Sources of Tibetan Tradition

administration and government (under the Pugyel dynasty): Delön, Bde blon (Pacification Minister), 62n2, 79, 84–86, 94n8; metaphor of horse (subjects), rider (ruler), and saddle (good governance), 42, 42n8, 43; severity of punishment in pre-Buddhist times, 9; titles of officials, 8, 43n9; see also Ganden government; monarchs and princes of the Pugyel dynasty; Pakmodrupa administration

Adrup Gönpo, impressions of France, 704–11

agreements and treaties: in Kaiyuan era (714), 15–16; “Peace Treaty of 783,” 19–21; Sino-Tibetan treaty of 756, 16–17; stele of Takdra Lukhong, Stag sgra klu khong, 57, 58–60; “Temple of the Treaty,” 78–86; “Treaty of 821–22” with Tang China, 21–24; between Ü and Tsang, 356–57; and the “uncle-nephew” pillar, dbon zhang rdo ring, 76–78; see also monarchs and princes of the Pugyel dynasty

Altan Khan (1508–82): Fourth Dalai Lama recognized as grandson of, 508; Kokonor and the royal family of, 633; meeting with Sönam Gyatso (Third Dalai Lama), 508, 525–30, 635; and Vajrapāṇi, 634–35; see also Mongolia and the Mongols

Amdo, A mdo, 636–38; birth of Fourteenth Dalai Lama Tenzin Gyatso in, xxxvii; and Choné, 596–97; and the Gelukpa educational network, 547, 585–96; Gönlung monastery, 592–94; and Jé Tsongkhapa, 508; Mount Amnyé Machen, A myes rma chen, 667, 667n2, 697n18; Repkong (Tongren) district, 665; spread of Buddhism in, 167, 587–92, 633, 634–35; see also Domé; Kelden Gyatso; Kokonor; Kumbum; Labrang Trashi Khyil; Mongolia and the Mongols; Jamyang Zhepé Dorjé; Zhapkar Tsokdruk Rangdröl

Amé Pelzangpo Gyeltsen (king of Mustang/Möntang, Glo smon thang), A myes Dpal bzang po rgyal mtshan: 361–64; connections with Ngor monastery, 363; sons and successors, 363–64

Amitābha, ’Od dpag med, Snang ba mtha’ yas: and birth of Songtsen Gampo, 306; discusses Tibet with Śākyamuni and Avalokiteśvara, 302–3; and Machik Lapdrön, Ma gcig Labs sgron, 243, 248–49; and Sukhāvatī (Dewachen, Bde ba can), 82, 153, 231n15, 248–49, 303, 525, 525n8; see also buddhas

An Lushan rebellion (755), 4, 6, 16, 58

Ānanda (arhat), 282, 454, 630; brahman translator, 73

animals: bear sightings as inauspicious, 718; and “cane” fires, 31–32; and compassion, 581–82, 674–75; as curiosities viewed by Adrup Gönpo (former Bönpo monk), 709; disease-bringing companions of Rāhula (planetary divinity), 297; domestication of, 9, 26, 581–82, 674; from a Dunhuang veterinary manual, 118; eating flesh and wearing skins of, 134–35; elephants (as models of nobility), 620; goat herding, 581–82; gold statuary of, in the Tsenpo’s throne room, 23; horses, 42n8, 114; hunting of as unkingly, 620; killing of, 456, 457, 674–75; in legal codes of Central Tibet, 493, 495; marmots, 9n6; and medicinals, 116, 281, 495; on Mount Everest and their tameness, 715; musk deer, 24, 33, 135, 495; as offspring of Gogzang-lhamo (mother of Gesar), 312–14; sacrifice of, 9, 20, 153, 169, 581; sea monsters, 651; and the six classes of beings in the Animate World, 331, 332, 579n8; and “sky burial,” 461; The Story of the Bird (Tibet) and the Monkey (Gurkhas), 572–73; and taxation/requisitions, 344; in Turkey, 653; in the wilderness of Ü-Tsang, 638; see also birds; dogs; monkeys; sheep; tigers; yaks

apparitions: associated with death and dying, 449, 463–64, 613; beheld by Ra Lotsawa, Rwa lo tsā ba, 229; Gendün Drupa’s visions, 524; Sachen Künga Nyingpo’s vision of Mañjuśrī, 200; see also dreams; illusions; sorcery and sorcerors

architecture: buildings erected over gravesites of Tsenpo, 10; as evidence of royal support of Buddhism, 70–71; Samyé construction, 138–42; Tibetan houses described in Tang Dynasty Annals (Tangshu), 10; Vajrāsana described by Ra Lotsawa, 228–29; Vajrāsana described by Sönam Rapgyé, Bsod nams rab rgyas, 626, 628–29; see also arts and crafts

artists: Gendün Chöpel, 655; in India, 369–70; image makers, 489–90; invited by Rinchen Zangpo, 175–76; Tibetan, 687–89

arts and crafts: art history and Tāranātha’s History of Buddhism in India, 369–70; codification of the arts and sciences by Sanggyé Gyatso, 385, 469–70, 532; depictions of Tibetan Tsenpos in the caves of Dunhuang, 23n19; described in religious song, 469, 474–78; dhāraṇī and the consecration of images, 612, 614; gold image of his deceased father cast for Rinchen Zangpo, 175–76; iconography of the “Temple of the Treaty” at Anxi Yulin, 79; Jé Tsongkhapa’s restoration projects, 520; Kongtrül on the development of artistic style, 687–89; mansions arising in Akaniṣtha heaven when a shrine to the Three Jewels is built, 82; models for statue construction at Samyé, 140; music at the Tibetan court, 23; Pema Karpo on sculptural style, 489–90; Rinchen Zangpo, 168, 173, 175–76; Sakya Paṇḍita on music, 468–69, 472–74; spontaneously arisen images of Buddhist deities, 228, 305, 307; Tenpa Tsering’s construction projects, 612; Viśvakarma (divine artisan), 228; weaving song of Nangsa Öbum, Snang sa ’od ’bum, 478–80; see also architecture; poetry; Tangtong Gyelpo

Āryadeva (Indian philosopher), 369, 510n1, 512, 663

Asaṅga (India philosopher): and Cittamātra (“Mind Only,” Yogācāra), 193n3, 374n1, 376; Stages of Yogic Practice (Bodhisattvabhūmi), 469, 509, 514; and the Six Ornaments (great Indian Buddhist philosophers), 369, 510n1, 512, 663

Atiśa Dīpaṅkaraśrījñāna (982–1054), Jo bo rje, A ti sha, Mar me mdzad dpal ye shes: Blue Annals life of, 176–83; and Dromtön, ’Brom ston, 182–83; and Gugé, 168; and the Kadampa school, 183; and Yeshé-ö, 177, 179; see also Geluk(pa); Kadampa school

austerities (performance of): as an act of the Buddha, 534, 629; as an act of the Fifth Dalai Lama, 535, 537; associated with gradualism, 144; Bön entranceway of the Ascetics, 264–65; during degenerate times, 583

Avalokiteśvara (Chenrezi, Spyan ras gzigs), 282; and the buddhas of the five families, 297; Eleven-Faced, 520, 598; and Hayagrīva, 140n9; the Lama of Rongbuk, Ngawang Tendzin Norbu, Rong phu bla ma Ngag dbang bstan ’dzin nor bu, as emanation of, 719; and Machik Lapdrön, Ma gcig Labs sgron, 243, 247–48; and Potala Mountain, 230; Princess Wencheng described as, 304–5; six-syllable Maṇi prayer (Oṃ maṇi padme hūṃ), 30, 248, 302, 305, 306–7, 451, 527n14, 598, 633, 685; and the successive Dalai Lamas, 397; and the successive Karmapas of the Kagyü school, 397; in The Testament Drawn from a Pillar, 302–3; and the Third Karmapa, Rangjung Dorjé, 420; see also bodhisattvas

Avataṃsaka Sūtra, 642–43n16

Azha, ’A zha (Tuyuhun) Kingdom, 4, 11, 11–12n11, 28, 50, 51, 59, 64; black Bön funerals performed by, 154; kings as vassals of the Tibetan Tsenpo, 28n23, 154; Tibetan conquest of, 4, 17, 51; northern tribes compared with, 111, 112; see also tribal groups; Turks; Uighur Turkish empire

Ba Selnang, Sba Gsal snang (Tibetan minister). See Yeshé Wangpo

Bacot, Jacques (1877–1965, French Tibetologist), 110, 704–11, 720

Bactrian translators in the court of Tri Desongtsen, 73

Bell, Charles (British political officer in Sikkim and Tibet, 1870–1945), 737, 740–45

Benjamin mi-Tudela, 30

Bhutan: a Bhutanese legal code, 497–503; coronation of King Ugyen Wangchuk, Chos rgyal U rgyan dbang phyug (1862–1926), xxxvii; and the cult of Padmasambhava, 158; and the Drukpa Kagyü(pa), ’Brug pa Bka’ brgyud, xxxii, xxxiv, 498n5; and Jangchup Gyeltsen, Byang chub Rgyal mtshan, 630; and the Kagyü school, 373; preservation of Shakya Chokden’s works in, 373; and the Sakyapa, 373; and Zhapdrung Ngawang Namgyel, Zhabs drung Ngag dbang Rnam rgyal (1594–c. 1651), 497, 498, 501, 502

bījas (seed syllables): and Bön causal samādhi practice, 265; the syllable A in Bön and Buddhism, 264n12

birds: bird divination/raven calls, 123–25; lammergeyer, 131, 134; lanner falcons, 33; Tendzin Repa (Bstan ’dzin ras pa), “Song to Birds in Winter at Tsāri,” 579–80; see also animals

birth. See reincarnation

Blue Annals, Deb ther sngon po of Gö Zhönnupel, ’Gos Gzhon nu dpal: George Roerich’s translation of, 720; life of Atiśa in, 176–83; life of Lama Zhang Yudrakpa in, 218–21; life of Pakmodrupa Dorjé Gyelpo in, 212–17; see also Gö Zhönnupel; historiography and historical writings

bodhisattvas, 75, 538, 619; advanced monks as, 543, 545, 588, 591; Asaṅga, Stages of Yogic Practice/Bodhisattvabhūmi, 469, 509, 514; Candraprabha, 643n17; early kings as, 171, 499; and the ideal of gradualism, 136, 143–49; Lha Totori Nyenshel as an emanation of bodhisattva Samantabhadra, 306; Lords of the Three Families, 152; pāramitās, six or ten surpassing perfections of, 64n9, 172, 194, 383n12; path/stages of, 80, 147, 149, 156, 214, 519; physicians as, 297, 480–84; Prince Henri d’Orléans considered as, 729, 730; Śāntarakṣita referred to as, 138; Śāntideva’s Bodhisattvacāryāvatāra (Introduction to the Conduct of a Bodhisattva, or Entry to Bodhisattva Practice), 214, 471, 483; Śāntideva’s Śikṣāsamuccaya (Compendium of Lessons), 509, 514; Tenpa Tsering as, 610; Tsongkhapa’s Great Treatise on the Stages of the Path to Enlightenment (Lam rim chen mo), 176, 507–16; Tsongkhapa’s Three Essentials of the Path (Lam gyi gtso bo rnam gsum), 509, 516–18; in the work of scholars and teachers, 401–3, 470–72, 509; see also Avalokiteśvara; Mañjuśrī; protectors; Tārā; Vajrapāṇi

bodies of buddhahood, sang rgyas kyi sku, 239n16, 445n6; dharmakāya, chos sku, the corpus of doctrine and the body of reality, 209, 305, 307, 414, 601, 640, 730; nirmāṇakāya, trülku, sprul sku, emanational embodiment, 239n16, 294, 397, 407, 445n6, 588; see also Buddhist doctrine

Bön and Bönpo: 126–27, 250–51; “Anti-Bön Polemics,” 251, 274–75; Ba clan abandonment of Bön religion, 139; Beri Donyö, Be ri Don yod, defeated by Gushri Khan, 540; former Bönpo monk Adrup Gönpo’s impressions of France, 704–11; “Great Vehicle”/Great Perfection tradition, 159, 260–61, 266, 275–76, 276, 381n7; Jamgön Kongtrül Lodrö Tayé (1813–99), ’Jam mgon Kong sprul Blo gros mtha’ yas, 675; Khyungpo Neljor, Khyung po rnal ’byor, 230; medical practices, 292; mortuary rites, 130–36, 692–96; origin tale of Bongbu Takchung, 134; rank assigned to Bönpo attendants, 94; Shardza Trashi Gyeltsen (1859–1934), Shar rdza Bkra shis rgyal mtshan, 692–96; Tibetan Buddhist forbidding of funeral rites of, 154; treasure revealer Shenchen Luga, Gshen chen klu dga’, 257–60; yungdrung (svāstika, g.yung drung) symbol, 67n6, 547n4; Zhangzhung as ancient center, 11n10, 126, 362; see also Shenrap Miwo; Zhangzhung (kingdom in western Tibet, a.k.a. Yangtong/Rāng-Rong)—canonical scriptures: adoption of the phrase “in the language of,” 134; Zermik (Gzer mig, “Clear Eye”), 251–56; Ziji (Gzi brjid, “The Glorious”), 251, 267–74—deities and spirits: Bongbu Takchung (Small Tiger Bumblebee, Bong bu stag chung), the exterminator of the sin, 133, 134, 135; Cha Kengtsé Lenmé, Phya keng tse lan med (the “Cha divinity, to whom] Confucius had no answer”), 97; Nakpa Guchok (the srin, Nag pa dgu chog), 133, 134, 135; Namchi Gung Gyelmo (Heavenly Queen of the Outer Space, Gnam phyi gung rgyal mo), 134, 136; Yarlha Shampo, Yar lha Sham po, 152, 153, 362; see also divinities

buddhas: infinite numbers of, 81; pratyekabuddhas, “solitary buddhas,” 61n1, 170n4, 464; tathāgatagarbha, “buddha nature,” 374n2, 409, 409n24, 410; tathāgatas, bde bzhin gshegs pa, So, 141, 409n24; of the ten directions, 61, 84, 306; and the Three Precious Jewels, 79–81, 84; see also Amitābha; bodies of buddhahood; Maitreya; Śākyamuni; Samantabhadra; Shenrap Miwo; Vairocana; Vajradhara

Buddhist canon. See canon (Buddhist)

Buddhist doctrine: Buddhas of the Three Times, 330; Butön on teaching and learning Buddhist scripture and scholastic literature, 401–7; Four Noble Truths, 64n5; pratīyasamutpāda (interdependent origination), 118, 121–23, 159–60, 696; saṃsāra, 398–99, 413, 415–20, 580–83; three vehicles of canonical Buddhism, 61n1; Three Vows (Hīnayāna, Mahāyāna, Vajrayāna), 336; see also bodies of buddhahood; emptiness; Mahāyāna; wheel of doctrine, dharmacakra, chos kyi ’khor lo

Buddhist precepts: alcoholic beverages forbidden for ordained monks, 208; and bhikṣu (gelong) ordination, 136, 178, 215n11, 335, 388; five prātimokṣa precepts, 219n14, 527; ten evils, 169n2, 501n9; ten virtues, 501, 747n12; see also Mahāyāna; sudden and gradual approaches to enlightenment

Bugchor, Bug chor (part of Turkestan in western Gansu and Xinjiang), 111, 113, 130

Burma, visited by Bacot and Adrup Gönpo, 705–6

Buryat Mongols. See Mongolia and the Mongols

Bushell, S. W., 6, 7, 9, 24

Butön Rinchendrup (1290–1364), Bu ston Rin chen grub: anti-Bön polemics falsely attributed to, 274; relics of, 463; on scholars and teaching, 401–6; and Tai Situ Jangchup Gyeltsen, 326, 348–49; and the Third Karmapa, Rangjung Dorjé, 420; see also Zhalu monastery

cakravartin, ’khor lo bsgyur ba’i rgyal po (wheel-turning king), 333; Chinggis Khan, 336; Emperor of China, 541; Indrabodhi (king of Oḍḍiyāna) as model, 610; in Mipam’s “Treatise on Kingship,” 617–21; Qubilai Khan, 407–8; Tenpa Tsering, 610; Tri Tsukdetsen, 83

Candragomin, Tsandra go mi, 228, 401, 680

cannibalism: butchering animals as analogous to, 674–75; and ḍākinī Niguma, 232–33; man-eating Üdhadaglek, 114; in the region of Ke’u-li (Korea), 111; “sky burial” misinterpreted as, 30, 31; and the tribes of the Lopa, 631–32

canon (Buddhist): “A Buddhist Canon for the Lord of Zhalu,” 407–9; Dergé Printery edition, 612–13, 659–60; Nartang edition, Snar thang, 349n9; overview, 307–8; Two Fascicle Lexicon (Drajor Bampo Nyipa, Sgra sbyor bam po gnyis pa) of Tri Songdetsen, 72–76; see also Kangyur; printing and wood-block carving; Tengyur; Vinaya

census: by the Domé Council, 47, 50; Mongol-sponsored, of Tibetan households, xxxii

Chan Buddhism, 65, 136, 143

Changkya I Lozang Chöden (1642–1714), Lcang skya Blo bzang chos Idan, 593, 594, 595, 596

Changkya II Rölpé Dorjé (1717–86), Lcang skya Rol pa’i rdo rje, xxxv, 592, 638, 641–44, 648; see also Monguor (Mongwol) community; Tukwan Chökyi Nyima

children and childhood: Amdo boyhood of Zhapkar Tsokdruk Rangdröl, Zhabs dkar Tshogs drug rang grol, 665–68; childhood of Milarepa, Mi la ras pa, 439–40; childhood of Namgyeldé, Rnam rgyal lde, 356; childhood of Pakmodrupa, Phag mo gru pa, 213–14; childhood of Sakya Paṇḍita, 386–87; childhood of the Fifth Dalai Lama, 536; childhood of Zhang Rinpoché, 218–19; education, 13, 71, 72; law, 494, 495; as shepherds, 581–82; six-syllable Maṇi prayer taught to, 247–48; the wise child Xiang Tuo and Confucius, 96–100; see also women

