 Chapters 16–17 describe the allotment of the people of Joseph, i.e., of Ephraim (16:5–10) and of Manasseh (17:1–13).
JOSHUA—NOTE ON 16:10 did not drive out. See note on 15:63.
JOSHUA—NOTE ON 17:3–6 The daughters of Zelophehad receive their inheritance, as the LORD commanded Moses (see Num. 27:1–11 and the qualification introduced in Num. 36:1–13). See note on Josh. 14:6–15.
JOSHUA—NOTE ON 17:12 could not take possession. See note on 15:63.
JOSHUA—NOTE ON 17:14–15 With the influx of the Israelites into Canaan, many settlements appear in areas never before settled: the highlands and the deserts. To support this human settlement in those areas not so easily cultivable, the Israelites borrowed or developed fresh agricultural techniques. One principal development of settlers in the mountains was agricultural terracing. In addition, plastered cisterns and rock-lined silos are abundant at these sites; they are rare in earlier periods.
JOSHUA—NOTE ON 17:16–18 In contrast to the lighter chariots of 11:4, the chariots of iron of the plains-dwelling Canaanites were of heavier construction, perhaps armored with iron fittings and sporting iron-shod, six-spoked wheels (see also Judg. 1:19). Daunting as such military machinery must have been, Joshua insisted that it was no impediment to the eye of faith: you shall drive out the Canaanites, though they have chariots of iron, and though they are strong (see note on Josh. 15:63).
JOSHUA—NOTE ON 18:1–10 This section marks the structural and thematic midpoint in the account of the division of the land. Mention of the whole congregation of Israel calls to mind the unity of Israel as a people, even as each tribe receives its individual inheritance. That the assembly gathers before the tent of meeting, or tabernacle (see Ex. 27:21; 40:2), recalls Israel’s history under Moses, of whom Joshua is now the successor. Shiloh (Khirbet Seilun), making its first biblical appearance here, serves as the central sanctuary that Israel was to establish once safely settled in the land (Deut. 12:10–11; cf. Ps. 78:60; Jer. 7:12); Shiloh was likely destroyed following the battle of Ebenezer (1 Samuel 4; Jer. 7:14; 26:6, 9) and was replaced as central sanctuary by Jerusalem in the time of King David, a fact of which the present text makes no mention. Notice that the statement, the land lay subdued before them (Josh. 18:1), sums up the first half of the book, while Joshua’s question in v. 3, “How long will you put off going in to take possession of the land?” pervades the second half of the book. Mention of the God of your fathers evokes God’s promise of land to the patriarchs (see note on 1:2), and reference to the land’s having now been given (18:3) underscores the fulfillment of the repeated promise of ch. 1 that the Lord would “give” the land. The Lord has fulfilled all his “good promises” (21:45); how will Israel respond?
JOSHUA—NOTE ON 18:7 The Levites have no portion among you. See note on 13:14. Adding that the priesthood of the LORD is their heritage, this verse prepares for the designation in ch. 21 of Levitical cities throughout the territories.
JOSHUA—NOTE ON 18:9 wrote in a book. Or on a scroll, or some other writing material (the Hb. term seper does not specify).
JOSHUA—NOTE ON 18:11 Though one of the smaller tribes, Benjamin was significant not only as the tribe of Israel’s first king, Saul (1 Sam. 9:21), but also because it served as a buffer between the dominant tribes to the south and north; its allotted territory fell between the people of Judah and the people of Joseph (Ephraim and half of Manasseh).
JOSHUA—NOTE ON 19:1–9 That the allotment for Simeon fell in the midst of the inheritance of the people of Judah (v. 1) is explained by the fact that the portion of the people of Judah was too large for them (v. 9). (For a theological rationale, cf. Gen. 49:7.) Logically, no boundary description is given for Simeon, only a list of cities. Those cities that can be located stretched west to east along the southern reaches of Judahite territory, suggesting that Simeon may have served a protective function against enemies to the south.