China (contemporary): Tibetan Buddhist centers in, xx

—geography, regions and towns: Beijing, 304, 328, 330, 339, 341, 344, 525, 526, 531, 540–42, 544, 557, 569, 571, 596, 632, 633, 636, 637, 638, 639, 641, 648, 654, 703, 711, 712, 713, 714, 728, 735, 736, 737, 740, 746–47; Chang’an, 4, 6, 7, 16–19, 47, 59, 76, 305; Chongqing, 748–51; Gansu, 3, 4, 5, 6, 15, 19, 21, 27, 28, 35, 51, 52, 59, 62, 78, 79, 111, 130, 162, 167, 337, 596, 602, 635, 637, 639; Hangzhou, 728, 747; Jehol, 703; Nanzhao, 4, 13, 39, 48, 49, 78, 85, 328, 335, 630; Qinghai, 4, 6, 11, 15, 28, 51, 58, 59, 167, 508, 539, 592, 623, 635, 638, 665, 667, 697, 714; Shanghai, 713; Sichuan, 12, 31, 151, 155, 309, 397, 549, 570, 571, 605, 637, 659, 748; Sumpa Khenpo on Chinese geography, 635–38; Yunnan, 4, 13, 39, 328, 540, 597, 630, 637, 705, 740; see also Dunhuang; Wutai shan—Republican: and the exile of the Thirteenth Dalai Lama to India, 704; and the founding of the Sino-Tibetan Buddhist Academy, 748–49; Gurong Tsang as titular head of the Nyingmapa during, 711–13

Chinese Nationalist Party (Guomindang): and the Ninth Paṇchen Lama, 728; report of northern campaign against the Communist revolutionaries in The Mirror, 739–40; and Sun Yat-sen, 728, 746

Chinese religions: Arhat Maudgalyāyana (Ch. Mulian), 452–66; Chinese Buddhism in Tibet before and during the time of Tri Songdetsen, 137; “Confucius and the Marvelous Lad,” 96–100; Daoism as a Chinese parallel to Bön, 637, 644, 647–49; Karma Pakshi’s debate with representatives of, 397; summarized by Tukwan Chökyi Nyima, 644–50

Chinggis Khan, 29, 343, 573, 633, 638; associated with Russian rulers, 651; lineage, 336–42, 547; and Sakya Paṇḍita, 635

Christianity: Adrup Gönpo’s visit to a church in Marseille, 706–7; Agwang Dorjiev on Christianity in Russia, 732; Gendün Chöpel on the Inquisition in Portuguese colonies in India, 753; Ishi Myishiha (Jesus the Messiah) as Vajrapāṇi, 96; and Manicheanism, 95–96; missionaries at the court of Polhané Sönam Topgyel, 533; Nestorian, 73n7, 95–96, 342, 397

Cittamātra (“Mind Only”) or Yogācāra (“Yoga Practice”), 193n3, 374n1, 376

clothing and ornament: ancient Tibetan customs described by Abu Said Gardīzī (d. 1061), 25–26; Nepalese, 624; Tibetan custom of wearing a turquoise, 569; of Tibetan Tsenpos, 23, 23n19; of Tibetans described in the Tang Dynasty Annals (Tangshu), 9, 13

compassion, 83; of Buddha Amitābha, 82; of Buddha Maitreya, 82–83; Dza Peltrül Rinpoché on, 674–75; Great Compassion (the meditation of Avalokiteśvara), 215; and the Miktséma, dmigs brtse ma (Aiming at Loving-Kindness), prayer, 541, 542, 633, 634; Orgyen Chökyi on, 581–82; and the path of the bodhisattva, 80, 149, 168

Confucius (551–479 B.C.E.), Kongtsé, Kong tse, 96–100, 646–47

cosmology and cosmogony: in a non-Buddhist text in Tibetan from Dunhuang, 127–30; Chögyel Pakpa on, 329–31; Dölpopa on the four yuga (world ages), 410, 411–13

Criteria of the Authentic Scriptures, Bka’ yang dag pa’i tshad ma las mdo btus pa, attributed to Tri Songdetsen, 95–96, 118–23, 126; see also logic and epistemology

Dalai Lama I, Gendün Drupa (1391–1474), Rgyal ba Dge ’dun grub pa: posthumous recognition of, xxxiii, 522–23; as a student of Tsongkhapa, 508; Trashilhünpo monastery, Bkra shis lhun po, 508, 522–25

Dalai Lama II, Gendün Gyatso (1476–1542), Rgyal ba Dge ’dun rgya mtsho, 523, 634

Dalai Lama III, Sönam Gyatso (1543–88), Rgyal ba Bsod nams rgya mtsho: and Altan Khan, 508, 525–30, 635; and the Gelukpa tradition in Amdo, 587, 633, 634–35; as an incarnation of Sakya Paṇḍita, 635

Dalai Lama IV, Yönten Gyatso (1589–1617), Rgyal ba bzhi pa Yon tan rgya mtsho: and Altan Khan’s lineage, 508; founding of Gönlung monastery in Amdo, 592; and Mongol control of Lhasa, 358; recognition of, 537; travels to Amdo by, 587, 589

Dalai Lama V, Ngawang Lozang Gyatso (1617–82, the “Great Fifth”), Lnga pa chen po Ngag dbang blo bzang rgya mtsho: death concealed by Sanggyé Gyatso, 547; decrees issued by, 545–51; (Desi) Sanggyé Gyatso recognized as regent, 531–32, 546, 547–50, 551–53; and Gushri Khan, 358, 508, 538, 548; letter to King Jitāmitramalla of Bhaktapur (Nepal), 551–53; life compared to Śākyamuni, 523, 533–38; title conferred by Qing Emperor Shunzhi, 547; see also Sanggyé Gyatso

Dalai Lama VI, Tsangyang Gyatso (1683–1706), Rgyal ba drug pa Tshangs dbyangs rgya mtsho: biographical information, xxiv, 532, 557, 595; enthronement/dethronement, 5, 532; love songs by, 557–59

Dalai Lama VII, Kelzang Gyatso (1708–57), Rgyal ba bdun pa Skal bzang rgya mtsho: xxxv, 533, 559n1, 595; and Dokharwa Tsering Wanggyel, Mdo mkhar ba Tshe ring dbang rgyal, 563, 564–67; installation, xxxv, 564

Dalai Lama VIII, Jampel Gyatso (1758–1804), Rgyal ba ’Jam dpal rgya mtsho, xxxvi, 533

Dalai Lama IX, Lungtok Gyatso (1805–15), Rgyal ba Lung rtogs rgya mtsho, xxxvi

Dalai Lama X, Tsültrim Gyatso (1816–37), Rgyal ba Tshul khrims rgya mtsho, xxxvi

Dalai Lama XI, Khedrup Gyatso (1838–55), Rgyal ba Mkhas grub rgya mtsho, xxxvi

Dalai Lama XII, Trinlé Gyatso (1856–75), Rgyal ba Phrin las rgya mtsho, xxxvi

Dalai Lama XIII, Tupten Gyatso (1876–1933), Rgyal ba Thub bstan rgya mtsho, 533, 712; and Agwang Dorjiev, 704, 727, 728–29, 733; Kachem (last testament, bka’ chems) of, 740–45, 749; letter to King Edward VII, 735–36, 738–39; and the modernization of Tibet, 655, 704, 727; Qing occupation of Lhasa, 743; support for The Mirror (Gsar ’gyur me long), 739; and William Woodville Rockhill, 735–36, 736–38

Dalai Lama XIV, Tenzin Gyatso (b. 1935), Rgyal ba Bstan ’dzin rgya mtsho, xxxvii, 739

David-Neel, Alexandra (1868–1969), 711–12, 714, 729

death and dying: the bardo (postmortem intermediate state), 234, 449–52; delok (revenants), ’das log, 456–58, 478; described by Tselé Natsok Rangdrol, Rtse le Sna tshogs rang grol, 446, 447–49; the land of the dead, 132–33, 453; Tibetan Book of the Dead (a.k.a. Self-Liberated Wisdom of the Peaceful and Wrathful Deities), 446, 449–52; see also mortuary rites; reincarnation

Delön, Bde blon (Pacification Minister), 62n2, 79, 84–86, 94n8

Dergé, Sde dge: Dergé Printery, Sde dge par khang, 612–13, 659–60, 675–76; Ju Mipam Gyatso’s “Treatise on Kingship,” 617–21; 19th-century cultural revival of Kham, 675; nonsectarian views of kings, 617; Royal Genealogies of Dergé, 607, 608–14; Tenpa Tsering, Bstan pa tshe ring (1676–1738), 587, 607–8, 608–14; Tsewang Dorjé Rikdzin, Tshe dbang rdo rje rig ’dzin, 607, 675–77; war with Nyarong, 676–78; see also Kham

desi, sde srid: Desi Sönam Chöpel (regent of the Ganden government), 537; governor/ commander-in-chief of the Pakmodrupa, 348, 355; Tsangpa Desi, 358–59

Desi Sanggyé Gyatso. See Sanggyé Gyatso, desi

dhāraṇī: benefits of the dhāraṇī of Candraprabha, 643; and the consecration of images, 612, 614; translated by Rinchen Zangpo, 174; Tri Desongtsen on the translation of dhāraṇī mantras, 75–76, 156; see also mantra(s)

Dharma (chos, “word of the Buddha”): Butön on listening to, 406–7; and the Three Precious Jewels (Triratna), 60–61, 79–80, 82, 84, 119–21, 146, 408; see also Kangyur

dharma(s) (chos, “elements of existence”), 64, 64n5

Dharmakīrti (7th-century Indian philosopher): and the Six Ornaments (great Indian Buddhist philosophers), 369, 372, 376, 381, 387, 388, 395, 396; and Tsongkhapa, 509, 510, 513

diet: European, described by Sumpa Khenpo, 652; of the people of Dzambuling during the Medium Eon, 334; of the peoples of the far north (Pelliot tibétain 1283), 112; Russian, described by Sumpa Khenpo, 651; of Tibetans, described in the Tang Dynasty Annals, 10

Dignāga and the Six Ornaments (great Indian Buddhist philosophers), 369, 510n1, 512, 663

Dingri, Ding ri (town in western Tibet), 235, 717

districts and regions: Anxi Yulin, 79; Assam, 631–32; Daxia, 79; Dekham (Delön-kham, Bde blon khams), 62n2; Dokham, 596, 611, 678; Dölpo (northwestern region of Nepal), 578–79; Kharak, Kha rag (district in Central Tibet), 197, 356; Ling, Gling, 70, 71, 309, 310–18; Mangyül, Mang yul, 28, 39, 102, 161, 168, 192, 198, 430, 574, 579n7, 715–19; Maryül, Mar yul (Ladakh), 28, 175, 309, 754; Muli, 605–7; N.zvān, 28; Tangut kingdom (a.k.a. Minyak, Mi nyag, or Ch. Xixia), xxxi, 12n12, 327, 335, 338, 593n5; Tazik (Tajikistan), 126; Western Qiang, 7, 17; see also Amdo; Azha; China—geography, regions and towns; Dergé; Domé; Drakmar; Dunhuang; Gansu; geographical categories and conceptions; India–districts, regions, and towns; Kham; Khotan; Magadha; Mongolia and the Mongols; Mount Kailash; Mount Meru; Nepal; Ngari; sacred geography; Sikkim; Turks and Turkestan/Xinjiang; Uighur Turkish empire; Yarlung Valley; Zhangzhung

divination and astrology, xx, 36, 72, 88, 89, 96, 118, 127: bird divination manual from Dunhuang, 123–25; among the vehicles of Bön, 261–62, 267; and the construction of Samyé, 139, 141; Juzhak (“knot sortilege”), 270n14; and the Kālacakra Tantra, 585; and the Mongolian royal succession, 341; Parkha Mew Circle(s) (Parkha, Ch. bagua), 270n13; Sanggyé Gyatso’s writings on, 532

divinities: Cakrasaṃvara, 199, 215, 230, 231, 459, 591, 683; Cha, Phya or Phywa, 46n13, 202n8; the Dé, lde, 38, 38n3; Déla Gunggyel, Lde bla gung rgyal, 39; lha (deities), 130, 131, 132; local deities resident in Amdo, 601; the Mu, 151–52, 152n9; Ödé Gunggyel, ’O lde gung rgyal, 362; Pelden Lhamo (a.k.a. Queen Makzor, female guardian deity of the Gelukpa), Dpal ldan lha mo, 550; Sarasvatī, 101, 295, 428, 698; Sé (bse) goddesses, 130, 132, 158; Vajrabhairava, 228, 601; welmo and tangmo (female warrior deities), dbal mo, thang mo, 263n8; yakṣas, 62; zhidak, gzhi bdag (lord of the terrain), 355; see also Bön and Bönpo–deities and spirits; Hinduism; nāgas; protectors; Tārā; Vaiśravaṇa

dogs: divine dog in Nanzhao kingdom mythology, 39n6; dogsleds observed as an oddity, 652; dogskin and skull fractures, 116; great world-hounds, 39; mastiffs and other sporting dogs, 33; mythological mating with women, 113; see also animals

Dohā, spiritual songs, 425, 426; of Dromtön, ’Brom ston, 183; of Marpa, Mar pa, 204

Dokharwa Tsering Wanggyel (1697–1763), Mdo mkhar ba Tshe ring dbang rgyal: Autobiography of a Cabinet Minister, 563–68; Biography of Miwang (Polhané Sönam Topgyel), 560–63; and the Seventh Dalai Lama, 563, 564–67; Tale of the Incomparable Prince, 556, 770

Dölpo, Dol po (northwestern region of Nepal): and Crystal Peak, 578–79; geographic location of, xxxix

Dölpopa Sherap Gyeltsen (1292–1361), Dol po pa Shes rab rgyal mtshan: and Candrakīrti, 380; “extrinsically empty” (zhentong) theory of, 409–15 (see also Jonang school); and Tai Situ Jangchup Gyeltsen, 348; and the Third Karmapa, Rangjung Dorjé, 421

Domé, Mdo smad (Amdo, i.e., most of Qinghai and adjacent regions), 28, 47, 51; An Lushan rebellion in, 58; and Gönlung monastery, 592–94; and the Monguor, 592–93, 592–93n2, 623, 636, 638n14, 639, 641, 644; summer and winter councils in, 587–92; Tsongkha, Tsong kha, 48, 51, 59; used occasionally to refer to Kham, 606; Zhapkar Tsokdruk Rangdröl (1781–1851), Zhabs dkar Tshogs drug rang grol, 665–68, 669–73; see also Amdo; Azha; Kokonor

Doring Kalön Tendzin Peljor, Rdo ring bka’ blon Bstan ’dzin dpal ’byor (Tibetan diplomat/minister), on the status of Tibet after war with Nepal, 572–73

Dorjiev, Agwang, Sog po Ngag dbang rdo rje (Buryat Mongol): on the British invasion of Tibet, 728–29, 733; and Geshé Ngawang Wangyel, Dge bshes Ngag dbang dbang rgyal, 729; spread of teachings of the Buddha among Buryat shamanists by, 728–29, 732, 734; and the Thirteenth Dalai Lama, 704, 727, 728–29, 733

Drakmar, Brag dmar, 49, 50, 62, 65, 139, 140, 150, 158, 524; see also Samyé monastery

Drakpa Gyeltsen, Grags pa rgyal mtshan (1147–1216): and Mongol Emperor Öljetü, 349; Naktso Lotsawa, Nag tsho lo tsā ba, referred to by, 225–27; and Pelchen Öpo, Dpal chen ’od po, 387; The Royal Genealogy of Tibet, 327; travels to Rutsam, 198; as uncle and tutor of Sakya Paṇḍita, 384, 385, 427; see also Sakyapa tradition

dreams: Atiśa and, 178, 181; and empowerment, 233–34, 529; Marpa’s dream vision of Saraha, 204–8; and omens, 141, 150–51, 213, 364–65, 536–37; as sources of knowledge, 141, 215, 216, 219, 232–33, 387; see also illusion; magic/magical practices

Drepung monastery, ’Bras spungs, 547, 601; founded by Jamyang Chöjé Trashi Pelden, ’Jam dbyangs chos rje Bkra shis dpal ldan (1416), 507; and Gendün Chöpel, Dge ’dun chos ’phel, 719; rivalry with Sera monastery, 532, 543–45; and the Sino-Tibetan Buddhist Institute, 748–49

Drigum Tsenpo (eighth king of Tibet), Gri/dri gum btsan po, legendary tale of death of, 38–41, 150, 257

Drigung Kagyü, Drigungpa, ’Bri gung bka’ brgyud, xxxii, 350, 683

Drigung Kyopa Jikten Sumgön, ’Bri gung skyob pa ’Jig rten gsum mgon, xxxi

Drigung monastery, ’Bri gung mthil, xxxi, xxxii, 342, 355, 356, 357, 522, 733

Drokmi Lotsawa (993–c. 1064), ’Brog mi lo tsā ba (a.k.a. Drokmi Shakya Yeshé), ’Brog mi Shākya ye shes, 190–91; payment for Gayādhara’s Lamdré teachings by, 191, 194–96

Dromtön Gyelwé Jungné (1004–64), ’Brom ston Rgyal ba’i ’byung gnas: and Atiśa, 182–83; and the Kadampa school, 176–86

Drukpa Kagyü (pa), ’Brug pa Bka’ brgyud: and Bhutan, 498n5; in Nepal, 627n1; and Pema Karpo (1526–92), Padma dkar po, 489–90; persecuted by (Desi) Sanggyé Gyatso, (Sde srid) Sangs rgyas rgya mtsho, 497, 499, 574

Dunhuang, xxx, 4–5, 19, 23n, 65, 143; see also Gansu province –documents and manuscripts from Cave 17: xx, 5, 10n, 35–36, 144, 187, 235, 720; bird divination, 123–25; Christianity and Manicheanism, 95–96; Confucius, 96–100; the Fall of Mankind, 127–30; lands of north Asia (PT 1283), 110–14; legal documents, 87–92; Old Tibetan Chronicles (PT 1286, 1287), 36–46, 204; Old Tibetan Annals, 46–52; official records and contracts, 52–56; medical texts, 114–18, 238; mortuary rituals in, 10n9, 130–33, 446; Padmasambhava, 157–58; a postimperial tantric text (PT 849), 161–62; Prayers of Dega Yutsel (PT 16, IOL Tib J 751), 78–86; Rāmāyaṇa, 100–10, 426–27; Two Fascicle Lexicon (Drajor Bampo Nyipa, Sgra sbyor bam po gnyis pa), 72–76

Dza Peltrül Rinpoché (1808–87, a.k.a. Orgyen Jikmé Chökyi Wangpo), Rdza Dpal sprul O rgyan ’jigs med chos kyi dbang po: and the Bünpo master Shardza Trashi Gyeltsen, 693; on compassion, 674–75

Dzokchen, Rdzogs (pa) chen (po). See Great Perfection

emptiness: Dölpopa’s “extrinsically empty” (zhentong) theory, 409–15; and impermanence, 184, 461, 462, 583, 584, 691n16; and Machik Lapdrön, Ma gcig Labs sgron, on Severance, 243–44; in the Mahāyāna tradition, 168; nihilism, 517–18, 518n6; in Padampa Sanggyé’s Pacification of Suffering, 235–42; in the Perfection of Wisdom, 145n17, 235; in Sautrāntika and Cittamātra traditions, 376–77; see also Buddhist doctrine; Mahāyāna; Perfection of Wisdom

Europe and Europeans: Agwang Dorjiev on Europe and Christianity, 728–34; described by Sumpa Khenpo, 651–52; English travelers observed by Adrup Gönpo, 706; Germany, 714n12, 739; observed by Gendün Chöpel, 728; and the Rongbuk Lama Ngawang Tendzin Norbu, Rong phu bla ma Ngag dbang bstan ’dzin nor bu, 716–19; Tibetan Buddhist institutions in, xx; the travels of Friar William of Rubruck, 29–30, 30–31; the travels of Marco Polo, 31–34; see also France; Great Britain; monarchs and princes of Europe; Russia

foxes: associated with cowardice, 10, 94, 288; fox-headed demons in the realm of hell, 453

France: Adrup Gönpo’s impressions of, 705–11; Prince Henri d’Orléans’ 1889–90 expedition to Tibet, 729–30, 732; visited by Agwang Dorjiev (Buryat Mongol and Tibetan diplomat), 732; see also Europeans

Gampopa Sönam Rinchen (1079–1153, a.k.a. Dakpo Lharjé), Sgam po pa Bsod nams rin chen Dwags po lha rje: as an emanation of Candraprabha, 643n17; four major disciples of, 209; and Gompa Tsültrim Nyingpo (nephew of), 218, 220; and the Kadampa school, 183, 208–9; and the Kagyü Mahāmudrā tradition, 208–9, 225, 225, 683, 685; and Karmapa Düsum Khyenpa, Dus gsum mkhyen pa, 397; and Lama Zhang Yudrakpa, Zhang g.yu brag brtson ’grus grags pa, 208–9; and Pakmodrupa Dorjé Gyelpo, Phag mo gru pa Rdo rje rgyal po, 213, 216–17

Ganden government: and Ganden Podrang (Dga’ ldan pho brang, Tuṣita Palace), 508, 532, 549; and the Gelukpa, 617; legal authority of, 532; and the rulers of the Kathmandu Valley, 533; see also Dalai Lamas; Sanggyé Gyatso

Ganden monastery: Drok Riwo Ganden, ’Brog ri bo dga’ ldan, a.k.a. Ganden Nampar Gyelwé Ling, Dga’ ldan rnam par rgyal ba’i gling, 538, 539; and Jé Tsongkhapa, 507–8, 518, 523; visited by Gushri Khan, 539; see also monasteries

Ganden Podrang (Dga’ ldan pho brang, Tuṣita Palace): establishment of, 508, 532, 549; and Gönlung monastery in Amdo, 592; see also Ganden government

Gandenpa (Dga’ ldan pa): rise of, xxi, 507–8; Sanggyé Gyatso, Sangs rgyas rgya mtsho, Yellow Beryl (The Official History of the Gandenpa), 553–55; see also Dalai Lamas; Gelukpa; Jé (Rinpoché) Tsongkhapa Lozang Drakpa (1357–1419), Rje Rin po che Tsong kha pa Blo bzang grags pa

Ganges River, 369, 516, 555, 628, 721, 754; “flowing of,” 553, 722; Machu River compared with, 602; and Magadha, 330; “sands of” as a measure of numerousness, 80

Gansu province, 162; as a new terrritory in 1667, 635–36, 637n10; and Choné, 596; Gansu corrider/Hexi region, 6, 15; and Gönlung monastery, 637n10; see also Dunhuang; Silk Road

Gayādhara (Indian Buddhist scholar), Drokmi Lotsawa’s payment for Lamdré teachings by, 191, 194–96

Geluk(pa), Dge lugs (pa), 638; and Atiśa, 176–77; celibacy of monastics, 549; conversion of monasteries to, 532; Gönlung monastery, 592–94; first Jamyang Zhepé Dorjé, ’Jam dbyangs bzhad pa’i rdo rje, xxxiv, 586, 598; second Jamyang Zhepé Dorjé, Könchok Jikmé Wangpo, ’Jam dbyangs bzhed pa’i rdo rje, Dkon mchog ’jigs med dbang po, 597–600, 600–4; Jé Tsongkhapa, 373, 508, 538; satirized by Ju Mipam Gyatso, 689–92, 711; in Kham, 617; Kumbum monastery, Sku ’bum (Amdo), 711–12, 735; literary pursuits encouraged by, 385, 469–70, 532; Pelden Lhamo (a.k.a. Queen Makzor, female guardian deity), Dpal ldan lha mo, 550; prayer to Tsongkhapa (Miktséma), 541, 542, 633, 634; respect for Bönpo master Shardza Trashi Gyeltsen, 692; rivalry with the Karmapa, 358, 360; rivalry with the Sakyapa, 327, 349, 351–57; selections from Yellow Beryl of Desi Sanggyé Gyatso, 553–55; Trashilhünpo, Bkra shis lhun po, monastery (in Zhigatsé, Gzhis ka rtse), 465, 508, 522–25, 554; see also Dalai Lamas; Drepung monastery; Jé Tsongkhapa; Mongolia and the Mongols; Paṇchen Lamas; Sanggyé Gyatso; Sera monastery

Gendün Chöpel (1903–51), Dge ’dun chos ’phel, 719–21; on British imperialism, 728, 751–55; contribution to The Mirror (Gsar ’gyur me long) by, 655, 720; and Jacques Bacot, 720; poetry of, 721–26; see also historiography and historical writings

Gendün Drupa. See Dalai Lama I

geographical categories and conceptions: the four “horns” (ru) of the Central Tibetan empire, 50n18, 191; Indian cosmic model of Jambudvīpa, ’Dzam bu gling, and the world sphere of the four continents, 153, 329–34, 330, 572, 630–31; Jikmé Lingpa on Assam, 630–33; lands and peoples of the far north described in a manuscript from Dunhuang, 110–14; and Samyé’s design, 141; Sumpa Khenpo’s General Geography, 635–68, 650–54; Tendzin Trinlé’s Great Geography, 654–59; see also districts and regions; sacred geography

Germany, 714n12, 739

Geshé Ngawang Wangyel, Dge bshes Ngag dbang dbang rgyal, 729

Gö Zhönnupel (a.k.a. Gö Lotsawa), ’Gos Gzhon nu dpal (’Gos lo tsā ba): death of, 353; see also Blue Annals

gold: and Assam border trade marts, 631; documents written in letters of, 60, 357, 363, 612; and Drokmi Lotsawa’s payment for Gayādhara’s Lamdré teachings, 191, 194–96; arrows as a sign of office, 8; dust offered in tantric practices, 158, 232–33; measures of, 493, 520, 612; mines in Zhangzhung (Rāng-Rong), 27–28; offered during the Great Prayer Festival of 1409, 520; as only payment for fines, 493; and other minerals abundant in Tibet, 9, 33; ritual painting of the Jowo Śākyamuni with, 520; statuary of animals in the Tsenpo’s throne room, 23, 146; see also mineral wealth

Gompa Tsültrim Nyingpo, Sgom pa Tshul khrims snying po, 218, 220

Gönlung, Dgon lung, monastery (founded 1604), 592–94, 637n10

Gönpo Namgyel of Nyarong, Nyag rong Mgon po rnam rgyal, 676

Great Britain: Agwang Dorjiev (Buryat Mongol) on the British invasion, 728–29, 733; Charles Bell (British political officer in Sikkim), 740–41; expedition led by C. G. Bruce, 716–19; and Francis Younghusband (1863–1942), 704, 735; Gendün Chöpel, Dge ’dun chos ’phel, on British imperialism, 728, 751–55; Mount Everest expeditions by, 715–19; Queen Victoria as an emanation of Tārā, 754; Tibetan impressions of, 716, 717–19; see also Europe and Europeans

Great Perfection (Dzokchen, Rdzogs chen): and the Bön of the Great Vehicle, 159, 260–61, 266, 275–76, 276, 381n17; combined with the Mahāmudrā system of meditation, 421, 680; and the concept of “great seminal essence” (tiklé chenpo, “unbounded wholeness”), 275–77; and the Fourfold Seminal Essence (Nyingtik yazhi), 416; disparagement of, 171; and the Nyingmapa contemplative tradition, 187, 680n11; Rikpa Rangshar (Spontaneous Emergence of Awareness), 448; Samantabhadra in Bön and Nyingmapa traditions of, 159, 276, 381n7; Tögel (all-surpassing realization), 666n1; see also tantrism

Great Prayer Festival in Lhasa, Lha sa smon lam chen mo: Gelukpa monks and leaders forbidden from attending, 352; Guidelines for Seating Arrangements at the Great Prayer Festival of Lhasa (1675), 543–45; Jé Tsongkhapa’s founding of, 507, 518–22, 544; Miwang Drakpa Gyeltsen’s patronage of, 352, 519, 522

Great Prayer Festival of Trashilhünpo, 524

Gugé kingdom: and Atiśa (Dīpaṅkaraśrījñāna), 168; Rinchen Zangpo and the spread of the arts and learning from Kashmir to, 168, 174; Western Tibet controlled by, 28n22, 364–67; see also Ngari

Gurong Tsang, Dgu rong tshang (Nyingmapa scholar), 711–15

Gushri Khan (1582–1655, a.k.a Tendzin Chögyel): attack on Tsang led by, 360, 531, 538; Beri Dönyö defeated by, 540; compared to Songtsen Gampo, 539; and the Fifth Dalai Lama, 358, 508, 538, 548; as ruler of Tibet, 538, 546, 548; and Tsongkhapa, 548; and Vajrapāṇi (protector bodhisattva), 538, 539; see also Mongolia and the Mongols

Gyelmorong, Rgyal mo (tsha ba) rong, 151, 155

Gyurmé Namgyel, ’Gyur med rnam rgyal, execution of, 563

heshang (Buddhist monk), as a term in the Testament of Ba, 137–38

Heshang Moheyan (“monk Mahāyāna,” Hā shang Mahāyāna), debate with Kamalaśīla, 65, 142–50, 279

Hevajra, 178, 193, 198, 218, 230, 231, 386, 512, 515, 682, 686

Hīnayāna, 233, 336; and the calculation of the Buddha’s birth, 723; śrāvaka monks, 61n1, 169n3, 368; and the “three vehicles” of canonical Buddhism, 61n1

Hindus and Hinduism, 274, 632; ātman doctrine (supreme self), 409–10; at central Buddhist sites in India, 629; Gendün Chöpel, Dge ’dun chos ’phel, on, 751–55; narrative ethical literature, 425; in Nepal, 623, 625; Siva (Rudra), 654n33, 698n19; tīrthikas, 192, 196, 281; at Vajrāsana, 629; Vishnu, 598, 611; see also divinities; India–ancient; Nepal; Rāmāyaṇa

historical writing, 326–70; Book of China (Rgya nag deb ther), 327; chronicle (logyü, lo rgyus) distinguished from source text (lung), 225; Clear Mirror of Sönam Gyeltsen, Bsod nams rgyal mtshan, 304–7; History of Tibet by the Fifth Dalai Lama, 79, 538–40, 552; New Red Annals (Deb ther dmar po gsar ma) of Paṇchen Sönam Drakpa, Paṇ chen Bsod nams grags pa, 327, 352–57; Scholar’s Feast (Mkhas pa’i dga’ ston) of Pawo Tsuklak Trengwa, Dpa’ bo Gtsug lag phreng ba, 57, 60–64, 93–95; Religious History of Amdo by Kelden Gyatso, Skal ldan rgya mtsho, 587–92; Religious History of Muli, 605–7; Royal Genealogy of Tibet (Bö kyi gyelrap, Bod kyi rgyal rabs), 327; Tāranātha on writing history, 367–68; 150; The Red Book (Deb ther dmar po) of Tselpa Künga Dorjé, Tshal pa Kun dga’ rdo rje, 5, 327, 337–42; see also Blue Annals; Dunhuang–documents and manuscripts; Gendün Chöpel; Pakpa Lodrö Gyeltsen; Sumpa Khenpo; Tang Dynasty Annals; Testament of Ba

illusions: and the bardo, 448–49, 450; delusive manifestations of Pehar revealed by Rinchen Zangpo, 174; and Khyungpo Neljor, Khyung po rnal ’byor, 233–34; and Machik Lapdrön, Ma gcig Labs sgron, on Severance, 243–47; and Padampa Sanggyé, Pha dam pa Sangs rgyas, on the Pacification of Suffering, 235–42; and the principle of causal dependency, 123; see also apparitions; dreams; magic/magical practices; sorcery; weapons

India–ancient, medieval, and early modern: and Candrakīrti, 377, 378–80, 508, 517–18n5; Gendün Chöpel’s appreciation of, 721–22; History of Buddhism in India by Tāranātha, Jonang Jetsün (1575–1634), Jo nang rje btsun Tā ra nā tha, Sgrol ba’i mgon po, 367–70, 687; Kamalaśīla, 142–50, 142–50, 279, 335, 376; King Aśoka, 335, 369; King Kaṇiṣka, 335; kings of the Śākya family, 335; mid-12th century decline of Buddhism in, 317; Mughal king Shah Jahan (1598–1666), 752, 752n15, 753; mythological longevity of ancient kings of, 153; Nālandā monastery, xxxi, 153, 157, 192, 368, 629; see also Āryadeva; Asaṅga; Atiśa Dīpaṅkaraśrījñāna; Dharmakīrti; Ganges River; Hinduism; Madhyamaka philosophy; Magadha; Nāgārjuna; Nāropa; Śākyamuni; Śāntarakṣita; siddhas; Vajrāsana/Bodhgayā; Vasubandhu; Vikramaśīla

–districts, regions, and towns: Assam, 630–33; Delhi, 369, 754; eastern, 173, 174, 193, 203, 370, 380, 383; Jalandhara (Panjab), 460; Kalimpong (West Bengal), 739; Kinnaur (Himachal Pradesh), 739; Rājagṛha (Rajgir, Bihar), 332; Sahor/Zahor (Sauvīra?), 178, 407; western, 370; see also Kashmir, Magadha, Vajrāsana (Bodhgayā); Vārāṇasī

interdependent origination. See pratīyasamutpāda

Islam: Black Stone of the Ka‘ba, 654n32; Islamic realms of the Umayyad caliphate, 87; prophet Mohammed as “Honey Mind” (Madhumati), 651; “red-turbaned” Kizilbash mystics (15th-c. Persia and Central Asia), 652n27; suppression of Buddhism (in India), 629; Tibet in Islamic sources, 24–29

Jamchen Chöjé Shakya Yeshé (1354–1435, Gelukpa), Byams chen chos rje Shā kya ye shes, 633–35; as Imperial Preceptor, 555; foundation of Sera monastery, 507, 523

Jamgön Kongtrül Lodrö Tayé (1813–99), ’Jam mgon Kong sprul Blo gros mtha’ yas: art training of, 677; Dergé Printery’s production of the “five great treasuries” of, 675–76; on Tibetan painting, 687–89; and Jamyang Khyentsé, 680; on responding to hostile sentiments, 679–80; selections from autobiography of, 675–86; and the Third Karmapa, Rangjung Dorjé, 421; Treasury of Precious Hidden Teachings, Rin chen gter mdzod, 676, 679, 686; Treasury of Spiritual Advice, Gdams ngag mdzod, 676, 681, 686

Jamyang Chöjé Trashi Pelden, ’Jam dbyangs chos rje Bkra shis dpal ldan, Drepung monastery founded in 1416 by, 508, 523, 543

Jamyang Khyentsé Wangpo (1820–92), ’Jam dbyangs Mkhyen brtse’i dbang po: Dzokchen and Mahāmudrā traditions combined by, 680; and Jamgön Kongtrül, 680; and the Rimé movement in Kham, 675–76, 689

Jamyang Zhepé Dorjé, first (1648–1721, Gelukpa scholar), ’Jam dbyangs bzhad pa’i rdo rje: foundation of Labrang Trashi Khyil by, xxxv, 586, 598; Great Treatise on Philosophical Systems by, 644; see also Geluk(pa)

Jamyang Zhepé Dorjé, second (1728–91, Könchok Jikmé Wangpo, Gelukpa scholar), ’Jam dbyangs bzhad pa’i rdo rje, Dkon mchog ’jigs med dbang po, 600–4; and the Choné Tengyur catalog, 597–600; and Labrang monastery, 600–601; liturgical text for protective deities composed by, 600–4; see also Amdo; Geluk(pa)

Japan: Kangyur gifted by Ninth Paṇchen Lama to the Buddhist Church of Japan, 736; military conflict with Russia (1904–05), 733