JOSHUA—NOTE ON 19:15 Bethlehem is a northerly village not to be confused with the more famous Bethlehem in Judah (Judg. 17:7).
JOSHUA—NOTE ON 19:47 On how Dan’s territory was lost to them, see Judg. 1:34. The story of how Dan went up and fought against Leshem is told in Judges 18, where the citizens of Laish (Leshem) are described as a people “quiet and unsuspecting” (Judg. 18:7).
JOSHUA—NOTE ON 19:49–50 Like Caleb, his fellow survivor from the wilderness years, Joshua receives an inheritance among them (for Caleb, see 14:6–15). On the framing function of these two notices, see note on 14:1–19:51. By command of the LORD, Joshua is given Timnath-serah (Khirbet Tibnah; called Timnath-heres in the notice of Joshua’s death in Judg. 2:6–10). The site is in southwest Ephraim, away from the more formidable cities of the period. Joshua’s reception of an inheritance only after all others have received theirs speaks well of him as a leader. That his city is away from the major power centers may contain a hint that his most active leadership years are drawing to a close.
JOSHUA—NOTE ON 19:51 Eleazar the priest and Joshua. See note on 14:1–19:51. Everything in this concluding verse indicates that the tribal allocations have been conducted appropriately at the Lord’s direction—by lot.
JOSHUA—NOTE ON 20:1–21:45 A Land of Justice and Worship. The designation of six cities of refuge (ch. 20) and 48 Levitical cities (21:1–42) demonstrates the Lord’s concern that the land not only be duly allocated as an inheritance for the tribes (chs. 13–19) but that it be a land where justice prevails and true worship is cultivated. The section ends with yet another proclamation that the Lord has fulfilled all the good promises he made to the house of Israel (21:43–45).
JOSHUA—NOTE ON 20:1–2 The fullest description of how the cities of refuge are to function appears in Num. 35:6–34, where the Lord expands on his initial instructions to Moses in Ex. 21:12–14. They are to be six in number, chosen among the Levitical cities, with three on each side of the Jordan (Num. 35:13–14). They are to guarantee judicial due process for anyone in Israel, including “the stranger” and “the sojourner” (Num. 35:15). In Deut. 4:41–43 Moses designates by name the three cities of refuge in the newly conquered territory east of the Jordan, one each in the territories of Reuben, Gad, and eastern Manasseh. Later, in Deut. 19:1–10, he charges Israel regarding the cities to be designated west of the Jordan, though he does not name them, as the land is yet to be conquered. They are to be appropriately spaced, so that the fugitive can reach the nearest one before being overtaken by the avenger (Deut. 19:3; and see note on Josh. 20:3). Should God enlarge Israel’s territory, an additional three cities can be designated (Deut. 19:8–9). That the additional three are not mentioned in Joshua may hint at the fact that Israel was not entirely successful in taking over all the land. The three cities west of the Jordan are finally named in Josh. 20:7. This overall progression is in keeping with the geographical movements of Israel and the extent of the conquest at each stage.
JOSHUA—NOTE ON 20:3 A manslayer was one who unintentionally or without premeditation took another’s life. The “kinsman-redeemer” (Hb. go’el) was typically the nearest male relative, responsible to protect the family’s lives, liberty, property, and so forth (Lev. 25:25–26). Where a life was taken, the kinsman-redeemer became the avenger of blood, held responsible in cases of murder to “put the murderer to death” (Num. 35:19, 21). In distinction from some of its ancient Near Eastern neighbors, Israel was to “accept no ransom for the life of the murderer” (Num. 35:31), for the Lord desired justice in respect to both guilt and innocence (Prov. 17:15).
JOSHUA—NOTE ON 20:6 until he has stood before the congregation … until the death of him who is high priest at the time. This verse compresses the fuller instructions provided in Numbers 35.