Jé (Rinpoché) Tsongkhapa Lozang Drakpa (1357–1419), Rje Rin po che Tsong kha pa Blo bzang grags pa: and Dharmakīrti, 509, 513; and the First Dalai Lama, Gendün Drupa, 508; founding of the Gelukpa tradition by, 373, 522, 538, 748; Founding of the Great Prayer Festival of Lhasa by, 507, 518–22, 544; and Ganden monastery, 507; Great Treatise on the Stages of the Path to Enlightenment (Lamrim chenmo, Lam rim chen mo) by, 176, 507–16; Miktséma, dmigs brtse ma (Aiming at Loving-Kindness) prayer, 541, 542, 633, 634; and Nāgārjuna, 509, 511, 513, 514, 515; and Shakya Chokden, Shākya mchog ldan, 373; Three Essentials of the Path, Lam gyi gtso bo rnam gsum, 509, 516–18; and Trashilhünpo, 508, 524; see also Geluk(pa)

Jikmé Lingpa (1730–98), ’Jigs med gling pa, 416; Indian discourses of, 630–33

Jokhang temple in Lhasa, Lha sa Jo khang (a.k.a. Rasa Trülnang), 11, 29n25, 61, 70, 302, 378, 538, 539, 543; Jowo Śākyamuni statue, Jo bo rin po che, 11, 137, 139n6, 520; “uncle-nephew” pillar inscription, 76–78

Jonang school, Jo nang (pa): and Shakya Chokden’s views of enlightenment, 435; and Tāranātha, 367; see also Dölpopa Sherap Gyeltsen

Jowo Śākyamuni statue in Lhasa, Jo bo rin po che: installed by Princess Wencheng, 11, 137, 139n6; Jé Tsongkhapa’s gold offerings to, 520; placed in Ramoché (Ra mo che) temple, 139

Ju Mipam Gyatso (1846–1912, Nyingma monk and scholar), ’Ju Mi pham rnam rgyal rgya mtsho: and the “nonsectarian” Rimé movement, 689–92, 711; “Treatise on Kingship,” 587, 617–21

Kadampa, Bka’ gdams pa, 168, 189, 190, 199, 338, 349n, 389, 415, 475, 476, 525, 537, 549, 730: Atiśa, 176–86; Dromtön, ’Brom ston, 176–77, 181, 182–83; and Gampopa, 183, 208, 209; Jamgön Kongtrül’s summary, 682; Jé Tsongkhapa’s Great Treatise on the Stages of the Path to Enlightenment (Lamrim chenmo, Lam rim chen mo), 176, 507–9; Three Cycles of Kharak, 216; see also Atiśa; Ngok Lekpé Sherap; Ngok Loden Sherap; Pakmodrupa Dorjé Gyelpo; Sangpu monastery (Kadampa center)

Kagyü, Bka’ brgyud, xxxi, 177, 189, 190, 203–24, 338, 357, 464, 579, 617, 641–42, 686; in Bhutan, 373; distinction between Marpa Kagyü and Dakpo Kagyü, 208; Jamgön Kongtrül’s summary of, 683; Karma Chakmé, Karma chags med, 243; satirized by Ju Mipam Gyatso, 689–92, 711; Mahāmudrā system of meditation, 225; rivalry with the Gelukpas, 641–42; rivalry with the Sakyapa tradition, 225; and Tsāri, 577n5; see also Drigung Kagyü; Drukpa Kagyü; Gampopa; Karma Kagyü; Karmapa; Marpa Chöki Lodrö; Milarepa; Pakmodrupa Dorjé Gyelpo; Shakya Chokden; Shangpa Kagyü, Situ Paṇchen

Kālacakra Tantra (Tantra of the Wheel of Time): and Dölpopa, 380; and the Gelukpa, 585; and Gyijo Dawé Özer, Gyi jo Zla ba’i ’od zer, 197n4; Kālacakra ceremonies in China, 746–47; six-limbed yoga of, 215, 220; and Sumpa Khenpo, 651; see also tantrism

Kalmyk Mongols (branch of Oirat Mongols), xxiv; and the western spread of Tibetan Buddhism, xx, 623, 729, 731–32, 734; see also Mongolia and the Mongols

Kamalaśīla (Indian philosopher), 335, 376; debate with Heshang Moheyan, 142–50, 279

Kangyur, Bka’ ’gyur (Buddha’s word in translation): Dergé edition of, xxxv; gifted by Ninth Paṇchen Lama to the Buddhist Church of Japan, 736; Jang (Nanzhao) printing of, 586, 597; Kangxi edition of Mongolian translation of printing in 1718–20, xxxv; Makzor Gönpo and the Choné Kangyur, 596–600; ordered as a peacemaking gesture, 357; overview of, 307–8; Qianlong edition of, xxxv; Situ Paṇchen and the Dergé edition of, 608; translators praised by Pawo Tsuklak Trengwa, Dpa’ bo gtsug lag phreng ba, 308–9; Yongle edition of, xxxiii; see also canon (Buddhist); Dharma (chos, “word of the Buddha”); printing and wood-block carving; Tengyur

Karma Kagyü, Karma Bka’ brgyud: and Jamgön Kongtrül, 675; oppression by the Geluk(pa), 499; and the Sixth Zhamar, Chökyi Wangchuk (1584–1630), 623–24, 624–26; Zhamarpa hierarchs, 614, 623, 641, 688; see also Kagyü school; Mahāmudrā (Great Seal)

Karmapa I, Düsum Khyenpa (1110–93), Dus gsum mkhyen pa: and Candrakīrti, 378–79; and Gampopa, 209; Karma Pakshi identified as a reincarnation of, 397

Karmapa II, Karma Pakshi (1204 or 1206–83), Karma pakshi: identified as the reincarnation of Karmapa Düsum Khyenpa, 397, 397–400; and Qubilai Khan, 397

Karmapa III, Rangjung Dorjé (1284–1339), Rang byung rdo rje: and the Great Perfection/Great Seal, 416, 420–25; poetry by, 431–33

Karmapa IV, Rölpé Dorjé (1340–83), Karma pa Rol pa’i rdo rje, xxxii, 348

Karmapa V, Dezhingshekpa (1384–1415), De bzhin gshegs pa: Ming emperor Yongle initiated by, xxxiii

Karmapa VIII, Mikyö Dorjé (1507–54), Mi bskyod rdo rje: and the Encampment Style, 688

Karmapa X, Chöying Dorjé (1604–74), Chos dbyings rdo rje: crowned as spiritual leader of Tibet, xxxiv; and the Mongol occupation of Tsang, 360; New Menri style of painting, 687, 688–89

Kashmir, 335, 521, 630, 653, 703, 735; as a center of learning, 167, 168, 173–76, 292, 308, 378, 380, 382nn8–9, 407; artistic style and skilled artisans of, 168, 173–76, 370, 688; and medicine/medical skills, 292, 293, 296, 297

Kathmandu Valley, city of Kathmandu (Yambu), 157, 226, 230, 305, 370, 533, 551, 568–69, 574, 577, 623–26, 627; see also Nepal

Kawaguchi, Ekai (1866–1945), and Paṇchen Lama VI [IX], Lozang Tupten Chökyi Nyima, 734–36

Kelden Gyatso (1607–77), Skal ldan rgya mtsho: “A short history of the way the teachings spread in Amdo Domé,” 587–92; and Milarepa, 660; and Rongbo monastery, 588, 589, 661; spiritual songs of, 660–64; see also Amdo

Kham (six ranges, Khams gangs drug), xxi, xxxi, xxxv, xxxvi, 57, 218; Beri Donyö’s persecution of Buddhists, 540; influence of Drokmi Lotsawa, ’Brog mi lo tsā ba, 191, 198; Karma Pakshi, 397; 19th-century cultural revival, 675, 689; Nyarong wars, 676–78; Pakmodrupa Dorjé Gyelpo, 213, 214, 216, 217; Qing military inroads, 737, 740; see also Dergé; Dza Peltrül Rinpoché; Jamgön Kongtrül Lodrö Tayé; Ju Mipam Gyatso; Karmapa II, Karma Pakshi; Pakmodrupa Dorjé Gyelpo

Kharak, Kha rag (district in Central Tibet), 197, 356

Khedrupjé Gelek Pelzangpo (1385–1438), Mkhas grub rje Dge legs dpal bzang po, Life of Tsongkhapa (The Sanctuary of Faith), 518–22

Khön family, ’Khon: and Khön Könchok Gyelpo, ’Khon Dkon mchog rgyal po, xxxi, 191, 199; and Sakya Paṇḍdita, 384; see also Sakya monastery; Sakyapa tradition

Khoshud khanate, 328–37, 592

Khotan (Liyül, Li yul): Buddhist temple in, 155; Central Tibetan community of monastics from, 13; described by Abu Said Gardīzī (d. 1061), 26; Kho tan as a term for Central Asian Muslims, 652n26

Khyentsé Rinpoché. See Jamyang Khyentsé Wangpo

Khyungpo Neljor, Khyung po rnal ’byor, 230–34, 458, 460

kings of Tibet: kings of Mustang, 361–64; kings of Tsang, 357–60; kings of western Tibet, 364–67; see also Gushri Khan; monarchs and princes of the Pugyel dynasty and its successors

Kokonor (Trishor gyelmo, Khri shor rgyal mo, Blue Lake region), 547, 550, 635–36, 667; and the Gurong (“nine bends” of the Yellow River), 15, 15n14; Lake Kokonor, 525, 539, 638n13, 667, 712; Sumpa Khenpo’s Annals of Kokonor, 594–96; and the Tuyuhun (Azha), 11–12; see also Amdo; Azha; Domé

Kongtrül. See Jamgön Kongtrül Lodrö Tayé

Kumbum, Sku ’bum (Amdo): and the Thirteenth Dalai Lama, 735; visited by David-Neel and Gurong Tsang, 711–12; see also Amdo; Geluk(pa)

Kuzhang Künga Döndrup, Sku zhang Kun dga’ don grub, Lord of Zhalu, 348–51, 407–8

Lalitavistara Sūtra, 368, 479, 534

Lama Dampa Sönam Gyeltsen (1312–75), Bla ma dam pa Bsod nams rgyal mtshan, 304–7, 348

Lama Pakpa, Bla ma ’Phags pa (Imperial Preceptor). See Pakpa Lodrö Gyeltsen Pelzangpo

Lama Zhang Yudrakpa (1122–93, a.k.a. Tsöndrü Drakpa), Bla ma Zhang g.yu brag Brtson ’grus grags pa: Blue Annals life/biography of, 218–21; and the “four great” Kagyü orders, 209; and Pakmodrupa, 216–17; poems by, 221–24; Tsel, Tshal, as the monastic seat of, 218, 683

Lang Darma (r. 838–842), Glang dar ma, a.k.a. Üdumtsen (d. 842), U’i dum btsan, 5, 167, 180

law and legislation: a Bhutanese legal code, 497–503; contract for hiring someone else to fulfill one’s corvée duty, 55–56; Ganden government’s court of final appeal, 532; legal code established by Songtsen Gampo, 4, 88–89, 92–95, 142; the legal codes of Central Tibet (14th century), 469, 491–97; Old Tibetan contracts, 52, 53–54, 54–55, 54; “regulation of public order” as primary, 497–502; selections from the “Dice Edicts,” 88–89, 89–90, 90–91, 91–92; the six legal codes, 93, 94; under the rule of Namgyeldé, Rnam rgyal sde (king of Ngari), 364, 366; and the “Zhalu Edict of Mongol Prince Qayishan,” 342–44; see also punishment; revenge

Lha Lama Yeshé-ö. See Yeshé-ö

Lha Totori Nyentsen, Lha tho tho ri gnyan btsan, 152, 292, 306, 335

Lhasa, 9–10, 28, 50, 65, 177–78, 182, 291, 307, 335, 486, 676, 696; Alexandra David-Neel in, 711–12, 714, 729; Ekai Kawaguchi in, 734–36; Francis Younghusband (1863–1942) in, 704, 735; Great Prayer Festival, 352, 507, 518–22; Lama Zhang Yudrakpa, Bla ma Zhang g.yu brag pa, in, 218–21; overseas foreigners excluded from, 703–4, 735; and the stele of Takdra Lukhong, 57, 58–60; and the “uncle-nephew” pillar, dbon zhang rdo ring, 76–78; and the Zingpojé (warlords), 4, 41, 152; see also Dalai Lamas; Drepung monastery; Ganden government; Ganden monastery; Jowo Śākyamuni, Ramoché; Pakmodrupa administration; Rinpungpa administration

Lhazang Khan, Lha bzang han (r. 1705–17, Gushri Khan’s grandson), 546, 552, 557, 563

Ling, Gling, 70, 71, 309, 310–18

Liyül, Li yul. See Khotan

logic and epistemology, prāmaṇa, tshad ma: and Buddhist monastic education, 371–72, 470; and Dharmakīrti, 372; and Ngok Loden Sherap (1059–1109), Rngog Blo ldan shes rab, 376, 380–84; and the Criteria of the Authentic Scriptures, Bka’ yang dag pa’i tshad ma las mdo btus pa, attributed to Tri Songdetsen, 95–96, 118–23; Bhavyarāja (Kashmiri logician), 382, 382n8

Longchen Rapjampa (Drimé Özer, Nyingma scholar, 1308–64), Klong chen Rab ’byams pa (Dri med ’od zer): and Bönpo master Shardza Trashi Gyeltsen, 692; education at Sangpu monastery, 415; Great Perfection tradition of, 416, 693–94; poetry and songs by, 433–35, 474–78; on saṃsāra, 415–20; and the Third Karmapa, Rangjung Dorjé, 421; see also Nyingmapa order

Lozang Drakpa. See Jé (Rinpoché) Tsongkhapa Lozang Drakpa (1357–1419), Rje Rin po che Tsong kha pa Blo bzang grags pa

luminosity: associated with sentient beings from the mythological past, 334; cittaprabhāsa (luminosity of mind), 409, 414, 423–24, 475; of the moon, 643

Madhyamaka philosophy (dbu ma): and Cittamātra (“Mind Only”), 193n3, 376; comparison of three schools of, 148n19; Gendün Chöpel, Dge ’dun chos ’phel, on, 720; History of Madhyamaka Thought in Tibet by Shakya Chokden, 373–80; Prāsaṅgika school (Consequentialist), compared with other schools of, 148n19, 373, 377, 517–18n5; Sautrāntika school, 148n19, 376; Svātāntrika school (autonomous reasoning), 375–77; Yogācāra school, compared with other schools of, 148n19, 374n1; see also Nāgārjuna; Shakya Chokden

Magadha: artistic tradition of, 369–70, 370; and the Buddhas of the Three Times, 330; Tāranātha on, 369; called Pathan, 628; Dzambuling (Jambudvīpa) location of, 330

magic/magical practices: associated with Vajrapāṇi, 153, 297; and the Great Prayer Festival in Lhasa, 518, 544; magical abilities (trül, ’phrul), 38, 38n3, 261n3; Padmasambhava (Tibet’s Imperial Exorcist), 157–58; the Red Beryl of Desi Sanggyé Gyatso, 532; and Śākyamuni’s defeat of heretical teachers, 518; Vajrabhairava temple with magic powers to repel the Turkic army, 228; see also illusions; sorcery; weapons

Mahākāla (the “great black”), 601; Four-Armed, 227, 228, 229–30, 683; temple complex in Mukden, xxxiv; six-armed, 730; torma offered to, 462n5; Vajrapañjara (Lord of the Tent), 612; see also protectors

Mahāmudrā (Great Seal, Phyag rgya chen po) system of meditation: combined with Great Perfection system, 421, 680; conferred on Chinese monks by Rakho Khutugtu Rinpoché, 640; and the Kagyüpa, 208, 225, 683, 685; and Longchenpa, 416; and the Nyingmapa ritual tradition, 187; see also Karma Kagyü; meditation; mudrās (ritual gestures)

mahāsiddhas. See siddhas, “perfected” masters of India

Mahāvyutpatti (9th-century Tibetan–Sanskrit glossary): and Tibetan arts, 470; and the Two Fascicle Lexicon (Drajor Bampo Nyipa, Sgra sbyor bam po gnyis pa), 72–76

Mahāyāna, Theg pa chen po, the Great Vehicle: according to Yeshé-ö, 169–73; Avataṃsaka Sūtra, 642–43n16; benefits of both reading and worshiping texts, 443; bodhisattva path, 138–39, 149, 509; compared with Tantric Buddhism, 156, 170–72; distinguished from the Bön of the Great Vehicle, 260–61; emptiness, 168, 399; Heshang Moheyan, “monk Mahāyāna,” 143; in Jé Tsongkhapa, Great Treatise on the Stages of the Path to Enlightenment (Lamrim chenmo, Lam rim chen mo), 176, 507–16; in Jé Tsongkhapa, Three Essentials of the Path, Lam gyi gtso bo rnam gsum, 509, 516–18; services performed at the commencement of rituals, 79; see also Buddhist doctrine; Buddhist precepts; Perfection of Wisdom; tantrism

Maitreya, 363, 470, 534–35, 591, 663; Dharmas of Maitreya (Jamchö, Byams chos), 378, 387, 510, 514; future coming of, 82–83, 145; Maitreyanātha, 524; Tuṣita (“Having Happiness”) heaven of, 82–83, 248n20, 333, 525n8; see also bodhisattvas; buddhas

Manchus, xxi, xxxiv–xxxvii, 526, 531, 541, 546, 551, 568–72, 586–87, 592, 595, 597, 601, 617, 622, 635–37, 641–44, 703, 704, 712, 735, 736, 742 547; see also Qing dynasty

maṇḍata, dkyil ’khor: in Bön rituals, 272; of Hevajra, 178; of Buddha Sarvavid Vairocana, 155; and monastic education, 501; and other tantric practices, 76n11; the seven maṇḍalas of the Durgatipariśodhana, 174; of Trowo Nyima, Khro bo nyi ma (the “Wrathful Sun”), 155; of the Vajra-realm (Vajradhātu), 155; visualization, 601

Manicheanism, 95–96

Mañjuśrī (bodhisattva of wisdom, Mañjughoṣa), 151, 282, 749; and Jé Tsongkhapa, 509–10, 519; Manchu emperors identified with, 606, 635, 636; Menla Döndrup, Sman lha Don grub (master artist) as, 687; Sachen Künga Nyingpo’s vision of, 200; and Sakya Paṇḍita, Sa skya Paṇḍita, 389; Tri Songdetsen as an emanation of, 500n7; and Wutai shan (Five-Terrace Mountain), 330, 541, 636, 637, 638; see also bodhisattvas; Wutai shan

mantra(s), ngak, sngags: Bön practices associated with, 265; differentiated by Butön, 40; Hundred Syllable Mantra, 601; oral instruction in secret mantra, 389; and other tantric practices, 76n11, 162, 263n7, 522; six-syllable Maṇi mantra of Avalokiteśvara (Oṃ maṇi padme hūṃ), 30, 248, 302, 305, 306–7, 451, 527n14, 598, 606, 633, 685; use of, 601; see also dhāraṇī

Marpa Chöki Lodrö, translator (c. 1012–97), Mar pa Chos kyi blo gros: and Kagyü school, 225, 683; and mahāsiddha Saraha, 203–8; and Milarepa, 437, 440–43; and Nāropa, 190, 203, 225–27, 230

marriage: and abuse, 478; adulterous relations as unkingly, 620; and diplomacy, 21, 356; Gesar’s winning of the Driguma, Gri/Dri gu ma, 314–18; practices associated with the Lopa tribes, 631; and prenuptial sex, 32–33; selections from the “Dice Edicts” (on conjugal law), 89–90; see also Princess Jincheng Gongzhu; Princess Wencheng Gongzhu; women

Martön Chögyel (13th century), Dmar ston chos rgyal, 425–31

medicine: Four Medical Tantras on, 282–90; Gampopa’s training as a physician, 208; Gurong Tsang’s interest in Western and Chinese medicine, 713; leprosy cured by prayer, 228; manual of varied treatments (Pelliot tibétain 1057), 114, 115–16; Medicine Buddha, 294–95, 297; physicians as bodhisattvas (Namgyel Drakzang’s advice), 297, 480–84; rituals for healing in the Nine Ways of Bön, 272–73; sources of practices, 115; The Blue Beryl, 532; Vāgbhaṭa’s Condensed Essence of the Eight Branches of Medicine, 278; Yutok the Elder, G.yu thog rnying pa, 279, 291–98; Yutok Yönton Gönpo (1126–1202, a.k.a. Yutok the Younger), G.yu thog gsar pa Yon tan mgon po, and the preaching of the Four Medical Tantras, 279–81

meditation: Putowa Rinchen sel, Pu to ba Rin chen gsal, on the principles of, 184–86; taught by Heshang Mahāyāna, 143–44; see also Great Perfection; Mahāmudrā (Great Seal, Phyag [rgya] chen [po]) system of meditation; samādhi (concentration)

Milarepa (c. 1040–1123), Mi la ras pa (Bzhad pa rdo rje): and Dromtön, ’Brom ston, 183; and Gampopa, 183, 208; and Kelden Gyatso, 660; life and songs, 437–45; and the life and songs of Tsangnyön Heruka, Gtsang smyon He ru ka, 426, 437–38, 438–39; and Marpa, 203, 440–43; retreat at Lapchi, La phyi, 579n7; see also Kagyü school

military and warfare: in Bhutan (1714), 566; Chinese heartland invaded by Tibet, 4, 16–19, 57–60; civil war of 1727, 532–33, 563; described in Tang Dynasty Annals (Tangshu), 10; during the Pugyel dynasty, 11; funerals following death by sword, 155; Ganden government’s right to maintain an army, 532; Gurkha–Tibetan war (1788–92), 568–72, 572–73, 602, 627, 735; military conscription, 91–92; Namri Löntsen’s defeat of the Zingpojé, 4, 41–43, 152; Nyarong wars in Kham, 676–78; with the Qarluk (Inner Asian Turkic people), 73; “tally group” (smallest unit of Tibetan military), 92n7; titles of Qing military offices, 542; Zunghar invasion of Tibet, 563, 564; see also monarchs and princes of the Pugyel dynasty and its successors

Mindröling, Smin sgrol gling, monastery, 560; tradition, 686

mineral wealth: abundance of, 9; of Mount Sumeru, 330, 359; see also gold

Ming dynasty (1368–1644): decline, 622; Yongle emperor initiated by Karmapa V, Dezhinshekpa, Karma pa De bzhin gshegs pa, xxxiii; Wanli emperor publishes Tibetan Buddhist canon (Kangyur), xxxiii; lamas as Imperial Preceptors at court of, 554, 633–35; organization of empire, 636; scroll paintings, 688; start of, 341; ties with Karmapas, xxii, 421

ministers and nobles of the Ganden Podrang administration of Tibet: Demo Khutugtu Lozang Trinlé (regent, 1886–95), De mo hu thog tu Blo bzang ’phrin las, 742n8; Duke Paṇḍita Gönpo Ngödrup Rapten, Gung Paṇḍita Mgon po dngos grub rab brtan, 564, 568

ministers and nobles of the Pugyel dynasty: Bön Dagyel Tsenzung, ’Bon da rgyal btsan zung, 49, 50, 51; Chokro Trizik Nangkong, Chog ro khri gzigs gnang kong, 50; costume and ornaments of, 9; Gar Tongtsen (Yülsung), Mgar stong btsan, 4, 12, 44–46, 44n10, 88; Great Councilor Trisumjé, Blon chen Khri sum rje, 84, 85; Khu Mangpojé Lhazung (chief minister), Khu mang po rje lha zung, 49; Padmasambhava’s last words to, 321; Pelgi Yönten, Dpal gyi Yon tan (Pelchenpo, “great glorious,” Relpachen’s monk-minister), 23–24, 74n8; Princess Gatün, Btsun mo ga tun, 50; Princess Tritsün, Khri btsun (wife of Songtsen Gampo), 304, 305; Takdra Lukhong, Stag sgra klu khong, Ma Zhongying, 57–60; Wé Trizik Zhangnyen (chief minister), Dba’s khri gzigs zhang nyen 49, 50, 51; Xixunran (chief minister), 13; Yeshé Wangpo, Ye shes dbang po, 73, 136, 138–39, 144–46, 148–49; see also monarchs and princes of the Pugyel dynasty; Princess Jincheng Gongzhu; zhanglön

Mipam Namgyel. See Ju Mipam Gyatso (1846–1912, Nyingma monk and scholar)

The Mirror (Gsar ’gyur me long, Tibetan-language newspaper): Dorjé Tharchin and the founding of, 727, 739; and Gendün Chöpel, Dge ’dun chos ’phel, 655, 720

missionaries: Christian, at the court of Polhané Sönam Topgyel, 533; Tibetan, in China, 748–51

Miwang Drakpa Gyeltsen (1385–1432, Pakmodrupa ruler), Mi dbang Grags pa rgyal mtshan, patronage of Great Prayer Festival at Lhasa, 352, 519, 522

monarchs and princes of Europe: Catherine II the Great (White Khan), 651n21; Czar Nicholas II, 731, 732, 734; King Edward VII, 735–36, 738–39, 754; Peter the Great, exile of Swedes to Siberia, 652n24; Queen Victoria as an emanation of Tārā, 754; see also Europe and Europeans

monarchs and princes of the Pugyel dynasty and its successors: and ancestry of the Gugé kings, 28n22; colonial territories of, 28–29, 52–56; and the Dé, lde (class of divinities), 38; and imperial patronage of Buddhism, 4–5; kings during the (mythological age of) Debts and Taxes, 128–30; in Lama Pakpa’s Elucidation of the Knowable, 335–36; and the Nyingmapa tradition, 159; Padmasambhava’s last words to, 319–20; see also administration and government; agreements and treaties; Lang Darma; Lha Totori Nyentsen; military and warfare; Muné Tsenpo; Mutik Tsenpo; Namri Löntsen; Pugyel dynasty; Pugyel Nyatri Tsenpo; Songtsen Gampo; Tri Desongtsen; Tri Detsuktsen; Tri Düsong; Tri Songdetsen; Tri Tsukdetsen; Tsenpo; Yeshé-ö

monasteries and monastic colleges: conversion of monasteries to the Gelukpa tradition, 532; and doctrinal and intellectual history, 373; Drumbulung, 519, 520; emphasis on commentary and logical disputation by, 275, 371–72, 470; Gönlung, Dgon lung byams pa gling, 592–94, 637n10; Katok, Kaḥ thog, xxxi, 378–79, 397; land holdings/economic resources of, 532; Mindröling, Smin sgrol gling, 560; “monasterial manor,” lha sde, distinguished from mi sde, 593n4; Nālandā in Bihar, xxxi, 153, 157, 192, 368, 629; Odantapurī, 178, 192, 368; Pelpung, Dpal spungs, xxxv, 612, 614, 676, 678–79; rivalry between, 532, 549; Rongbuk, Rong phu (near Mount Everest), 715–16; Trashilhünpo, Bkra shis lhun po (in Zhigatsé, Gzhis ka rtse), 465, 508, 522–25, 554; Tsurpu, Mtshur phu (monastic seat of the Karmapas), 344, 360, 420, 421, 614; see also Drepung; Drigung; Ganden; Kumbum; Labrang Trashi Khyil; monks; Ngor Ewam; Samyé; Sakya; Sangpu; Sera; Vikramaśīla; Yonghegong; Zhalu

money: fines that must be realized in gold only, 493, 494; mar (string of copper coins), 53n23; Russian silver coins, 651; salt used as, 33; Tibetan silver coins struck in Nepal, 533; see also weights and measures

Mongolia and the Mongols: abbreviated Mongol royal genealogy, 339–42; Agwang Dorjiev (Buryat Mongol and Tibetan diplomat), 704, 728–34; Altan Khan (1508–82), meeting with Sönam Gyatso (Third Dalai Lama), 525–30; ambiguous relation to China, 636; encountered by Swedes exiled to Siberia, 652n24; and the Gelukpa educational network, 547; Geshé Ngawang Wangyel (1901–83), Dge bshes Ngag dbang dbang rgyal, 729; Gushri Khan’s rule of Tibet, 531; Lhazang Khan (r. 1705–17, Gushri Khan’s grandson), 546, 552, 557, 563; Marco Polo’s observations of, 31–34; Möngke Khan, 31, 397; Mongol Emperor Öljetü and Zhalu leader Drakpa Gyeltsen, 349; “Mongolian” (i.e., Sogdian) doctor at the court of Tri Songdetsen, 292–93, 294, 296, 297; occupation of Tibet (1240–1340s), 34, 326–27; patron-priest relationship established by kings of, 407–8; and the Sakyapa, 327–28, 335; self-identification as Khalkhas, 729; and the title khagan, 48n14; Torghud Mongols, 729, 731–32; vertical seal script invented by Lama Pakpa, Bla ma ’Phags pa, 343; and the western spread of Tibetan Buddhism, 623; Zunghar invasion of Tibet, 563, 564; see also Altan Khan; Amdo; Chinggis Khan: Gushri Khan; Qubilai Khan; Sumpa Khenpo; Yuan dynasty

Monguor (Mongwol) community, 592–93, 592–93n2, 623, 636, 638n14, 639, 641, 644; see also Changkya Rölpé Dorjé; Tukwan Chökyi Nyima

monkeys: monkey-king Hanumān, 100, 107–10, 429–30; in Nepal, 624; sacrifice of, 9; see also animals

monks: and alcoholic beverages, 208; bhikṣu (gelong, dge slong) ordination, 136, 178, 215n11, 335, 388; as bodhisattvas, 543, 545, 588, 591, 682; educated Buddhist clergy in the court of the Tibetan empire, 62n3; heshang (Buddhist monk) as a term in the Testament of Ba, 137–38; Heshang Moheyan (“monk Mahāyāna,” Hā shang Mahāyāna), 65, 142–50, 279; ordination of first seven men of the Tibetan saṅgha, 136, 335; slandering against as a sin, 453, 456, 458; see also monasteries and monastic colleges; saṅgha

mortuary rites: Bön funeral rites, 154; “The Death of a Modern Bönpo Master: Shardza Trashi Gyeltsen,” 692–96; described in the Old Tibetan Annals, 150; described in the Tang Dynasty Annals (Tangshu), 10; and the Durshen (Funeral Priest) Mada, 130–33; and the maṇḍdata of Buddha Sarvavid Vairocana, 155; mourning rituals, 10; and the Muchö Tromdur (“Funeral [Rite Proclaimed by [the Sage] Mucho,” Dmu cho’i khrom dur), 130–31, 132, 133; for Öntrül, dbon sprul, of Pelpung, Dpal spungs, monastery, 679; proper ritual performance of, 132–33; and saintly relics, 463–65; “sky burial,” 30, 31, 461; and the Tantra Purifying All Evil Destinies (Sarvadurgatipariśodhanatantra), 155, 174; for Tenpa Tsering, Bstan pa tshe ring, 614; for Tri Songdetsen debated in the Testament of Wa, 150–55; and tsatsa, tsha tsha (clay molds with cremated ashes), 441n1; tsé, tshe (Buddhist funerary rites) instituted by Princess Jincheng, 137; vermilion pearls used in, 137; see also death and dying; reincarnation

Mount Kailash, Gangs rin po che, Gangs ti se, 28, 39, 102, 161, 168, 430, 574, 579

Mount Meru/Sumeru: bows to the Tsenpo, 37; and central temple of Samyé, 141; as a measure of greatness/solidity, 80, 325, 564; visited by Mahā-Maudgalyāyana, 455; and the world sphere of the four continents, 153, 330–33, 572, 630, 654, 672; see also districts and regions; geography

mourning rituals. See mortuary rites

mudrās (ritual gestures): Bön practices associated with, 265; and other tantric practices, 76n11, 162, 263n7, 522; six mudrās, 602n7; see also Mahāmudrā (Great Seal, Phyag chen po) system of meditation

Muné Tsenpo, Mu ne btsan po (son of Tri Songdetsen), 151–55

Mutik Tsenpo, Mu tig btsan po (son of Tri Songdetsen and later titled Tri Desongtsen), 319

myths and legends: of Alexander the Great’s descent in a glass diving bell, 653–54n31; Avalokiteśvara’s mission from The Testament Drawn from a Pillar, 302–3; descent from heaven of the first Tibetan Tsenpo according to Abu Said Gardīzī (d. c. 1061), 25–27; descent from heaven of the first Tsenpo (Tri Nyatri), 36–37; Epic of Gesar, Ge sar sgrung, 309–18; Martön Chögyel’s commentary on Sakya Paṇḍita’s verse: The Tale of Rāma, 427–31; “Maudgalyāyana’s Salvation of His Mother from Hell,” 452–56; mythical “hidden land” (né) of Pëmakö, 708n5; Songtsen Gampo as an emanation of Avalokiteśvara, 304–7; tale of Drigum Tsenpo Gri/Dri gum btsan po, 38–41, 150; tribal origin of Tibetans suggested in the Tang Annals, 7–8, 7nn3–4, 11; see also Rāmāyaṇa

Nāgārjuna (2nd-century philosopher): Fundamental Wisdom of the Middle Way, 471; Indian philosophical traditions associated with, 373–75; on key points of the path in the basic Tantra, 515; and Mipam’s “Treatise on Kingship,” 617, 620; and the Six Ornaments (great Indian Buddhist philosophers), 369, 510n1, 512, 663; on teachers, 401; and Tsongkhapa, 509, 511, 513, 514, 515; Üma Riktsok (Collection of Reasonings on Madhyamaka philosophy) by, 387; see also Madhyamaka philosophy (dbu ma)

nāgas, 62, 83, 84, 85, 199, 333n2, 386, 536, 602; Nāga Kings, 330, 332; Ödé Bedé the Long, nāga klu ’O de be de ring mo, 39, 40; see also divinities

Naktso Lotsawa Tsültrim Gyelwa (1011–64), Nag ’tsho Tshul khrims rgyal ba: and Atiśa, 177, 180–83, 225, meeting with Nāropa, 225–27

Namgyel monastery, Nampar Gyelwé Pendé Lekshé ling, 547, 548

Namri Löntsen (d. c. 617 or 629), Gnam ri slon btsan, defeat of the Zingpojé by, 4, 41–43, 152

Nanzhao (Jang) kingdom of Yunnan, 630; divine dog in mythology of, 39n6; and Jang/Lijiang, 39n6, 48, 328, 335; printing of the Tibetan Kangyur in, 586, 597; Tibetan domination of, 4, 13

Nāropa, 208, 220, 425; and ḍākinī Niguma, 230, 232; and the Kagyü school, 683; and Marpa, 192, 193, 203, 225–27, 230; and Naktso Lotsawa Tsültrim Gyelwa, 225–27; see also siddhas, “perfected” masters of India

Nartang, Snar thang (Kadampa monastery), Tibetan Buddhist scriptural canon printed at, 349n9

Nepal, 138; artisans from, 141, 307, 625; as a center of learning, 145, 192; before the Shah dynasty (1769), 623–26; and Dölpo/Crystal Peak, 578–79; Fifth Dalai Lama’s letter to King Jitāmitramalla of Bhaktapur (Nepal), 551–53; and the Gurkha-Tibetan war (1788–92), 568–72, 572–73, 602, 627, 735; and the historicity of Padmasambhava as a tantric teacher, 157–58; and the Muktināth Valley, 573; Princess Tritsün, Khri btsun, 304, 305; Tibetan conquest of, 4; Tibetan silver coins struck in, 533; and Tsāri, 574, 577n5, 579–80; see also Samyé monastery, Bsam yas

nephew and uncle relationship, dbon zhang: and the construction of Samyé, 139, 140; the “uncle-nephew pillar” (Önzhang doring), 21–22, 76–78; see also titles; zhanglön