JOSHUA—NOTE ON 21:1–41 From the beginning of the division of the land, this section in which the Levites receive their inheritance has been anticipated (see note on 13:14). Mention of Eleazar, Joshua, and the heads of the fathers’ houses (21:1), as well as the location at Shiloh (v. 2), indicate that this final allocation took place at the same time and place as the general distribution of chs. 18–19. Back in Num. 35:1–8, the LORD commanded through Moses that 48 cities (including the six cities of refuge) be assigned to the Levites. The effect of taking cities and their pasturelands from each of the tribes would be to scatter the Levites throughout the whole of Israel (cf. Gen. 49:7). This distribution would facilitate the Levites’ fulfilling their duties. Many of the cities were along borders—with the Philistines in the southwest; the Canaanites in the plains and coastlands to the north; eastern boundary regions in Transjordan; and so forth. The Levites were grouped according to their descent from one of Levi’s three sons (see Gen. 46:11). The Kohathites (Josh. 21:4), of whom Aaron and his line descended (Ex. 6:16–20), received cities in the center and the south of the land, while the Gershonites (Josh. 21:6) and Merarites (v. 7) received cities in the north and east.
JOSHUA—NOTE ON 21:18 The priestly city of Anathoth (see 1 Kings 2:26) was the eventual home of the prophet Jeremiah (Jer. 1:1).
JOSHUA—NOTE ON 21:43–45 Just as the account of the taking of the land drew to a close with generalizing summaries (10:40–42; 11:16–23), so the account of the dividing of the land ends with a summary section. It picks up on key motifs such as “land,” “rest,” and “victory” as the Lord’s “gifts” (see esp. ch. 1; the word “rest” occurs also in 11:23 and 14:15, but the Hb. terminology is different). As seen later in Joshua, this section should be understood as a broad summary statement emphasizing the Lord’s decisive action on behalf of Israel, rather than as a comprehensive assertion that all of Israel’s enemies had been eradicated from the land. Although Israel did, in fact, take possession of the land and settled there (21:43), much work still remained to be done (see 23:5). But the key point is that the Lord has been utterly true to his good promises: none has failed, and all came to pass (21:45; the word “all” occurs six times in the Hb. text of vv. 43–45; see also 23:14).
JOSHUA—NOTE ON 22:1–24:33 Serving the Lord in the Land. Each of the preceding three major divisions of the book of Joshua receives its impetus from a divine initiative. The Lord instructs; Israel under Joshua’s leadership responds; and the land is entered, taken, and divided. This final section lacks such a beginning. The Lord has already fulfilled all his “good promises” (21:45). Now it is Israel’s turn to respond. In his old age, Joshua charges the people to be united and exclusive in “serving” the Lord alone.
JOSHUA—NOTE ON 22:1–34 One Nation, Under God. In this episode, the eastern tribes of Reuben, Gad, and eastern Manasseh are released to return to their homes, having fulfilled their duties to their fellow Israelites west of the Jordan (cf. Numbers 32). Their construction of a symbolic altar on the bank of the Jordan is at first misunderstood, and a disaster is narrowly averted. The reader does not learn the eastern tribes’ motive until Josh. 22:21–29, which creates suspense. It is to the credit of the western tribes that they make a generous offer (v. 19) and then listen to the explanation and accept it (cf. Deut. 13:14). Both sides are determined to be faithful to their calling as Israel, and the account shows things working right. The key word “serve” occurs three times. Before their departure, Joshua charges the eastern tribes to serve the Lord “with all your heart and with all your soul” (Josh. 22:5). In v. 27, they insist that they “do perform the service of the LORD” (lit., “serve the service”).
JOSHUA—NOTE ON 22:4 now the LORD your God has given rest to your brothers. See 1:12–15. The two and one-half eastern tribes are now free to go to their territories beyond the Jordan.
JOSHUA—NOTE ON 22:8 Divide the spoil of your enemies with your brothers. In the Bible, as generally in the ancient Near East, both victory in battle and the spoils of victory are regarded as gifts of the deity, in this case the Lord. These gifts were to be shared with allies, or covenant partners, irrespective of their actual role in the conflict (cf. Num. 31:25–31; 1 Sam. 30:24).