Nestorian Christianity. See Christianity

Ngari, Mnga’ ris (western Tibetan region): and Gugé king Namgyeldé, 364–67; people with tails and large ears on borders of, 631; ruled by Lha Lama Yeshé-ö, 179; and Tendzin Repa, Bstan ’dzin ras pa, 573; three districts of Purang, Gugé, and Mangyul, xxxix, 361; see also Gugé Kingdom; Yeshé-ö

Ngok Lekpé Sherap (uncle of the “Great Translator” Ngok Loden Sherap), Rngog Legs pa’i shes rab, Sangpu, Gsang phu (Kadampa monastery), founded by, xxxi, 214–15n10, 372, 376, 380

Ngok Loden Sherap (1059–1109, the “Great Translator”), Rngog Blo ldan shes rab, 376, 377–78, 379, 380–84

Ngor Ewam monastery, Ngor e waṃ: 363, 364, 691

Ngorchen Künga Zangpo (1382–1456), Ngor chen Kun dga’ bzang po: 363, 609

nonsectarian views: of the First Dalai Lama, 523; and the kings of Dergé, 617; Mipam Namgyel’s role in the promotion of, 711; and Rangjung Dorjé, 421; and the roots of rimé, 190; see also Rimé movement

North American Tibetan Buddhism: and Geshé Ngawang Wangyel, 729; institutions founded in, xx

Northern Zhou dynasty (557–581): isolation of Tibet from China during, 8; see also Zhou dynasty

Nyangrel Nyima Özer (1124–92), Nyang/Myang ral nyi ma ’od zer, 415; and the Dakini Teachings: Padmasambhava’s Oral Instructions to the Lady Tsogyel, 323–25; The Copper Isle Recension of the Testament of Padmasambhava by, 318–23; see also terma

Nyen Pelyang (early or mid-9th century), 159–60

Nyingmapa order, Rnying ma pa, 161, 279, 426, 436, 642n15; “ancient translation tradition” (Ngagyur Nyingma, Snga ’gyur rnying ma) vs. “new mantra traditions” (Sangngak Sarma, Gsangs sngags gsar ma), 186; and Bön tradition, 159, 260, 274; Collected Tantras, 686; Gendün Chöpel, Dge ’dun chos ’phel, 719; Great Perfection tradition, 381n7, 397, 416, 421; Gurong Tsang, Dgu rong tshang, 711–15; Jamgön Kongtrül, 675, 681–82; Jikmé Lingpa, ’Jigs med gling pa, 416; Ju Mipam Gyatso, 689–92, 711; Karma Pakshi, Karma pakshi, 397; Khyungpo Neljor, Khyung po rnal ’byor, 230–34, 458, 460; lay tantric practitioners (ngakpa, sngags pa), 665, 666–67; Padmasambhava (Guru Rinpoché), 318; Rongzom Chöki Zangpo’s defense of Nyingma Tantra, 186–88, 415; Seminal Heart of the Great Expanse (Longchen Nyingtik), 630; terma (gter ma, “treasure”), 186–87; Tselé Natsok Rangdrol, Rtse le Sna tshogs rang grol, 446, 447–49; Vajrakīla (Dorjé Purba, Rdo rje phur ba, the “Diamond Stake”), 157, 714; Zurpoché Shakya Jungné, 195, 195n2; see also Great Perfection; Longchen Rapjampa; Padmasambhava; terma

Önchangdo, ’On cang rdo, temple, 48–50, 69, 73

oracles: Nechung Oracle, Gnas chung dpa’ bo/Gnas chung chos skyong, 730, 740, 741; pretending to consult, 733; Tsangpa of the White Conch-shell Headdress, 548; Zhingril Samyé, Zhing ril bsam yas (the Samyé oracle), 537

Orgyen Chökyi (1675–1729, Himalayan nun), O rgyan chos skyid, 580–83

Padmasambhava, Padma ’byung gnas: historicity of (as a tantric teacher), 157–58; and Khyentsé Rinpoché, 680; last words to Dharma teachers of Tibet, 322–23; last words to ministers and nobles of the Pugyel dynasty, 321; last words to the kings of the Pugyel dynasty, 319–20; non-Buddhists subdued by, in Vajrāsana, 228; Nyangrel Nyima Özer’s life of, 318–23; and the temple of Chönkhor Drompa Gyang, 191; treasures (terma, gter ma) concealed by, 318, 696; and Tri Songdetsen, 157; and Yeshé Tsogyel, Ye shes mtsho rgyal, 323–25

Pakmodrupa administration: rivalry with Rinpungpa administration, 346, 351–57; and Zhalu monastery, 348–51; see also administration and government

Pakmodrupa Dorjé Gyelpo (1110–70), Phag mo gru pa Rdo rje rgyal po: Blue Annals life of, 212–17; and Gampopa, 213, 216–17; and the Sakyapa masters, 215–16; see also Kadampa school; Kagyü school; Kham

Pakpa Lodrö Gyeltsen Pelzangpo (1235–80), ’Phags pa Blo gros rgyal mtshan Dpal bzang po, xxxii, 327, 338, 343, 526, 528, 635; Elucidation of the Knowable, 328–37

Pāla dynasty, King Rāmapāla, 367, 368–69

Paṇchen Lamas, 571, 585–86, 744; Fourth (often counted as First), Paṇchen Lama, Chökyi Gyeltsen (1570–1662), Paṇ chen Chos kyi rgyal mtshan, 360, 447, 465, 537, 594; Fifth Paṇchen Lama, Lozang Yeshé (1663–1737), Paṇ chen Blo bzang ye shes, 596, 606, 754; Sixth Paṇchen Lama, Pelden Yeshé (1738–80), Paṇ chen Dpal ldan ye shes, 566, 713; Ninth Paṇchen Lama, Lozang Tupten Chökyi Nyima (1883–1937), Paṇ chen Blo bzang thub bstan chos kyi nyi ma, 728, 734–36, 745–47

Paṇchen Sönam Drakpa, Paṇ chen Bsod nams grags pa, author of New Red Annals, Deb ther dmar po gsar ma, 327, 352–57

paper: documents written in gold or silver on blue or black paper, 60, 612; and the Dunhuang documents, 47; wooden documents replaced by, 48; see also printing and wood-block carving

Pawo Tsuklak Trengwa (1504–66), Dpa’ bo Gtsug lag phreng ba, 57, 60–64, 93–95

Pelgi Yönten, Dpal gyi Yon tan (Pelchenpo, “great glorious,” Relpachen’s monk-minister), 23–24, 74n8

Pelliot, Paul: and the designation “Pelliot tibétain,” 36n1; texts collected from the Thousand-Buddha Cave at Dunhuang by, 36; translation of Tibetan history from the Old Tang Annals, 6, 7n2

Pema Karpo (1526–92), Padma dkar po, on sculptural style, 489–90

Pema Lingpa, Padma gling pa (treasure revealer), autobiographical writings of, 563

Perfection of Wisdom (Prajñāpāramitā), 154, 155, 192, 193, 214, 218, 387; Aryaśatasāharsrikāprajñāparāmitā (Perfection of Wisdom in 100,000 Lines), 122, 145n17, 198, 214, 389; Haribhadra’s Yogācāra approach to, 376; and Ngok Loden Sherap, 383–84; Prajñaparāmitahṛdaya (the Heart Sūtra), 194; and the realization of emptiness, 145n17, 235; Rinchen Zangpo’s translation of, 174; and the teaching of Pacification, 235; teachings on emptiness according to Karma Pakshi, 399; see also emptiness

poetry: and the dohās (spiritual songs of the mahāsiddhas), 204–8, 425–26; Dokharwa Tsering Wanggyel, Mdo mkhar ba Tshe ring dbang rgyal, 556; Garland of Birth Stories (Jātakamālā), 522n7, 544n2; Gendün Chöpel, Dge ’dun chos ’phel, 721–22, 724–26; Karmapa III, Rangjung Dorjé, 431–33; kāvya tradition of Daṇḍin, 425; Kṣemendra, Avadānakalpalatā, 556, 599, 687; Lama Zhang’s innovative verse, 221–24; by Longchenpa, 433–35, 474–78; love poetry of Polhané Sönam Topgyel, 556–57, 560–63; by Orgyen Chökyi, O rgyan chos skyid, 582–83; by Orgyen Tendzin, O rgyan bstan ’dzin, 583–84; in relation to the five sciences, 470–72, 501; Rinpung Ngawang Jikdrak’s introduction to, 470–72; Sixth Dalai Lama’s love poetry, 557–59; songs from the Old Tibetan Chronicle, 44; spiritual songs of Kelden Gyatso, Skal ldan rgya mtsho, 660–64; weaving song of Nangsa Öbum, Snang sa ’od ’bum, 478–80; see also arts and crafts

Polhané Sönam Topgyel (1689–1747), Pho lha nas Bsod nams stobs rgyal: Kangyur at Nartang sponsored by, xxxv; love poetry written by, 556–57, 560–63; and Mindröling, Smin sgrol gling monastery, 560; rule over Central Tibet by, xxxv, 532–33; Seventh Dalai Lama exiled to Kham by, xxxv; and Tsering Wanggyel, 560, 563–64

Polo, Marco. See Mongolia and the Mongols

Potala Mountain, Ri bo po ta la, 330

Potala Palace, Po ta la, Rtse pho brang, 551, 553, 733; as administrative and symbolic center of Central Tibet, 532; construction and expansion of, 58; murals of, 79

Prajñāpāramitā. See Perfection of Wisdom

pratīyasamutpāda (interdependent origination): in the Great Perfection tradition, 159–60; and tendrel (coincidences and connections, rten ’brel), 118, 696

Princess Jincheng Gongzhu (d. 739), Gyim sheng kong jo: Khotanese monastic community supported by, 13; marriage to Tri Detsuktsen, 13–16, 21, 50; and performance of tsé (Buddhist funerary rites), 137; Takdra Lukhong stele mention of brother of, 60; see also ministers and nobles of the Pugyel dynasty

Princess Wencheng Gongzhu (d. 680), Mun sheng kong co: described as an emanation of Avalokiteśvara, 304–5; Jowo Śākyamuni statue in Lhasa installed by, 137, 139n6; marriage to Songtsen Gampo, 4, 11–13, 14, 21, 301, 304

printing and wood-block carving: Choné Tengyur description of printing of the Choné Kangyur, 597–600; Dergé Printery, Sde dge par khang, 587, 612–13, 659–60; first ethnic Tibetan printing of the Tibetan Kangyur, 586, 597; Gurong Tsang’s interest in, 713; of the Thirteenth Dalai Lama’s Kachem, Bka’ chems (last testament), 741; Tibetan Buddhist scriptural canon printed at Nartang, Snar thang, 349n9; see also canon (Buddhist); Kangyur; paper; Tengyur

prostitution: and behavior deemed unfit for kings, 620; and illicitly coerced sexual relations, 89–90

protectors: Acala, 83, 214; and the bardo (postmortem intermediate state), 234, 449–52; chökyong (Dharma protectors), 355; invoked by Jamyang Zhepa Lama, 600–4; Four Great Heavenly Kings, 142, 142n12, 143, 333n2; Pehar, 174, 528; Vajravega, 685; Yama Dhamarāja (Lord of the Dead), 332, 453n3, 456–58, 481; Yamāntaka, 231; see also divinities; Mahākāla (the “great black”); Vajrapāṇi

Pugyel dynasty, Spu rgyal: and the establishment of the Tibetan empire, 4; Odé Pugyel’s descent, 84; pugyel as a title of the Tsenpo, 43n9; see also ministers and nobles of; monarchs and princes of; queens of

Pugyel Nyatri Tsenpo, Spu rgyal Gnya’ khri btsan po (first mortal king), 36–37, 151, 335

punishment: criminal, and blood money, mitong, mi stong, 43, 88, 88n1, 494; criminal, and brutality in pre-Buddhist times, 8; criminal, for homicide, 87–88; for offenses in legal codes of Central Tibet, 491, 492–97; see also law and legislation

Purang, Pu hrengs, kingdom, western Tibet controlled by, 364–67; see also Yeshé-ö

Putowa/Potowa Rinchen-sel (1031–1105), Pu/Po to ba rin chen gsal, 183–86

Qing dynasty (1644–1911, Manchu dynasty): Amdo and Central Tibet in relation to, 636–38; Choné leader Makzor Gönpo’s (Dmag zor mgon po) relations with, 586, 597–98; Cixi, dowager empress, xxxvi, 742n; conferral of titles by, 547; and the custom of identifying high incarnations via lots drawn from a golden urn, 742n7; Fifth Dalai Lama and the Shunzhi emperor, 540–42, 545, 547; Jiaqing emperor, xxxvi, 639, 640; Kangxi emperor, xxxiv, xxxv, 594, 595, 597, 600, 605, 606, 639, 641, 642; and Labrang monastery, Bla brang bkra shis ’khyil, 586; Lhasa occupied during reign of Emperor Xuantong (a.k.a. Puyi), 743; Qianlong emperor, xxxv, 568–72, 602, 641, 714, 742, 754; Tibetan diplomats at court, 569; and the unification of Tibet, 3; Vaiśravaṇa (god of wealth) associated with, 541, 542; Yonghegong (so-called “Lama Temple” in Beijing), 714, 714n13; Yongzheng emperor, xxxv, 594, 595, 596, 600, 641, 714; see also Manchus

Qubilai Khan (1219–94, a.k.a. Sechen), xxxii, 30, 397; and Lama Pakapa, Bla ma ’Phags pa, 343, 350, 526, 528, 634–36; lineage of, 336, 338–39, 340–41, 634–35; see also Mongolia and the Mongols

queens of the Pugyel dynasty: Gyelmotsen, Rgyal mo btsen (mother of Tri Songdetsen), 65; Tri Malö (698–699), Khri ma lod (grandmother of Tri Detsukstsen), 4, 13, 47–51; see also monarchs and princes of the Pugyel dynasty and its successors; Princess Jincheng; women

Rāmāyaṇa: Gushri Khan compared to Rāma, 539; monkey-king Hanumān, 100, 107–10, 429–30; Martön’s commentary on Sakya Paṇḍita’s verse on, 427; and Tāranātha’s History of Buddhism in India, 368; “The Epic of Rāma in Thirteenth-Century Tibet,” 426–31; Tibetan version from Dunhuang of, 100–10; see also Hinduism; myths and legends

Ramoché (a.k.a. Gyatak Ramoché temple in Lhasa), Ra mo che: edict for construction of, 61–62, 521; illuminated by offerings, 521; Jowo Śākyamuni statue placed in, 139, 139n6; as the henkhang in the Testament of Ba, 137

The Red Book (Deb ther mar po) of Tselpa Künga Dorjé, Tshal pa Kun dga’ rdo rje, 5, 327, 337–42

reincarnation: and aspirations for enlightenment, 517; and the Dalai Lama lineage, 508, 525–30, 532–33; Dza Peltrül Rinpoché’s skepticism about, 674; and the four sorts of birth, 63n4; and Karma Pakshi (first representative of an “emanational embodiment,” trülku), 397; meritorious activity and higher rebirth, 154, 456; and the problem of succession to power, 532–33, 546; prophecy of Gendün Drupa’s rebirth, 525; and the six classes of beings in the Animate World, 331, 332, 579n8; and the “Vermilion Pearl,” 137–38; Zhapkar Tsokdruk Rangdröl, Zhabs dkar Tshogs drug rang grol, on, 666; see also mortuary rites

religious/temporal relations: administration of Bhutanese law in accordance with religion, 497–503; in Butön’s request to Tai Situ Jangchup Gyeltsen, 349–551; and the rule of Tibet during the time of the Fifth Dalai Lama, 538, 545–46, 547–50; “Dice Edicts” on ecclesiastic wealth, 90–91; and Dokharwa Tsering Wanggyel, Mdo mkhar ba Tshe ring dbang rgyal, 563–68; dual role of Lama Zhang Yudrakpa, Bla ma Zhang g.yu brag pa, 218; Fifth Dalai Lama, Sönam Gyatso, on, 526–30; and Imperial Preceptors (Dishi), 328, 341, 344, 554–55; Karmapa X, Chöying Dorjé, on, 360; and the kings of Dergé, 617; and the lama-kings (gyelpo, Ch. tusi) of Muli, 605–7; monk Tingngedzin Zangpo’s service as Great Minister of State, 66–70; patron-priest relationship established by Mongol kings, 407–8, 526; Pelgi Yönten, Dpal gyi Yon tan (Pelchenpo, “great glorious,” Relpachen’s monk-minister), 23–24, 74n8; prayers of Dega Yutsel (Monastery of the Turquoise Grove, De ga g.yu tshal), 73, 78–84; and Rapjampa Lekshé Gyeltsen, Rab ’byams pa legs bshad rgyal mtshan, 605–6; religious merit as counterpart of worldly success, 73, 84–85; and the Sino-Tibetan Buddhist Academy, 748–49; and the Thirteenth Dalai Lama’s last testament, 741–45; and tribute collection, 550

Relpachen. See Tri Tsukdetsen under monarchs and princes of the Pugyel dynasty

revenge: black magic used for, 437; for the death of Drigum Tsenpo, 39; and karma, 568; unwarranted desire for, 350; see also law and legislation

Rimé movement (ris med): and Bönpo Shardza Trashi Gyeltsen’s impartiality, 692–93; and Jamgön Kongtrül, 190, 675–76; and Jamyang Khyentsé Wangpo, 675–76, 689; and Mipam Namgyel (1846–1912), 689–92, 711; roots of, 190; see also nonsectarian views

Rinchen Zangpo (958–1055), a.k.a. the “Great Translator” Ratnasena, Lo chen Rin chen bzang po: and Atiśa, 177; and Drokmi Lotsawa, ’Brog mi lo tsā ba, 191, 198–99; exorcist powers of, 198; life of, 173–76; revitalization of Buddhism in Tibet by, 227; and the spread of the arts and learning from Kashmir to the Gugé kingdom, 168; and Vāgbhaṭa’s Condensed Essence of the Eight Branches of Medicine, 278; and Yeshé-ö, 168, 173, 175–76; see also translators

Rinpung Ngawang Jikdrak (1482–1535), Kin spungs Ngag dbang ’jigs grags, “Introduction to Poetry” by, 470–72