JOSHUA—NOTE ON 22:10–11 altar of imposing size. Very similar Hebrew terminology is used in Ex. 3:3 to describe the burning bush as a “great sight.” Apparently, the altar was built on the western shore of the Jordan, on the side that belongs to the people of Israel, but was conspicuous enough to be seen from either side.
JOSHUA—NOTE ON 22:13–20 Having misunderstood the purpose of the “imposing altar,” the tribes that settled west of the Jordan send a delegation to confront the eastern tribes. That Phinehas the son of Eleazar heads the delegation can only strike fear in the hearts of those familiar with his history of zeal for the purity of Israel’s worship (see Num. 25:1–9). For those requiring a reminder, the sin at Peor is explicitly mentioned in Josh. 22:17 (cf. Num. 25:3, 18), as is the case of Achan in Josh. 22:20, who did not perish alone for his iniquity (see ch. 7). Given its corporate responsibility, all Israel can suffer for the sins of a few or even just one. The delegation rightly fears that the Lord may become angry with the whole congregation of Israel (22:18).
JOSHUA—NOTE ON 22:21–31 Fearing the worst, the delegation of western tribes is relieved to hear that the altar built by the eastern tribes is but a copy of the altar of the LORD (v. 28). It is not intended to rival the altar at Shiloh but only to serve as a witness between us and you (v. 28), a visible monument refuting any suggestion (now or in the future) that the eastern tribes have no portion in the LORD (v. 25).
JOSHUA—NOTE ON 22:34 called the altar Witness. This sixth monument in the land (see note on 4:20) bears witness to the unity of the Transjordanian tribes with Israel west of the Jordan.
View this chart online at http://kindle.esvsb.org/c64
| 4:20 | Gilgal | a reminder of God’s faithfulness in bringing Israel safely across the Jordan into the Promised Land |
| 7:26 | over Achan | a reminder of Israel’s potential for unfaithfulness and of the dire consequences that result |
| 8:28–29 | over the king of Ai | a monument to Israel’s second chance and restoration |
| 8:30–32 | Joshua engraves a copy of the law | a reminder of Israel’s duty to live in obedience to the divine “Torah,” or “instruction” |
| 10:27 | over Amorite kings at Gibeon | a reminder of God’s gracious action in defending Israel’s covenant with a Canaanite city |
| 22:34 | peace in the land of Gilead | a witness to the unity of the Transjordanian tribes with Israel west of the Jordan |
| 24:26–27 | covenant renewal at Shechem | a reminder of Israel’s duty to serve the Lord, who fulfilled every promise in bringing them into the land |
JOSHUA—NOTE ON 23:1–16 Joshua’s Charge to Israel’s Leaders. In many respects this episode mirrors the opening episode in the book of Joshua. The book began with the passing of the mantle of leadership to Joshua, after the death of Moses. Joshua, now “old and well advanced in years” (v. 1; cf. 13:1), will soon die (24:29), and so the next generation of leaders is charged in terms reminiscent of Joshua’s own charge in ch. 1.
JOSHUA—NOTE ON 23:1 A long time afterward. Specificity is not possible, but probably more than a quarter century has elapsed since Israel first crossed the Jordan into the land—assuming that Joshua was similar in age to Caleb at the beginning of the conquest (who was nearing 80; see note on 11:16–20), and in view of Joshua’s age of 110 at death (24:29). had given rest. The reference in Heb. 4:8 does not deny this, but rather clarifies the truth that life in the earthly Promised Land does not automatically bring one to participate in God’s own “rest.”
JOSHUA—NOTE ON 23:4–5 I have allotted … those nations that remain. Joshua has obeyed the mandate he received in 13:1–7 (see 23:6). With respect to these remaining peoples, Joshua reminds Israel’s leaders of the Lord’s promise to drive them out (“dispossess”; cf. 13:6) and their responsibility to possess their land (cf. 13:1).
JOSHUA—NOTE ON 23:6 Joshua charges the leaders who are to succeed him to be very strong, just as he had been charged three times in 1:5–9. Here he highlights only the central, key point: their greatest duty and challenge is to live and lead according to all that is written in the Book of the Law of Moses (cf. 1:7–8).
JOSHUA—NOTE ON 23:7–8 The key question facing the generation following Joshua is whom they will serve: the gods of the nations remaining or the true God of Israel (cf. v. 16). Allegiance to the gods of other nations continued to be the primary threat Israel faced while living among (mix with) the nations (cf. Ps. 106:34–36).
JOSHUA—NOTE ON 23:15–16 The same God who is true to his word in keeping his promises of blessing will be true to fulfill his threats (all the evil things, v. 15) if Israel breaks covenant with him and decides to serve other gods. Key Mosaic expositions of blessings and curses are found in Lev. 26:14–46 and Deut. 28:15–68.
JOSHUA—NOTE ON 24:1–33 Covenant Renewal at Shechem. In the ancient Near East, treaties or covenants between a suzerain and his vassal(s) (i.e., a superior and his subjects) often displayed a standard format. For an outline showing how the ceremony at Shechem compared to such treaties, see chart.
JOSHUA—NOTE ON 24:1 Shechem. See 8:30–33 and Judges 9. The archaeological record demonstrates that the city of Shechem was an important center of pagan worship in the Middle Bronze Age (2100–1550 B.C.). Extensive excavations at the mound known as Tell Balatah have revealed a large town surrounded by an elaborate fortification system. Several large and imposing “courtyard temples” have been discovered there. It is likely that the covenant renewal under Joshua took place in the excavated Fortress Temple at Shechem. It was originally constructed in the seventeenth century B.C., and it is perhaps the worship center called El-berith in Judg. 9:46.
JOSHUA—NOTE ON 24:2 Thus says the LORD. Joshua’s utterance of these words further confirms his status as the true successor to Moses (Deut. 5:27; 18:15–19).
JOSHUA—NOTE ON 24:12 the hornet. Some interpreters understand this as a literal reference to divine intervention using insects. However, the text says “the hornet” (singular) rather than “hornets” (plural). Others take this as a reference to Egypt (the “hornet” being a symbol of Lower Egypt), but no mention of Egypt is found here or in the other related narratives. Therefore it seems best to take this as a figurative expression, with “hornet” as a metaphor for the sting of fear that the Lord inflicts on his enemies; see Ex. 23:28, where “hornet” (singular in Hb.) is paralleled in the preceding verse by “my terror” (cf. also Deut. 7:20). The focus in all three contexts where “hornet” appears is on the Lord’s driving out Israel’s enemies.
JOSHUA—NOTE ON 24:14 Against the backdrop of the Lord’s faithfulness in fulfilling all his good promises, Israel is called to fear the LORD—a technical expression connoting not simply fear but reverence and true devotion—and serve him in sincerity and in faithfulness. Israel’s duty to “serve” (or “worship”) the Lord is the dominant theme in the final major section of the book of Joshua (chs. 22–24). The word “serve” in Hebrew (‘abad) occurs no fewer than 16 times in ch. 24 and an additional four times in chs. 22–23.
JOSHUA—NOTE ON 24:15 choose this day whom you will serve. Joshua has urged the people to serve the Lord alone, and to put away the false gods (v. 14). Now he makes his admonition even sharper: if it is evil in their eyes to serve the LORD (i.e., if they prefer not to be loyal to the one true God, the Lord alone), then they must choose between two different categories of false gods: (1) their ancestral gods from Mesopotamia, or (2) the gods worshiped by the peoples they have dispossessed in Canaan. Joshua exercises leadership by example, committing himself and his household to serving the Lord. The people’s response was to decisively reject false gods and to serve “the LORD our God” (vv. 16–17)—which Israel did “all the days of the elders who outlived Joshua” (v. 31), but which Israel failed to do in subsequent generations, as is tragically evidenced in the book of Judges.