Rinpungpa administration (1434–1565): rivalry with the Pakmodrupa, xxxii, xxxiii, 346, 351–57; and Zhigatsé, Gzhis ka rtse, 357

Rockhill, William Woodville (1854–1914), 735–36, 736–38

Roerich, George N., 720, 769

Rölpé Dorjé. See Changkya Rölpé Dorjé; Karmapa IV, Rölpé Dorjé

Rongzom Chöki Zangpo (11th-century translator), Rong zom chos kyi bzang po, defense of Nyingma Tantra, 186–88, 415

Russia: and Agwang Dorjiev (Buryat Mongol, Tibetan diplomat to Russia), 730–32; Catherine II the Great (White Khan), 651n21; Peter the Great, exile of Swedes to Siberia, 652n24; Prince Esper Ukhtomsky (advisor to Czar Nicholas II), 731; rivalry with Great Britain, 729, 731; and the spread of Tibetan Buddhism to Europe, xx, 623, 729; see also Europe and Europeans

sacred geography: Anavatapta (Lake Madröpa, abode of Nāga King Madrōpa), 330, 455; Crystal Peak (Dölpo), 578–79; “divine mountain” of Lhari Gyangdo, Lha ri gyang do, 37, 41; four “horns” (ru) of the Central Tibetan empire, 50n18, 191; Indian cosmic model of Jambu Island, Dzambuling (Jambudvīpa), and the world sphere of the four continents, 153, 329–34, 330, 572, 630–31; Lake Kokonor, 525, 539, 638n13, 667, 712; land of the dead, 132–33, 453; legendary lake that is now the Taklamakan desert, 130; Mount Amnyé Machen, A myes rma chen, 667, 667n2, 697n18; Ölmo Lungring, ’Ol mo lung ring (sacred land of the Bön), 126, 250, 251–52, 255; and Samyé’s design, 141; Sumpa Khenpo on the far north and Middle East, 650–54; Yamdrok (Ya ’brog) Lake, 10n8; see also Ganges River; India–districts, regions, and towns; Mount Kailash; Mount Meru/ Sumeru; Potala Mountain; Wutai shan

Sakya monastery, Sa skya: founded by Khön Könchok Gyelpo, xxxi; liturgical music, 468–69; proximity to Möntang (Mustang) region, 361; Sönam Gyeltsen, Bsod nams rgyal mtshan, abbot of, 304; see also Drakpa Gyeltsen; Sakya Paṇḍita Künga Gyeltsen; Sakyapa Tradition

Sakya Paṇḍita Künga Gyeltsen (1182–1251), Sa skya Paṇḍita Kun dga’ rgyal mtshan: as previous life of the Third Dalai Lama, Sönam Gyatso, 635; acknowledged by the Fifth Dalai Lama for his literary contributions, 385; criticism of Kagyüpa system of meditation, 225; Gateway to Learning, 390–97; and Indian poetic theory, 426; and Ju Mipam Gyatso, 617; life of, 384–90; Martön’s commentary on the Treasury of Eloquent Advice, 426–31; on music, 468–69, 472–74; and siddha Virūpa, 199, 203; on the unreliability of the śrāvaka schools’ dating of the Buddha, 723; on the Rāmāyaṇa, 427; see also Sakya monastery; Sakyapa tradition

Śākyamuni: and the buddhas of the five families, 297; Dokharwa Tsering Wanggyel (1697–1763), Mdo mkhar ba Tshe ring dbang rgyal, Tale of the Incomparable Prince, 556; Garland of Birth Stories (Jātakamālā), 522n7, 544n2; Jowo Śākyamuni statue, Jo bo rin po che, 11, 137, 139, 139n6, 520; Kṣemendra’s Avadānakalpalatā, 556, 599, 687; and the life of Shenrap Miwo, 251; life of the Fifth Dalai Lama compared to, 534–35; Siddhārtha, 533, 560; Tibet discussed with Avalokiteśvara and Amitābha, 302–3; see also India–ancient

Sakyapa tradition, Sa skya pa: and Bhutan, 373; satirized by Ju Mipam Gyatso, 690–91; Dharma cycle of the Three Red Deities, 611; Five Sakyapa Patriarchs, 609, 613; formation of, 190–91; Jamgön Kongtrül’s summary of, 682–83; and the kings of Dergé, 617; Martön Chögyel, Dmar ston chos rgyal, 425–31; Pakpa Lodrö Gyeltsen Pelzangpo, ’Phags pa Blo gros rgyal mtshan Dpal bzang po, 328–37; “Path and Fruit” (lam ’bras) teachings, 190–99, 199–202; rivalry with the Kagyü school, 225; Sachen Kunga Nyingpo, Sa chen kun dga’ snying po, 199–202; Sönam Gyeltsen, Bsod nams rgyal mtshan, 226, 304–5, 348; see also Drakpa Gyeltsen; Lama Dampa Sönam Gyeltsen; Ngor Ewam monastery; Ngorchen Künga Zangpo; Pakpa Lodrö Gyeltsen Pelzangpo; Sakya monastery; Sakya Paṇḍita Künga Gyeltsen; Shakya Chokden

Śākyaśrībhadra, Kashmiri scholar: arrival in Tibet, xxxii, 385; and Sakya Paṇḍita, 387–89

samādhi (concentration), 215, 220, 233, 721; Bön practices associated with, 265; and other tantric practices, 263n7, 522; Sutra of the King of Samādhi, 643n17; see also meditation; tantrism

Samantabhadra (Kütuzangpo, Kun tu bzang po, the “Omnibeneficent”): and Bönpo and Nyingmpa traditions, 159, 276, 381n7; Great Perfection Tantra of the Prayer of Samantabhadra, 544n3, 714; Lha Totori Nyenshel as an emanation of, 306; Longchenpa regarded as a “Second Samantabhadra,” 416

Samyé, Bsam yas, 61, 62, 71; debate between Kamalaśīla and Heshang Moheyan, 142–50, 279; Lama Zhang’s retreats to, 221; network of temples in Lhasa and Drakmar, Brag dmar, 65, 187n10; Padmasambhava, 157; Sönam Drakpa’s restoration of, 304; Tri Songdetsen’s founding of, 62–64, 138–42, 157; and the Two Fascicle Lexicon (Drajor Bampo Nyipa, Sgra sbyor bam po gnyis pa), 72–76; see also Drakmar; monasteries; Śāntarakṣita

Sanggyé Gyatso, desi (1653–1705, Sde srid Sangs rgyas rgya mtsho), 554; assassination of, 532; codification of the arts and sciences, 385, 469–70, 532; death of the Fifth Dalai Lama concealed by, 547; life of the Fifth Dalai Lama written by, 523, 533–38; on mortuary practices, 465; overview of writings, 532; persecution of the Drukpa Kagyü school, 497, 574; recognized as regent by Fifth Dalai Lama, 531–32, 546, 547–50, 551–53; Yellow Beryl, 553–55; status as desi (regent), 546; treatise on the duties of Central Tibetan leaders, 497, 497, 499; see also Fifth Dalai Lama, Ngawang Lozang Gyatso; Ganden government; Geluk(pa)

Sanggyé Kargyel, Sangs rgyas skar rgyal, 191, 198–99

Sanggyé Tönpa Tsöndrü Senggé (Shangpa Kagyu master) (1219–90), Sangs rgyas ston pa Btson ’grus seng ge, 458–63

saṅgha (monastic community), 142, 169n2, 388, 543; at Samyé, 136, 161–62n28; refuge in, 179; rivalry between Drepung (’Bras spungs) and Sera (Se ra), 532, 543–45; and Three Precious Jewels (Triratna), 61, 79–80, 146, 408, 501; see also monks

Sangpu, Gsang phu: and Chapa Chökyi Senggé, Phya pa Chos kyi seng ge, 214–15n10; founded by Ngok Lekpé Sherap, Rngog Legs pa’i shes rab, xxxi, 214–15n10, 372, 380; and Longchen Rapjampa, Klong chen Rab ’byams pa, 415; and the rise of philosophic studies during the 12th century, 275, 372; see also monasteries; Ngok Loden Sherap

Śāntarakṣita (the “Bodhisattva”), 65, 73, 143, 144, 157, 301; emptiness viewed by, 517–18n5; and the founding of Samyé, 139; Padmasambhava and Tri Songdetsen, 65, 73, 157, 301, 691; and the Sandhinirmocanasūtra (“The Sutra That Discloses the [Buddha’s] Intention”), 119; see also Kamalaśīla

Śāntipa (Ratnākaraśānti), 192–94

seasons: Orgyen Tendzin, O rgyan bstan ’dzin, on harshness of, 581, 583–84; Tibetan lack of knowledge of, according to Tang Annals, 10

Sera Khandro (1892–1940, a.k.a. Dewé Dorjé or Küzang Dekyong Chönyi Wangmo), Se ra mkha’ gro Bde ba’i rdo rje, Kun bzang bde skyong chos nyid dbang mo, 696–99

Sera monastery, Se ra: founded by Jamchen Chöjé Shakya Yeshé, Byams chen chos rje Shākya ye shes (1419), 507, 519, 523, 547; rivalry with Drepung monastery, ’Bras spungs, 532, 543–45; see also monasteries and monastic colleges

Serdok Paṇchen Shakya Chokden (1428–1507), Gser mdog Paṇ chen Shākya mchog ldan. See Shakya Chokden

Severance (Chöyül, Bdud kyi gcod yul): and Machik Lapdrön, Ma gcig Labs sgron, 243; and the Pacification system, 685; see also tantrism

Shakabpa, Tsepön W. D., Zhwa sgab pa Dbang phyug bde ldan, rtsis dpon (1908–89), use of Islamic historical sources, 5

Shakya Chokden (1428–1507), Shākya mchog ldan: and Aham Tsangchen Trashi-gön, A ham Tshangs chen bkra shis mgon (Möntang king), 364; History of Madhyamaka Thought in Tibet, 373–80; and Jé Tsongkhapa, 373; “Story of Forest Darkness,” 435–37; writing style, 426

Shangpa Kagyü, Shangs pa Bka’ brgyud: founding by Khyungpo Neljor, Khyung po rnal ’byor (a.k.a. Shangpa Lama), 230–34, 458, 460; Jamgön Kongtrül’s summary of, 681–82; Tangtong Gyelpo, Thang stong rgyal po, 684; see also Sanggyé Tönpa Tsöndrü Senggé

sheep: as divine messengers, 10, 132–33; herding of, 581–82; see also animals

Shenrap Miwo, Gshen rab mi ho (Bön foundational figure), 250–51; identified as Laojun (Laozi), 648; teachings of, 251, 267–74; and Tobu Dodé, 251–56; see also Bön and Bönpo

siddhas, grub thob, “perfected” masters of India, 336, 665, 685; dohās (spiritual songs of the mahāsiddhas), 204–8, 425–26; Eighty-Four Mahāsiddhas, 685; and Khyungpo Neljor, Khyung po rnal ’byor, 230, 231–32; Lama Zhang’s behavior compared to that of, 218; Saraha, 203–8, 425, 426, 683; and Tibetan initiatory lineages, 189–90; Virupa, 194, 199, 203; see also India–ancient; Nāropa; tantrism

Sikkim, ’Bras mo ljongs: and Charles Bell (1870–1945), 737, 740; colonized by the British, xxxvi, 729; Püntsok Namgyel, Phun tshogs rnam rgyal (first Tibetan king of), xxxiv; Sikkimese scholar Kazi Dawa-Samdup, Zla ba bsam grub, translation of Gampopa’s Jewel Rosary of the Supreme Path, 209

Silk Road, 15; manuscripts from the “Library Cave” at Dunhuang, xx; and trade in the Gansu corridor, 6; see also Gansu province

Sino-Tibetan Buddhist Academy, 748–51

Situ Paṇchen Chökyi Jungné (1699–1776), Situ paṇchen Chos kyi ’byung gnas: xxxv, 587, 608, 609, 613, 614–16

Six Ornaments (great Indian Buddhist philosophers), 369, 510n1, 512, 663

slavery, 17; a contract for the sale of a male bondservant, 52, 53–54; criticized by Gendün Chöpel, Dge ’dun chos ’phel, 752–53; practiced by Europeans, 728; illicitly coerced sexual relations, 89–90; qualities of tame servants, 94; treatment of bondservants, 42–43

Smith, E. Gene (1936–2010, Mahāpaṇḍita Jamyang Namgyel): selection on Kongtrül from Among Tibetan Texts, 687–89

Sogdian, Sog po, language and people: 35, 292

Song dynasty, xxx, xxxi

Songtsen Gampo (617–649/650), Srong btsan sgam po: and adoption of writing system, 4, 46; Buddhism during the reign of, 4, 304–7; as emanation of Avalokiteśvara, 304–7; Gushri Khan compared to, 539; legal code, 4, 46, 88–89, 92–95, 498; marriage to Princess Wencheng, 4, 11–13, 139n6, 304; songs from the Old Tibetan Chronicle, 44–46; temple building, 70, 71; Tibetan Buddhist sculpture during the time of, 489–90

sorcery and sorcerors: associated with ancient Tibet, 9, 23, 33; Changkya Rölpé Dorjé assistance in rites of, 641; in the life of Milarepa, 437; Ra Lotsawa, Rwa lo tsā ba, 190, 227, 228; Shenrap Miwo, 251; tantric rituals, 156; Zhang Rinpoché, 219; see also apparitions; illusions; magic/magical practices

South American Tibetan Buddhist institutions, xx

Stein, Sir Marc Aurel (1862–1943), 36

sudden and gradual approaches to enlightenment: gradualism and the Kadampa school, 208; and the Mahāmudrā taught by Gampopa and Lama Zhang Yudrakpa, Bla ma Zhang g.yu brag pa, 208, 220; and Putowa Rinchen-sel, Pu to ba Rin chen gsal, 183–84; and the Samyé debate, 142–50, 279; and Tantric Buddhism, 156; see also Buddhist precepts

Sui dynasty (581–618), isolation of Tibet from China during, 8

Sukhāvatī (Dewachen, Bde ba can, Amitābha’s pure land), 82, 153, 231n15, 248–49, 303, 525, 525n8

Sumpa Khenpo (1704–88), Sum pa mkhan po, 110, 586, 592; Annals of Kokonor, 594–96; description of China by, 635–38, 650; description of the far north and Middle East by, 650–54; see also Mongolia and the Mongols

svāstika. See yungdrung

Taixu (Chinese reformer and monk), 748

Tang dynasty (618–907): diplomatic relations with Tibet, 4, 6; marriage alliances with Uighur empire, 21; Old Tang Annals (Jiu Tang Shu) and New Tang Annals (Xin Tang Shu) on Tibet, 6–24, 714; Old Tang Annals on Tri Düsong’s disputed succession, 49n16; Princess Jincheng Gongzhu’s marriage to Tri Detsuktsen, 13–16, 21, 50; Princess Wencheng Gongzhu’s marriage to Songtsen Gampo, 4, 11–13, 14, 21, 301, 304; and the stele of Takdra Lukhong, 57, 58–60; see also agreements and treaties; Tang Dynasty Annals (Tangshu)

Tang Dynasty Annals (Tangshu), 6–7; on the occupation of Chang’an, 16–19; on princesses sent to Tibet, 11–13, 13–16; on Tibetan origins and customs, 7–11; transcriptions for Lhasa in the Old and New versions of, 10n8; treaties discussed in, 19–21, 21–24, 76–77; see also historical writing; Tang dynasty (618–907)

Tangtong Gyelpo (c. 1385–1465), Thang stong rgyal po: and the arts, 485; on building iron bridges, 485–89; and the Shangpa Kagyü tradition, 684; six-syllable mantra practice, 685

Tangut kingdom (Minyak, Mi nyag, or Xixia), xxxi, 12n12, 327, 335, 338, 593n5

Tantra of the Wheel of Time. See Kālacakra Tantra

tantrism: bījas (seed syllables), 264n12; Cakrasaṃvara, 199, 215, 230, 231, 459, 591, 683; the conduct of an adept, 162–63; and Dromtön, ’Brom ston, 183; “Esoteric” or “Tantric” Buddhism defined, 76n11, 155–56; five tantric deities associated with yoga attainments, 230–31; Hevajra, 178, 193, 198, 218, 230, 231, 386, 512, 515, 682, 686; initiatory lineages traced to “perfected” (siddha) masters of India, 189; Jé Tsongkhapa, 511–12, 515; lay practitioners (ngakpa, sngags pa), 665, 666–67; lineage of the Ngok, Rngog, family, 218–19; Nāgārjuna, 515; Padmasambhava, Padma ’byung gnas, 157–58; “Path and Fruit,” lam ’bras, teachings of Drokmi Lotsawa, ’Brog mi lo tsā ba, 190–99, 199–202; “path of skillful means” (esoteric internal yogas), 216; Rongzompa’s defense of Nyingma tantra, 186–88; self-generation as a tantric deity, 601; transgressive practices, 156, 170–73, 179, 181–82, 318; translation of the tantras, 75–76, 156; Yeshé-ö’s ordinance to practitioners, 168–73; see also empowerment; Great Perfection (Dzokchen); Kālacakra Tantra; samādhi (concentration); Severance; siddhas

Tārā, Sgrol ma, 524, 665, 718, 730; and the buddhas of the five families, 297; longevity practice of White Tārā according to the tradition of Bari Lotsawa, 685; and Potala Mountain, 330; Queen Victoria as an emanation of, 754; temple with five Tārās in Vajrāsana, 228, 229; Vāgīśvarakīrti taught by, 192; see also bodhisattvas

Tāranātha, Jonang Jetsün (1575–1634), Jo nang rje btsun Tā ra nā tha, Sgrol ba’i mgon po, 684; History of Buddhism in India, 367–70, 687; and the Jebtsundamba (Tāranātha Trülku Rinpoché), 639, 640

taxation/requisitions: by the Dalai Lama’s government to support the military, 746; Dokhar Tsering Wanggyel’s reflections on, 564, 565; fairness of, 502; Khapso, “head of revenue department,” 142; road tax inflicted on travelers to Nepal, 627–28; taxable land measured by kya, 91n6; under the rule of Namgyeldé (king of Ngari), 364, 366; Zhalu monastery’s exemption from, 343–44; in Zhangzhung, 27–28

tendrel (coincidences and connections, rten ’brel), 118, 696; see also pratītyasamutpāda

Tengyur, Bstan ’gyur (canonical commentaries): Choné Tengyur, 597–600; Dergé printed edition, xxv, 613; overview of, 307–8; see also canon (Buddhist); Kangyur; printing and wood-block carving

terma, gter ma (treasures): concealed by Padmasambhava, 318, 676, 696; The Copper Isle Recension of the Testament of Padmasambhava revealed by Nyangrel Nyima Özer, 318–23; Gyachen discovered by the Fifth Dalai Lama, 548; and the Nyingmapa order, 186–87; Sera Khandro (female treasure revealer), 696–99; tendrel (auspicious connections), 696; Testament Drawn from a Pillar, 302–303, 304; see also Tibetan Book of the Dead

Testament of Ba, Sba’ bzhed, 127, 136; on debate at Samyé, 142–50; on foundation of Samyé described in, 138–42; story of “The Vermillion Pearl,” 137–38; and the Testament of Wa (Dba’ bzhed), 136; Tri Songdetsen’s funeral debated in, 150–55; on Vajrāsana, 227; views of Heshang Moheyan, 143; see also historical writing

Thomas, F. W., 78, 127

Tibet, terms for: country of the Redfaces, 335; Land of Snows/Snowy Lands, 274, 303, 555, 613; the Northern Medicine Land of Sala, 499; Pugyel Bö, 134, 135, 154; silden, bsil ldan, “having coolness,” 637n12; Tubbat/Tobbot, 24; “Tufan,” 7n2, 24

Tibetan Annals. See historical writing

Tibetan Book of the Dead (a.k.a. Self-Liberated Wisdom of the Peaceful and Wrathful Deities, Zhi khro dgongs pa rang grol), 446, 449–52

Tibetan empire. See monarchs and princes of the Pugyel dynasty and its successors; Tsenpo

tigers: in Nepal, 627; and the six emblems of heroism, 94; tiger-skin coats (worn by Bönpos), 259; coats resembling tiger skin (worn by Native Americans), 655; see also animals

Tingngedzin Zangpo (imperial tutor and guardian of Tri Desongtsen), Myang Ting nge ’dzin bzang po, 66–70, 74

titles: depa commander, 354; gongma (superior), 353–57, 408; horpa (Mongolian) used to designate government officials appointed by the Yuan, 495n3; Imperial Preceptors (Dishi), 328, 341, 344, 554–55; khagan, 48n14; khutugtu (Mongolian designation for a high incarnate lama), 742n8; of Manchu Qing military offices, 542; Rapjampa, rab ’byams pa, 547, 551; see also cakravartin; desi; zhanglön

–in imperial Tibet: Delön, Bde blon (Pacification Minister), 62n2, 79, 84–86, 94n8; jishezhong (title of Tang ambassador), 23n21; honorific and rank-ordered terms for buddhas, bodhisattvas, śrāvakas, etc., 75; “King of the [land of] Pu” (Tsenpo’s dynastic title), 134; pugyel as a title of the Tsenpo, 43n9; royal insignia as ritual offerings, 522; six emblems of heroism, 94; six insignia of rank of the ministerial aristocracy, 9n7, 48, 51, 88, 93–94; the six seals, 94; the Transcendent Lord’s Lineage Heir, bcom ldan ’das kyi ring lugs, 161–62, 162n28; of Tibetan officials in the Tang Annals, 8; and the “uncle-nephew” pillar inscription, 21–24, 76

Tönpa Shenrap, Ston pa gshen rab. See Shenrap Miwo

torma, gtor ma (offering cake), 216, 297, 521, 524, 537, 602, 603; made by Driguma for guests, 315–16; presented to Mahākāla, 462, 462n5

translation: the “ancient translation tradition” (Ngagyur Nyingma, Snga ’gyur rnying ma) vs. the “new mantra traditions” (Sangngak Sarma, gsang sngags gsar ma), 186–88; deviations from the official norms of, 161–63; Mongolian and Manchu Buddhist canons, xxxv; at Samyé, 58, 73; Tri Desongtsen’s Translation Edict, 72–76, 156, 161; see also translators

translators: Bactrian translators in the court of Tri Desongtsen, 73; Ga Lotsawa, Rgwa lo tsā ba, 215, 219–20, 369; Gendün Chöpel, Dge ’dun chos ’phel, 719–20; “In Praise of Translators,” 307–9; Ngok Lekpé Sherap, Rngog Legs pa’i shes rab (uncle of the “Great Translator,” Ngok Loden Sherap), 214–15n10, 372, 380; Ngok Loden Sherap (1059–1109, the “Great Translator”), Rngog Blo ldan shes rab, 376, 380–84; Pagor Vairocana, 146, 151n21, 151–55, 158, 186; Ra Lotsawa, Rwa lo tsā ba, travels to Vajrāsana, 227–30; and Tri Desongtsen’s Translation Edict, 72–76; Yeshé Tokmé, Ye shes thogs med, 714; see also Drokmi Lotsawa; Rinchen Zangpo; translation

Trashilhünpo, Bkra shis lhun po (monastery in Zhigatsé, Gzhis ka rtse), 465, 554; and the First Dalai Lama, Gendün Drupa, 508, 522–25; Great Prayer Festival of, 524

treaties. See agreements and treaties

Tri Desongtsen (r. 804–815), Khri Lde srong btsan: “Imperial Decree on Translation,” 72–76, 156, 161; and the monk-minister Nyang Tingngedzin Zangpo, Myang Ting nge ’dzin bzang po, 66–70, 74; as Prince Mutik Tsenpo, 319; pro-Buddhist policies of, 5, 58, 70–72

Tri Detsuktsen (r. 712–755), Khri Lde gtsug btsan: enthroned by the dowager Tri Malö, 49n16; marriage with Princess Jincheng, 4, 13–16, 47; name changed from Gyel Tsukru, 50–51; suppression of Buddhism following death of, 137

Tri Düsong (676–704), Khri ’Dus srong: death and succession of, 13, 47–49; Gar overthrown by, 4; temple building, 70, 71; Tibetan power extended in the southeast, 4, 13

Tri Songdetsen (742–c. 797), Khri Srong lde’u btsan: adoption of Buddhism, 4, 58, 137, 143; “Conversion Edict,” 60–64; Criteria of the Authentic Scriptures, Bka’ yang dag pa’i tshad ma las mdo btus pa, attributed to, 95–96, 118–23, 126; funeral debated in the Testament of Wa, 150–55; and Mañjuśrī, 500n7; medical scholars at the court of, 291–98; Samyé monastery, 62–64, 138–42, 157; and the stele of Takdra Lukhong, 57, 58–60; Tibetan Buddhist sculpture during the time of, 490

Tri Tsukdetsen (r. 815–838, Khri Gtsug lde’u btsan, a.k.a. Relpachen, Ral pa can): assassination of, 5; and Pelgi Yönten, Dpal gyi Yon tan (monk-minister), 23–24, 74n8; and the prayers of Dega Yutsel, De dga’ g.yu tshal, 73, 78–84; pro-Buddhist policies of, 5; Tibetan Buddhist sculpture during the time of, 490; and the “Treaty of 821,” 21–24, 58, 76–78

tribal groups: Dangxiang, 12n12, 17; “Lands and Peoples of the Far North,” 110–14; Lopa, 631; Pecheneg, 110, 114; Qarluk (Inner Asian Turkic people), 73, 113, 179; Sokpo (i.e., Sogdian) doctor at the court of Tri Songdetsen, 292–93, 292n1, 294, 296, 297; see also Azha

Tritsé Bumzher, Khri rtse ’bum zher (one of six legal codes), 94

Tritsé, Khri rtse (place in Gling), 48, 71

Tsangnyön Heruka, Gtsang smyon He ru ka, 426, 437–38, 438–39

Tselé Natsok Rangdrol (b. 1608, Nyingmapa scholar), Rtse le Sna tshogs rang grol, 446, 447–49

Tselpa Künga Dorjé, Tshal pa Kun dga’ rdo rje, and The Red Book (Deb ther mar po), 5, 327, 338–39

Tsenpo (btsan po, Ch. Zanpu, title of rulers of the Tibetan empire): and burial practices, 10; description of 9th-century throne room of, 23–24; “King of the [land of] Pugyel” (Tsenpo’s dynastic title), 134; and the kulha, sku lha/sku bla (personal tutelary divinity), Yarlha Shampo, 152, 153, 362; ranked with the Buddha via honorific language, 75n10; summary of, 8; in the Tang Annals, 8; Yarlung, 4, 11, 41–43, 151–52; see also monarchs and princes of the Pugyel dynasty and its successors

Tsongkhapa. See Jé (Rinpoché) Tsongkhapa Lozang Drakpa

Tsurpu, Mtshur phu (monastic seat of the Karmapas), 344, 360, 420, 421, 614

Tukwan Chökyi Nyima (1737–1802), Thu’u bkwan Chos kyi nyi ma: biography of Changkya Rölpé Dorjé by, 641–44; Crystal Mirror of Philosophical Systems, 644–50

Turks and Turkestan/Xinjiang, 28–29n24, 227, 228, 309, 330, 489, 547, 653; and the term Druk or Drugu, drug, dru gu, 48, 127, 130, 293, 296n3; kedun/Gatün (Turkic qatun, queen), 14, 50; and Tibetan medical practice, 115, 117; and Tibetan military control, 27, 48; Turkish tribes described in Dunhuang manuscript Pelliot tibétain 1283, 110–14; see also Azha; tribal groups; Uighur Turkish empire (742–848)

Two Fascicle Lexicon (Drajor Bampo Nyipa, Sgra sbyor bam po gnyis pa) ordered by Tri Songdetsen, 72–76

Uighur Turkish empire (742–848): competition for control over Gansu Corridor, 21; and Manicheanism, 95; and Tang China, 3, 21, 78; see also Azha; Turks and Turkestan/Xinjiang

uncle and nephew relationship. See nephew and uncle relationship

Upper Ganden Püntsok Dargyé Ling monastery (Dga’ ldan phun tshogs dar rgyas gling), established by Master of the Dharma Sanggyé Gyatso, 554

Uttaratantra (Mahāyānottaratantraśāstra, Theg chen rgyud bla ma, the “Sublime Continuum of the Mahāyāna”), 417, 534–35

Vairocana (Buddha), 82, 153, 154; maṇḍala of, 155; see also buddhas

Vaiśravaṇa (god of wealth): associated with Tenpa Tsering, 608, 611; associated with Qing dynasty by the Fifth Dalai Lama, 541, 542; and the Four Great Kings of Indian Buddhist mythology, 142n12; Trashilhünpo and the ritual cycle of, 525

Vajradhara (Dorjé chang, Rdo rje ’chang), 294, 385, 445, 458, 475, 591, 609, 690; and the Dalai Lamas, 529–30, 547, 550, 551

Vajrakīla (Dorjé Purba, the “Diamond Stake”), 157–58, 318, 714

Vajrapāṇi (bodhisattva), 151, 282, 601; and the buddhas of the five families, 297; and the dance of the yellow robe, 537; and Ishi Myishiha (Jesus the Messiah), 96; magic/magical practices associated with, 153, 297; and the Mongol rulers, 538, 539, 634–35; see also bodhisattvas; protectors

Vajrāsana/Bodhgayā (site of the Buddha’s enlightenment), 227, 369, 626; construction of the Buddha’s image at, 629, 723; Dorjiev’s 20th-century visit to, 731; Ra Lotsawa’s (Rwa lo tsā ba) travels to, 227–30; Sönam Rapgyé’s 1742 account of, 626–30

Vārāṇasī (Benares), 279, 369, 629

Vasubandhu (5th-century philosopher), and the Six Ornaments (great Indian Buddhist philosophers), 369, 510n1, 512, 663

Vikramaśīla: and Atiśa, 179, 180, 190, 368–69, 382n9; and Drokmi Lotsawa, ’Brog mi lo tsā ba, 190, 192, 368–69, 382n9; six gates of, 192–94; see also India (ancient); monasteries and monastic colleges; Ngok Loden Sherap

Vimalamitra (8th-century paṇḍita), 186, 187, 188, 680, 680n11

Vinaya, ’dul ba, 81, 174, 191, 372, 372, 389n16, 460; classes of transgressions, 122–23; First Dalai Lama’s One-Hundred Thousand Tales of Vinaya, 523; Fundamental Aphorisms of the Vinaya (Vinayasūtra), 215; “later diffusion of the Teaching” (Tenpa chidar, bstan pa phyi dar), 167; protocols for lending on interest, 90n5; and the Three Precious Jewels, 80–81; and Tsongkhapa, 507, 510n1; see also canon (Buddhist)

Vinayavastu: and artistic practice, 369, 471; and medical practice, 483; Tāranātha on the reliability of, 368

weights and measures: finger and hand measures, 52–53, 54, 698; of gold dust, 493; of gold nyak and zho, 520; khé (khal) loads, 55; Mount Meru/Sumeru as a measure of greatness/solidity, 80, 325, 564; nirvāṇa of the Buddha as a reference for dates, 752; regularized during the rule of Tri Songtsen, 46; sang, srang, measure of weight (⅓ ounce), 53n23, 88n1; “tally group” (smallest unit of the Tibetan military), 92n7; taxable land measured by kya (rkya), 91n6; in terms of grains of barley, 329; yojana, defined, 329n1; see also money

Wencheng. See Princess Wencheng

western Tibet. See Ngari

wheel of doctrine, dharmacakra, chos kyi ’khor lo: Buddha’s turning of the wheel of religion at Vārāṇasī, 629; third turn of the doctrinal wheel and the Fourth Council of Dölpopa, 409–15; three turns of, 374, 374n2; see also Buddhist doctrine

women: childbirth-related illness, 116–17; ḍākinī Niguma, 230, 232–33, 458; and illicitly coerced sexual relations, 89–90; Lady Patsap’s arrogance to her bondservant, 42–43; Machik Lapdrön, Ma gcig Labs sgron, xxxi, 234–35, 243–47, 685; Milarepa’s mother, 339–440; mythological mating with dogs, 113; Orgyen Chökyi, O rgyan chos skyid, 580–83; and prenuptial sex, 32–33; punishment for murder of, 494–95; Sera Khandro (female treasure revealer), 696–99; trial in hell of a young princess, 456–58; the weaving song of Nangsa Öbum, Snang sa ’od ’bum, 478–80; Zhapkar Tsokdruk Rangdröl’s (Zhabs dkar Tshogs drug rang grol) letter from his mother, 667–68; see also children; marriage; queens of the Pugyel dynasty

Wu Zetian (r. 684–705, Tang dynasty empress), 13

Wutai shan (Five-Terrace Mountain, Riwo tsé nga, Ri bo rtse lnga), 162, 640; guidebook to, 638–41; and Mañjuśrī (bodhisattva of wisdom), 330, 541, 542, 636, 637, 638; Mipam’s memorial stūpa erected by Gurong Tsang, 712; Thirteenth Dalai Lama and William Rockhill meeting at, 735; see also Mañjuśrī

Xixia dynasty. See Tangut kingdom

Yarlung Valley, 4; 37, 41, 43, 61, 150, 339, 341, 361, 362, 609; and the Fifth Dalai Lama, 537, 552; and the Pakmodrupa government, 345–47, 351, 353–56; 8th-century network of Buddhist temples in, 65; Tangpoché monastery founded in, xxxi; see also monarchs and princes of the Pugyel dynasty and its successors

Yeshé-ö (c. 959–1036), Ye shes ’od: ahistorical tale of self-sacrifice of, 177; and Atiśa, 177, 179; ordinance to tantric practitioners, 168–73; and Rinchen Zangpo, 168, 173, 175–76; see also Ngari

Yeshé Tsogyel, Ye shes mtsho rgyal: and Padmasambhava, 323–25; Sera Khandro as an emanation of, 696

Yeshé Wangpo (a.k.a. Ba Selnang, Sba Gsal snang, Tibetan minister), Ye shes dbang po: and the debate at Samyé, 144–46, 148–49; and the founding of Samyé, 138–39; and the Testament of Ba, 136, 137–38; as a translator, 73

Yogācāra (“Yoga Practice”) or Cittamātra (“Mind Only”), 193n3, 374n1, 376

Yonghegong (so-called “Lama Temple” in Beijing), 714, 714n13

Yuan dynasty (1279–1358): lamas as Imperial Preceptors at the court of, 554; letter from Künga Lodrö Gyeltsen Pelzangpo, Kun dga’ blo gros rgyal mtshan dpal bzang po (1299–1327), 344–45; The Red Book (Deb ther dmar po) of Tshelpa Künga Dorjé, Tshal pa Kun dga’ rdo rje, 337–42; and the “Zhalu Edict of the Mongol Prince Qayishan,” 342–44; see also Karmapa II; Karmapa III; Mongolia and the Mongols; Pakpa Lodrö Gyeltsen Pelzangpo; Qubilai Khan; Tai Situ Jangchup Gyeltsen

yungdrung (svāstika), 67n6, 68, 256, 259, 260, 271, 547n4

Zhamarpa, Zhwa dmar pa, 614, 623, 641, 688; Sixth Zhamar, Chökyi Wangchuk (1584–1630), 623–24, 624–26

zhanglön, zhang blon, “Maternal Uncle Minister,” 8, 73, 407

Zhangzhung (kingdom in western Tibet, a.k.a. Yangtong/Rāng Rong), 11n10, 62, 168; ancient language of, 134, 257; gold mines in, 27–28; medical practices of, 115, 117, 292, 296; Nyazhur Lakmik, Nya zhur lag mig (Bönpo, king of Zhangzhung), 152, 154; and the spread of Buddhism to Tibet, 126; Tibetan conquest of, 4, 11n10, 44–46, 115, 154; see also Bön and Bönpo