JOSHUA—NOTE ON 24:19–21 You are not able to serve the LORD. Joshua’s point is surely not that the people are asked to do something impossible but, rather, that serving a holy and jealous God cannot be done casually or without divine assistance. It is disconcerting that the people simply reassert their claim—No, but we will serve the LORD (v. 21)—rather than ask for further instruction or prayer (cf. 1 Sam. 7:8). Joshua’s warning in Josh. 24:19 that he will not forgive your transgressions or your sins is not to suggest that God is unforgiving (quite the contrary) but that he cannot condone apostasy, the point at issue in context.
JOSHUA—NOTE ON 24:23 The mention of foreign gods makes the reader wonder how they could have been tolerated up to this point. Perhaps, as in vv. 14–15, Joshua is referring to the inner motives of their hearts.
JOSHUA—NOTE ON 24:24–25 The people make their promise. What sincerity and obedience will the following years reveal?
JOSHUA—NOTE ON 24:26–27 wrote these words in the Book of the Law of God. The title “Book of the Law of God” occurs elsewhere only at Neh. 8:18, where it is explicitly identified with the “Book of the Law of Moses” (Neh. 8:1) and “Book of the Law” (Neh. 8:3). Those same titles are also found in Joshua (see “Book of the Law” [1:8] and note on 1:5–9, and “Book of the Law of Moses” [8:31] and note on 8:32). It is likely that “the Book of the Law of God” in Joshua refers, not to additions Joshua makes to the Mosaic legislation (although Joshua is a likely source for Deuteronomy 34, the account of Moses’ death), but to the particular covenant enacted by Joshua with the people in Josh. 24:25, in which the people reaffirm their intention to be true to the Mosaic covenant. In that case the writing has not survived, except here in the book of Joshua. a large stone … a witness. This seventh monument in the land (see note on 4:20) serves as a reminder of Israel’s duty to serve the Lord, who fulfilled every promise in bringing them into the land.
JOSHUA—NOTE ON 24:29 Now at the end of his life, and for the first time, Joshua is called the servant of the LORD, an appellation Moses received at the end of his life (Deut. 34:5) and by which he is often referred to in the book of Joshua (see note on Josh. 1:1). Like Joseph before him (Gen. 50:26), Joshua is credited with a life span of 110 years, which was considered the ideal life span in Egypt throughout its 3,000-year history from the Old Kingdom to the Hellenistic period.
View this chart online at http://kindle.esvsb.org/c66
| Element | Function | Verses |
|---|---|---|
| preamble | introduces the suzerain (i.e., the sovereign) | v. 2 |
| historical prologue | recounts the suzerain’s past gracious dealings with the vassal (i.e., the subordinate) | vv. 2–13 |
| stipulations | outlines the vassal’s consequent responsibilities in respect to the suzerain | vv. 14–24 |
| written record | preserves the covenant agreement | v. 26 |
| witnesses | named | vv. 26–27; cf. v. 22 |
| blessings and curses | considered | implicit throughout, esp. in v. 20 |
JOSHUA—NOTE ON 24:31 The statement that Israel served the LORD all the days of Joshua and of the elders of his generation seems encouraging at first glance. But upon reflection, it is vaguely unsettling, as it allows that Israel’s faithful service may be limited. What will happen in the next generation? Cf. Judg. 2:6–15.
JOSHUA—NOTE ON 24:32 The burial of the bones of Joseph … at Shechem brings the book of Joshua (and indeed, the patriarchal history) to a fitting close. Joseph’s final wish is granted (Gen. 50:25; Ex. 13:19), and all three aspects of God’s promise to the patriarchs are, at least in part, fulfilled: Israel has become a great nation; it stands in blessed relationship to the Lord; and it has a land of its own.
JOSHUA—NOTE ON 24:33 Eleazar the son of Aaron died. Given the prominence of Eleazar (see note on 14:1) both in the Pentateuch and in the book of Joshua, his death notice serves as one more sign of the passing of an era.